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Background Access to safe drinking water is one of the basic human rights and is critical to health. However, much of the world’s population lacks access to adequate and safe water. Approximately 884,000, 000 people in the world still do not get their drinking water from safe sources; Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for over one third of this number. It is estimated that 80% of all illnesses in the world are related to use of unsafe and contaminated water. Methods A cross-sectional study was conducted from August 1st 2017 to July 30th 2018 in three randomly selected woreda (districts) of Eastern Zone Tigrai. Water samples were examined for total coliforms and thermotelorant coliforms using the most probable number method. Standard biochemical testing was performed on samples that tested positive to identify the genus of bacteria. The contaminant risk of water sources were assessed using the sanitary inspection checklist of the World Health Organization. The results were interpreted using World Health Organization guidelines for drinking water quality. Data was collected using laboratory checklist and sanitary inspection check list. It was entered, cleared and analyzed using SPSS version 21.0 and a variable having a P Results A total of 290 drinking water samples were analyzed for bacteriological quality. A total of 32.4% (n = 94) of water sources showed contamination with faecal and total coliforms. Of these 3.4% (n = 10) samples were contaminated with total coliforms and 29% (n = 84) contaminated with faecal coliforms. The leading water contaminant organisms were Escherichia coli (62.4%), Legionella species (8.5%), and Shigella species (7.5%) respectively. Based on WHO criteria, 15% of water sources were grouped in the very high risk group. Animal excreta and inadequate fencing of water sources were significantly associated with water contamination rate. Conclusion Our findings suggest that most water sources in woredas of Eastern Tigrai are contaminated by faecal coliforms. Therefore, regular sanitary inspection, bacteriological analysis, and adequate fencing should be mandatory to protect drinking water sources from faecal contamination.

Background Tuberculosis is an infectious disease usually caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis bacteria. The global emergence of mono- or multidrug-resistant tuberculosis and extensively drug-resistant forms of tuberculosis pose a considerable challenge to tuberculosis control programs. There has been no reliable and organized data on trends and drug resistance of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in the study area. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the trends of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and rifampicin resistance in the Adigrat General Hospital, eastern Zone of Tigrai, North Ethiopia. Methods A hospital-based retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted at Adigrat General Hospital from January 2015 to 2018.Data was collected retrospectively from the GeneXpert™ TB registration book using a data extraction format. Data was entered into Epi-Info 3.1 and subsequently exported and analyzed using SPSS Version 20.The results were summarized using descriptive statistics, tables, and figures. Bivariate and multi-variant regression analysis was employed to measure the association between dependent and independent variables. P values

Background Ethiopia is striving to achieve a goal of “zero human immune deficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS)-related deaths.” However, little has been documented on the factors that hamper the progress towards achieving this goal. Therefore, the ultimate aim of this study was to determine predictors of mortality among adult people living with HIV/AIDS on antiretroviral therapy (ART). Methods A retrospective follow-up study was employed on all adult HIV/AIDS patients who started ART between January 1 and December 30, 2010, at Suhul Hospital, Tigrai Region, Northern Ethiopia. Data were collected by trained fourth-year Public Health students using a checklist. Finally, the collected data were entered into SPSS version 16. Then after, Kaplan-Meier curves were used to estimate survival probability, the log-rank test was used for comparing the survival status, and Cox proportional hazards model were applied to determine predictors of mortality. Results The median follow-up period was 51 months (ranging between 1 and 60 months, inter-quartile range (IQR) = 14 months). At the end of follow-up, 37 (12.5%) patients were dead. The majority of these cumulative deaths, 19 (51.4%) and 29 (78.4%), occurred within 3 and 4 years of ART initiation respectively. Consuming alcohol (adjusted hazard ratio (AHR) = 2.23, 95% CI = 1.15, 4.32), low body weight (AHR = 2.38, 95% CI = 1.03, 5.54), presence of opportunistic infections (AHR = 2.18, 95% CI = 1.09, 4.37), advanced WHO clinical stage (AHR = 2.75, 95% CI = 1.36, 5.58), and not receiving isoniazid prophylactic therapy (AHR = 3.00, 95% CI = 1.33, 6.74) were found to be independent predictors of mortality. Conclusion The overall mortality was very high. Baseline alcohol consumption, low body weight, advanced WHO clinical stage, the presence of opportunistic infections, and not receiving isoniazid prophylactic therapy were predictors of mortality. Strengthening behavioral and nutritional counseling with close clinical follow-up shall be given much more emphasis in the ART care and support program.

It is generally agreed that Ethiopia is one of the world’s primary centers of prehistoric plant domestication. It is also known that domestic fauna (cattle and domestic caprines) were brought in from outside. Unfortunately, very few Holocene archaeological sequences have been excavated in the Horn. Even fewer sites have yielded domestic fauna dating to > 3000 years ago. The excavations at the site Danei Kawlos in northern Ethiopia provide new Holocene archaeological sequences for Northern Ethiopia and document the presence of cattle, sheep and goat with a direct date of 3358 ± 47 BP on a Bos molar. We discuss here the zooarchaeological data from the site.

Background Tuberculosis (TB) is a major public health problem and it is among the top 10 causes of death worldwide. One of the challenges against attaining an effective TB control program is delay in seeking health care to diagnosis and treatment of TB patients. The aim of this study was to assess health care-seeking delay among pulmonary TB patients. Methods An institutional based cross-sectional study was conducted among new pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) patients > 15 years of age who were enrolled in the intensive phase TB treatment from November 1, 2015 – January 30, 2016. Data were collected by an interviewer administered technique using a structured questionnaire. Health care seeking delay was categorized by using a median cutoff point of > 30 days as a prolonged health care seeking delay. Logistic regression analyses were employed to determine factors independently associated with the delays in health care seeking. Results A total of 422 PTB patients were included in this study. The median age of respondents was 37 years (interquartile range (IQR) =35–44). The median time of health care seeking delay was 30 days (IQR) = 21-60). Respondents occupation, knowledge about pulmonary tuberculosis, health facility visited first, seeking treatment from traditional or religious healers before visiting health facilities, reason for not seeking treatment early from health facilities, and reason for first consultation were found to be significantly associated with health care seeking delay. Conclusion The study showed the magnitude of health care seeking delay among pulmonary tuberculosis patient was very long and the factors associated with health care seeking delay were: occupation, knowledge status, health facility visited first and seeking treatment from religious or traditional healer before health facilities. To overcome delay of health care seeking among tuberculosis patients, efforts should required availing tuberculosis diagnostic and treatment services at the primary health care level.

Background In Ethiopia, like other developing countries, intestinal parasitic infections are the major public health problems affecting millions annually. Overcrowding and poor living conditions are the major risk factors. Prison inmates are among the most vulnerable groups to intestinal parasitic infections. However, there is scarcity of epidemiological data regarding intestinal parasites among prison inmates in Ethiopia, notably in Tigrai. Thus, we aimed to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites and identify the associated factors among inmates of Mekelle prison, Tigrai, Northern Ethiopia. Methods A cross sectional study involving 291 inmates was conducted from February to June 2017 among inmates of Mekelle prison. After systematically selecting subjects, stool specimens were examined using direct wet mount and formol-ether concentration techniques. We used SPSS version 21 for data analysis. We considered p-value less than 0.05 significant at 95% confidence level. Results Of the 291 inmates enrolled in the study, 124 (42.6%) harbored one or more intestinal parasites. The protozoan Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii was the predominant parasite accounted for 68 (23.3%) of the infections followed by Giardia lamblia (10.3%) and Entamoeba coli (8.2%). Fourteen (4.8%) participants were co-infected with different parasite species. The co-infections of Entamoeba histolytica/dispar/moshkovskii and Giardia lamblia were detected among 3.1% of the participants. In bivariate analysis, hand fingernail status (COR 1.86, 95% CI, 1.08–3.20) and duration of stay in prison (COR 2.23, 95% CI 1.31–3.79) were statistically associated with intestinal parasite infections. In multivariable regression, inmates who stayed in the prison for one year or less were more likely to harbor intestinal parasitic infections (p = 0.013) than those who stayed longer. No other single predictor variable was found to be significantly associated with intestinal parasitic infections. Conclusions The result of this study showed that intestinal parasites are significant health problems among inmates of Mekelle prison.

Purpose. Rural households spend a large share of their daily time to search for grazing feed, water resource and collect straw by displacing labor time away from crop farming activities. This paper aims to analyze the economic effect of time spent looking for animal water and grazing areas on farm labor input and crop farm output. Methodology / approach. To address our objectives, a general Cobb-Douglas production function was estimated using a unique dataset from 518 sample farmers in Tigrai, Ethiopia drawing on a non-separable farm household model. Results. The results favor the hypothesis of a negative relationship between crop output and resource scarcity. In aggregate, the findings confirm that reducing time spent looking for water, grazing and straw by 1 % leads to an increase in food production by 0.155 %, 0.279 % and 0.328 % respectively. Similarly, the shadow price variables are significant, have the expected negative sign and are consistent with the theory. The sign of other factors are consistent with the prediction of the economic theory. Originality / scientific novelty. The noble contribution of this paper is, unlike previous studies, we collected information on the entire set of crop production, along with the distance to grazing, water and crop residue of each household. This paper considers three important resources for an animal such as grazing, water and crop residue, of which the first two have not been explored well. The use of distance level and shadow price as resource scarcity indicators is an extra benefit to the literature. Practical value / implications. The results of this paper provide an interesting picture of stallholders in Ethiopia. As expected, it appears that time spent searching for animal water and feed has a significant and negative effect on labor and crop output. Our results got the evidence of a negative relationship between labor input to crop farming and resource scarcity.

The paper utilizes household panel data to investigate whether the land rental market can facilitate improved access to land for land-poor tenant households over time and thereby facilitate expansion of their farming activity. The paper utilizes data 8-17 years after land certification to assess the long-term effect of land certification on the allocative efficiency in the land rental market in areas where land certification stimulated land renting in the early years after certification. The paper uses three rounds of balanced panel data collected from 320 smallholder farmers in 2006, 2010 & 2015 from rural Tigrai, northern Ethiopia. Random effects dynamic probit and Tobit models were used to assess factors that may explain access, participation, and intensity of participation on the tenant side of the tenancy market. Tenants’ access to land was found to be severely constrained. Previous access and participation had strong positive effect on access and participation and intensity of participation in later periods. Non-convex transaction costs and entry barriers, therefore, appear as severe constraints towards the land rental market facilitating smallholder commercialization through tenancy access to land. More active land rental market coordination interventions are needed to boost the land rental market as a vehicle for facilitation of smallholder commercialization.

This paper aims at evaluating the impact of productive safety net program on poverty using primary data from randomly selected 600 households in central zone of Tigrai National Regional State, Ethiopia. Propensity Score Matching and Foster-Greer-Thorbecke were used to evaluate impact of the program and poverty, respectively. The paper revealed that the program has positive and significant effect on consumption, livestock holdings, and productive assets. Moreover, impact of the program on total consumption expenditure per adult equivalent was found to be positive and significant. Using total poverty line, poverty rate was lowest among program participants (30.33%) than non-participants (31.1%). Highest poverty rate was found among households headed by women (38.42%) while households headed by men (23.1%). The study also revealed that the program has positive and significant effect on poverty reduction and protecting productive assets. Finally, it was recommended that female headed program participants based programs should be provided to help boost their agricultural output and reduce endemic poverty. Classification-JEL: C Keywords: asset; consumption per adult equivalent; productive safety net program; propensity score matching; poverty; Tigrai, International Journal of Economic Behavior, Vol 4, No 1 (2014): International Journal of Economic Behavior

Since the 1970s, the so-called “pre-Aksumite” civilisation and Aksum stand in area under discussion since the development of culture in the Ethiopian highlands appears to be, even now, the subject of much debate. What role did Aksum play, when did it emerge to prominence, and what were its relations with the other societies and cultures? And above all, is there any connection between both “pre-Aksumite” and Aksumite civilisations? One of the aims of a short visit in Tigrai region was a general survey of “Pre-Aksumite” and Aksumite sites (Adwa and around, as well as Hawzen, and on the eastern side, the region of Atsbi-Deraʾ and the one of Medri Senafe), in order to estimate the importance of the archaeological evidence. This preliminary survey concentrated on documenting several remains in these regions, some of them first surveyed by Hiluf Berhe (Aksum) and the Tourism and Culture Commission of Tigrai Regional State (TCCTRS, Mekele)., Depuis les années 1970, la civilisation dite « pré-aksumite » et le royaume d’Aksum sont au coeur de tous les débats qui tournent autour du développement de la civilisation des hauts plateaux du nord de l’Éthiopie. Quel rôle a joué Aksum, quand son royaume a-t-il émergé et quels étaient les apports et échanges avec les autres civilisations ? Et surtout, y a-t-il un lien entre la civilisation dite « pré-aksumite » et celle du royaume d’Aksum ?Une première mission de reconnaissance – de courte durée – lancée en 2010 dans la région du Tigray (les régions d’Adwa, Hawzen et Feresmay, ainsi que plus à l’est, celles de Atsbi-Deraʾ et de Medri Senafe), a eu pour objectif notamment d’évaluer le potentiel archéologique en la matière, avec l’aide des dernières prospections menées entre autres par Hiluf Berhe (Aksum) et le Tourism and Culture Commission of Tigrai Regional State (TCCTRS, Mekele) sur les hauts plateaux du Tigray.

International audience; The archaeological site of Wakarida is situated in the north-eastern Tigrai (Ethiopia), about 70 km North of Wukro. The site has been established on a rocky outcrop, which overlooks a large valley surrounded by chain of mountains.After three field seasons of excavation and survey at Wakarida and its surroundings, few preliminary issues may be put forward:– geomorphologic analysis supports the idea of a controlled development of the region, since ancient times;– archaeological survey reinforces this idea, since ancient remains have been observed next to the site of Wakarida, part of them being earlier than the ones excavated at Wakarida;– excavations reinforce the idea of a build‐up area, dated back to the 3th‐6th century AD, the planning of which has to be better understood, but already indicates an important place.The question is why this kind of site has been developed in this remote territory. Abundant resources of the soil may be sufficient to explain such human settlements. Though, even if the region seems to have been first arranged for agricultural purpose, the site of Wakarida shows the setting up of a town, as small as it may be, which indicates the presence of a hierarchically structured population. The development of such a remote town may be connected to the rise of the kingdom of Aksum. Architecture refers in fact to similar monuments at Aksum and Matara dating back to the same period, even if commercial trails are not clearly identifiable; even if potteries do not seem to indicate any important trade.

The third season for the “Archaeological and Epigraphic Investigations in Tigrai Region (Pre-Aksumite & Askumite Period)” took place from November 4th to December 7th, 2013 in Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba woreda, north-eastern Tigrai. It is part of a four year research programme, headed by Dr Iwona Gajda and Dr Fabienne Dugast from the CNRS (Umr 8167 “Orient & Méditerranée” / Paris), and supported by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAEE), the French Centre for Ethiopian Studies (CFEE / Addis Ababa), and the Bureau of Culture and Tourism of the Regional State of Tigrai (BCTRST / Wukro).It comes as a result of a preliminary survey which took place in March 2010, and helped making the choice of the site of Wakarida, in the tabia / district of Sawena, and Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba woreda / region, eastern Tigrai, to start systematic archaeological investigations which begun in March 2011. The site is concerned with three main objectives, as far as its remains are related to: first of all, its remote location, while open in the direction of the Red Sea, may help in considering the relations, whatever they were, between North Ethiopia and South Arabia in the early 1st millennium AD; on the other hand, and according to the chronological sequences, it may give us sufficient elements to make out chronological markers – especially in pottery typology – which are still lacking; finally, as the local landscape looks like a “fossil” one principally subjected to erosion, but ever contrasted during time by men through a patient work of slope and floor valley terracing, it may help us in considering different kind of occupation and settlement all over May Ayni valley and three other ones – Ka ͗ebile, May Weyni and Ambare –, which join up at Demba Bales and Sawena. These three main objectives have therefore a common course: the organisation and evolution of settlement patterns, in both political and cultural aspects, from the time before the emergence of Aksum and after.; Les opérations menées en novembre-décembre 2013 sur le site de Wakarida et la région de Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba entrent dans le cadre du « Projet franco-éthiopien de recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques dans la région du Tigray (Éthiopie) », lancé en 2010 sous la direction conjointe d’Iwona Gajda et Fabienne Dugast (CNRS / Umr 8167 “Orient & Méditerranée” / Paris), avec le soutien du Ministère des Affaires étrangères (MAEE / Paris), du Centre français des études éthiopiennes (CFEE / Addis Abeba) et du Bureau of Culture and Tourism of the Regional State of Tigrai (BCTRST / Wukro). Elles font suite à une prospection menée en mars 2010, destinée à évaluer le potentiel des recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques sur les hauts plateaux du Tigray aux périodes « pré-aksumite » et aksumite. À cette occasion, le site de Wakarida, dans le district / tabia de Sawena, région / woreda de Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba, sur les contreforts orientaux du plateau du Tigray, a été choisi pour lancer des opérations archéologiques systématiques qui ont débuté en mars 2011.Au regard des hypothèses avancées à l’issue de la 2e campagne (2012), l’objectif de l’ensemble des opérations projetées en 2013 et 2014 visait à établir l’identification du site de Wakarida et de son insertion dans le développement de la civilisation aksumite, voire antérieurement.Dans cette optique, l’attention s’est focalisée sur l’organisation spatiale du site et le type d’architecture qui y est rencontrée (fouilles ciblées, prospections au sol, étude de répartition de la céramique de surface). Y a été étroitement associée, comme précédemment, une approche environnementale et une modélisation de la logique de l’occupation spatiale et des réseaux de communication (prospections au sol, étude du paysage et de l’occupation du sol). À ces deux principaux axes a bien entendu été confrontée l’étude du mobilier céramique, en relation avec les séquences fouillées et, parallèlement, en relation avec les sites prospectés.La situation excentrée de la zone d’étude, manifestement productive à l’époque aksumite (IVe-VIe s. au moins), repousse pour la première fois l’extension de la richesse et de la puissance du royaume d’Aksum au-delà de l’aire de distribution des sites aksumites actuellement connus. Davantage, les premiers éléments d’une évolution et d’une chronologie – peut-être longue – de l’occupation du sol se dégagent, aussi bien sur le site même de Wakarida : chacun des deux complexes étudiés présente 2 phases importantes d’aménagement successives dans une chronologie pour l’instant relative ; que sur l’ensemble de la zone étudiée : la prospection systématique a tenu compte à la fois des épandages de céramique et des affleurements géologiques représentatifs de l’évolution du paysage et fait pressentir une occupation antérieure, notamment dans la vallée de Kaʾebile où la présence d’une importante occupation « pré-aksumite » est attestée.Enfin, les données relatives au bâti apportent de nouveaux éléments : plans et détails techniques contribuent en effet à enrichir un domaine jusqu’à présent alimenté par des schémas théoriques – aussi bien quant à l’organisation structurelle de ce type de complexe que plus particulièrement à l’utilisation conjointe de la pierre et du bois.

The third season for the “Archaeological and Epigraphic Investigations in Tigrai Region (Pre-Aksumite & Askumite Period)” took place from November 4th to December 7th, 2013 in Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba woreda, north-eastern Tigrai. It is part of a four year research programme, headed by Dr Iwona Gajda and Dr Fabienne Dugast from the CNRS (Umr 8167 “Orient & Méditerranée” / Paris), and supported by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAEE), the French Centre for Ethiopian Studies (CFEE / Addis Ababa), and the Bureau of Culture and Tourism of the Regional State of Tigrai (BCTRST / Wukro).It comes as a result of a preliminary survey which took place in March 2010, and helped making the choice of the site of Wakarida, in the tabia / district of Sawena, and Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba woreda / region, eastern Tigrai, to start systematic archaeological investigations which begun in March 2011. The site is concerned with three main objectives, as far as its remains are related to: first of all, its remote location, while open in the direction of the Red Sea, may help in considering the relations, whatever they were, between North Ethiopia and South Arabia in the early 1st millennium AD; on the other hand, and according to the chronological sequences, it may give us sufficient elements to make out chronological markers – especially in pottery typology – which are still lacking; finally, as the local landscape looks like a “fossil” one principally subjected to erosion, but ever contrasted during time by men through a patient work of slope and floor valley terracing, it may help us in considering different kind of occupation and settlement all over May Ayni valley and three other ones – Ka ͗ebile, May Weyni and Ambare –, which join up at Demba Bales and Sawena. These three main objectives have therefore a common course: the organisation and evolution of settlement patterns, in both political and cultural aspects, from the time before the emergence of Aksum and after.; Les opérations menées en novembre-décembre 2013 sur le site de Wakarida et la région de Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba entrent dans le cadre du « Projet franco-éthiopien de recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques dans la région du Tigray (Éthiopie) », lancé en 2010 sous la direction conjointe d’Iwona Gajda et Fabienne Dugast (CNRS / Umr 8167 “Orient & Méditerranée” / Paris), avec le soutien du Ministère des Affaires étrangères (MAEE / Paris), du Centre français des études éthiopiennes (CFEE / Addis Abeba) et du Bureau of Culture and Tourism of the Regional State of Tigrai (BCTRST / Wukro). Elles font suite à une prospection menée en mars 2010, destinée à évaluer le potentiel des recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques sur les hauts plateaux du Tigray aux périodes « pré-aksumite » et aksumite. À cette occasion, le site de Wakarida, dans le district / tabia de Sawena, région / woreda de Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba, sur les contreforts orientaux du plateau du Tigray, a été choisi pour lancer des opérations archéologiques systématiques qui ont débuté en mars 2011.Au regard des hypothèses avancées à l’issue de la 2e campagne (2012), l’objectif de l’ensemble des opérations projetées en 2013 et 2014 visait à établir l’identification du site de Wakarida et de son insertion dans le développement de la civilisation aksumite, voire antérieurement.Dans cette optique, l’attention s’est focalisée sur l’organisation spatiale du site et le type d’architecture qui y est rencontrée (fouilles ciblées, prospections au sol, étude de répartition de la céramique de surface). Y a été étroitement associée, comme précédemment, une approche environnementale et une modélisation de la logique de l’occupation spatiale et des réseaux de communication (prospections au sol, étude du paysage et de l’occupation du sol). À ces deux principaux axes a bien entendu été confrontée l’étude du mobilier céramique, en relation avec les séquences fouillées et, parallèlement, en relation avec les sites prospectés.La situation excentrée de la zone d’étude, manifestement productive à l’époque aksumite (IVe-VIe s. au moins), repousse pour la première fois l’extension de la richesse et de la puissance du royaume d’Aksum au-delà de l’aire de distribution des sites aksumites actuellement connus. Davantage, les premiers éléments d’une évolution et d’une chronologie – peut-être longue – de l’occupation du sol se dégagent, aussi bien sur le site même de Wakarida : chacun des deux complexes étudiés présente 2 phases importantes d’aménagement successives dans une chronologie pour l’instant relative ; que sur l’ensemble de la zone étudiée : la prospection systématique a tenu compte à la fois des épandages de céramique et des affleurements géologiques représentatifs de l’évolution du paysage et fait pressentir une occupation antérieure, notamment dans la vallée de Kaʾebile où la présence d’une importante occupation « pré-aksumite » est attestée.Enfin, les données relatives au bâti apportent de nouveaux éléments : plans et détails techniques contribuent en effet à enrichir un domaine jusqu’à présent alimenté par des schémas théoriques – aussi bien quant à l’organisation structurelle de ce type de complexe que plus particulièrement à l’utilisation conjointe de la pierre et du bois.

Avec la collaboration de Olivier Barge (Archéorient), Anne Benoist (Archéorient), Xavier Craperi (ALTA Géomètres experts, Lyon), Julien Charbonnier (post-doctorant / Arscan), Bruno Marcolongo (CNR / IRPI - Institut de géologie appliquée, Padoue), Xavier Peixoto (Inrap), Emmanuelle Régagnon (Archéorient), Cécile Verdellet (Lyon II); The second season for the "Archaeological and Epigraphic Investigations in Tigrai Region (Pre-Aksumite & Askumite Period)" took place from 15 November to 15 December 2012 in Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba woreda, north-eastern Tigrai. It is part of a four year research programme, headed by Dr Iwona Gajda and Dr Fabienne Dugast from the CNRS (Umr 8167 "Orient & Méditerranée" / Paris), and supported by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAEE), the French Centre for Ethiopian Studies (CFEE / Addis Ababa), and the Bureau of Culture and Tourism of the Regional State of Tigrai (BCTRST / Wukro). It comes as a result of a preliminary survey which took place in March 2010, and helped making the choice of the site of Wakarida, in the tabia / district of Sawena, and Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba woreda / region, to start systematic archaeological investigations which begun in March 2011. Three main lines have been considered in 2012: the archaeological one focused on the general organisation of the site of Wakarida itself. Two sectors have been opened, their choice being based on the previous results and geomorphologic analysis. Two monuments have been excavated which are usually identified with "palaces" or at least houses of a wealthy population. A geomorphologic approach helped to understand the relation between the archaeological site of Wakarida and its surrounding landscape and supplies, so as to be able to figure out, on a smaller scale, the process of the ancient settlement conception. In such a mean it was first important to focus on the connection that might have existed between men and natural supplies through time, taking into account the physiographic, geomorphologic and geologic description of the whole area. Finally, a pottery analysis has been undertaken in order to start a typology based on stratigraphic and technical elements, which the site of Wakarida seems to unable giving the opportunity.; Les opérations menées en novembre-décembre 2012 sur le site de Wakarida et la région de Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba entrent dans le cadre du " Projet franco-éthiopien de recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques dans la région du Tigray (Éthiopie) ", lancé en 2010 sous la direction conjointe d'Iwona Gajda et Fabienne Dugast (CNRS / Umr 8167 "Orient & Méditerranée" / Paris), avec le soutien du Ministère des Affaires étrangères (MAEE / Paris), du Centre français des études éthiopiennes (CFEE / Addis Abeba) et du Bureau of Culture and Tourism of the Regional State of Tigrai (BCTRST / Wukro). Elles font suite à une prospection menée en mars 2010, destinée à évaluer le potentiel des recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques sur les hauts plateaux du Tigray aux périodes " pré-aksumite " et aksumite. À cette occasion, le site de Wakarida, dans le district / tabia de Sawena, région / woreda de Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba, sur les contreforts orientaux du plateau du Tigray, a été choisi pour lancer des opérations archéologiques systématiques qui ont débuté en mars 2011. Trois principaux objectifs ont été visés lors de cette 2e campagne : l'approche archéologique s'est concentrée sur l'étude de l'organisation même du site de Wakarida. Deux secteurs ont été ouverts - choisis en fonction à la fois des résultats de la campagne 2011 et de l'analyse géomorphologique préalable -, qui ont permis de mettre au jour deux bâtiments aux caractéristiques techniques particulières qu'il est d'usage d'attribuer à des résidences de notables. Une approche géomorphologique a visé à mieux comprendre les rapports que l'on peut établir entre la réalité du site antique de Wakarida, le paysage environnant et ses ressources, de manière à retrouver, à une plus petite échelle, le processus de formation de l'ancienne occupation, en tenant compte des caractères physiographiques, géomorphologiques et géologiques de l'ensemble du territoire. Enfin, l'analyse de la céramique a permis de définir les premiers jalons d'une typologie fondée sur les éléments techniques en phase avec les éléments stratigraphiques de la fouille.

avec la collaboration de Olivier Barge (Archéorient), Anne Benoist (Archéorient), Xavier Craperi (ALTA Géomètres experts, Lyon), Julien Charbonnier (post-doctorant / Arscan), Bruno Marcolongo (CNR / IRPI - Institut de géologie appliquée, Padoue), Xavier Peixoto (Inrap, Paris), Emmanuelle Régagnon (Archéorient), Cécile Verdellet (Lyon II); The second season for the "Archaeological and Epigraphic Investigations in Tigrai Region (Pre-Aksumite & Askumite Period)" took place from 15 November to 15 December 2012 in Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba woreda, north-eastern Tigrai. It is part of a four year research programme, headed by Dr Iwona Gajda and Dr Fabienne Dugast from the CNRS (Umr 8167 "Orient & Méditerranée" / Paris), and supported by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAEE), the French Centre for Ethiopian Studies (CFEE / Addis Ababa), and the Bureau of Culture and Tourism of the Regional State of Tigrai (BCTRST / Wukro). It comes as a result of a preliminary survey which took place in March 2010, and helped making the choice of the site of Wakarida, in the tabia / district of Sawena, and Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba woreda / region, eastern Tigrai, to start systematic archaeological investigations which begun in March 2011. Three main lines have been considered in 2012: the archaeological one focused on the general organisation of the site of Wakarida itself. Since it appears to be a small town, two sectors have been opened, their choice being based on the previous results and the geomorphologic analysis. The main objective was to study these areas in their morphology and feature, and their evolution. A geomorphologic approach helped to understand the relation between the archaeological site of Wakarida and its surrounding landscape and supplies, so as to be able to figure out, on a smaller scale, the process of the ancient settlement conception. In such a mean it was first important to focus on the connection that might have existed between men and natural supplies through time, taking into account the physiographic, geomorphologic and geologic description of the whole area. Finally, a pottery analysis has been undertaken in order to start a typology based on stratigraphic and technical elements, which the site of Wakarida seems to unable giving the opportunity.; Les opérations menées en novembre-décembre 2012 sur le site de Wakarida et la région de Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba entrent dans le cadre du " Projet franco-éthiopien de recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques dans la région du Tigray (Éthiopie) ", lancé en 2010 sous la direction conjointe d'Iwona Gajda et Fabienne Dugast (CNRS / Umr 8167 "Orient & Méditerranée" / Paris), avec le soutien du Ministère des Affaires étrangères (MAEE / Paris), du Centre français des études éthiopiennes (CFEE / Addis Abeba) et du Bureau of Culture and Tourism of the Regional State of Tigrai (BCTRST / Wukro). Elles font suite à une prospection menée en mars 2010, destinée à évaluer le potentiel des recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques sur les hauts plateaux du Tigray aux périodes " pré-aksumite " et aksumite. À cette occasion, le site de Wakarida, dans le district / tabia de Sawena, région / woreda de Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba, sur les contreforts orientaux du plateau du Tigray, a été choisi pour lancer des opérations archéologiques systématiques qui ont débuté en mars 2011. Trois principaux objectifs ont été visés lors de cette 2e campagne : l'approche archéologique s'est concentrée sur l'étude de l'organisation même du site de Wakarida qui apparaît être une petite ville. Deux secteurs ont été ouverts - choisis en fonction à la fois des résultats de la campagne 2011 et de l'analyse géomorphologique préalable -, de manière à entamer une étude des espaces concernés dans leur morphologie et leurs évolutions. Une approche géomorphologique a visé à mieux comprendre les rapports que l'on peut établir entre la réalité du site antique de Wakarida, le paysage environnant et ses ressources, de manière à retrouver, à une plus petite échelle, le processus de formation de l'ancienne occupation, en tenant compte des caractères physiographiques, géomorphologiques et géologiques de l'ensemble du territoire. Enfin, l'analyse de la céramique a permis de mettre en place les premiers jalons d'une typologie fondée sur les éléments techniques en phase avec les éléments stratigraphiques de la fouille.

avec la collaboration de Olivier Barge (Archéorient), Anne Benoist (Archéorient), Xavier Craperi (ALTA Géomètres experts, Lyon), Julien Charbonnier (post-doctorant / Arscan), Bruno Marcolongo (CNR / IRPI - Institut de géologie appliquée, Padoue), Xavier Peixoto (Inrap, Paris), Emmanuelle Régagnon (Archéorient), Cécile Verdellet (Lyon II); The second season for the "Archaeological and Epigraphic Investigations in Tigrai Region (Pre-Aksumite & Askumite Period)" took place from 15 November to 15 December 2012 in Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba woreda, north-eastern Tigrai. It is part of a four year research programme, headed by Dr Iwona Gajda and Dr Fabienne Dugast from the CNRS (Umr 8167 "Orient & Méditerranée" / Paris), and supported by the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAEE), the French Centre for Ethiopian Studies (CFEE / Addis Ababa), and the Bureau of Culture and Tourism of the Regional State of Tigrai (BCTRST / Wukro). It comes as a result of a preliminary survey which took place in March 2010, and helped making the choice of the site of Wakarida, in the tabia / district of Sawena, and Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba woreda / region, eastern Tigrai, to start systematic archaeological investigations which begun in March 2011. Three main lines have been considered in 2012: the archaeological one focused on the general organisation of the site of Wakarida itself. Since it appears to be a small town, two sectors have been opened, their choice being based on the previous results and the geomorphologic analysis. The main objective was to study these areas in their morphology and feature, and their evolution. A geomorphologic approach helped to understand the relation between the archaeological site of Wakarida and its surrounding landscape and supplies, so as to be able to figure out, on a smaller scale, the process of the ancient settlement conception. In such a mean it was first important to focus on the connection that might have existed between men and natural supplies through time, taking into account the physiographic, geomorphologic and geologic description of the whole area. Finally, a pottery analysis has been undertaken in order to start a typology based on stratigraphic and technical elements, which the site of Wakarida seems to unable giving the opportunity.; Les opérations menées en novembre-décembre 2012 sur le site de Wakarida et la région de Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba entrent dans le cadre du " Projet franco-éthiopien de recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques dans la région du Tigray (Éthiopie) ", lancé en 2010 sous la direction conjointe d'Iwona Gajda et Fabienne Dugast (CNRS / Umr 8167 "Orient & Méditerranée" / Paris), avec le soutien du Ministère des Affaires étrangères (MAEE / Paris), du Centre français des études éthiopiennes (CFEE / Addis Abeba) et du Bureau of Culture and Tourism of the Regional State of Tigrai (BCTRST / Wukro). Elles font suite à une prospection menée en mars 2010, destinée à évaluer le potentiel des recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques sur les hauts plateaux du Tigray aux périodes " pré-aksumite " et aksumite. À cette occasion, le site de Wakarida, dans le district / tabia de Sawena, région / woreda de Saʿesiʿe Tsʿada Emba, sur les contreforts orientaux du plateau du Tigray, a été choisi pour lancer des opérations archéologiques systématiques qui ont débuté en mars 2011. Trois principaux objectifs ont été visés lors de cette 2e campagne : l'approche archéologique s'est concentrée sur l'étude de l'organisation même du site de Wakarida qui apparaît être une petite ville. Deux secteurs ont été ouverts - choisis en fonction à la fois des résultats de la campagne 2011 et de l'analyse géomorphologique préalable -, de manière à entamer une étude des espaces concernés dans leur morphologie et leurs évolutions. Une approche géomorphologique a visé à mieux comprendre les rapports que l'on peut établir entre la réalité du site antique de Wakarida, le paysage environnant et ses ressources, de manière à retrouver, à une plus petite échelle, le processus de formation de l'ancienne occupation, en tenant compte des caractères physiographiques, géomorphologiques et géologiques de l'ensemble du territoire. Enfin, l'analyse de la céramique a permis de mettre en place les premiers jalons d'une typologie fondée sur les éléments techniques en phase avec les éléments stratigraphiques de la fouille.

International audience; Relations between northern Ethiopia and South Arabia in Antiquity have been much discussed, most publications focusing on the first millennium BC. Relations during the first millennium AD have received less attention, apart from studies of dramatic events during the 6th century. A general framework of these contacts is proposed, along with new observations about contacts between the two sides of the Red Sea, in particular from the 1st to the 6th century AD. During ancient times, the two cultures seem, at first sight, to be quite different; but a closer look at the evidence from inscriptions and excavations (architectural features and building techniques) discovers that the two areas maintained contacts, which varied over time, and often evolved in like manner.

For the last ten years, the research concerning ancient history of Ethiopia focus on relations of the highlands of Tigrai and Eritrea with populations and civilisations of adjoining regions, especially of the Nile Valley. It is seemingly a way to reconsider the Ethiopian history in the 1st millennium BC, which was often called "pre‐Aksumite" (following the suggestion of Fr. Anfray) in order to outline a process of development and to distinguish a kind of a preliminary phase which has to set up the emergence of the Aksumite kingdom. Such an argument claims against the idea of a culturally monolithic "pre‐Aksumite" polity: yet, considering the various endogenous and exogenous elements, from Egypt and the Nile Valley to Southern Arabia, it emphasizes a complexity of different traditions, identities, or even socio‐political systems, which are still difficult to discern. Exogenous elements as well as any evidence for close contact and imprint of any kind may be considered as common, taking into account the geographical position of North Ethiopia and Eritrea as an important crossroads between northeast Africa, the Mediterranean basin, southern Arabia and the Indian Ocean. One of these elements though - the South Arabian one - appears to be more important, so that one could have thought of a process of colonization or maybe the settlement of an independent state - that is, whatever the model, the migration in Ethiopia of South‐Arabian people. In fact, a significant question comes out about a South‐Arabian presence in the 7th century BC or earlier, which seems to set up a kind of, even localised, polity - named "DʿMT" according to the inscriptions from the first half of the 1st millenium BC -, but which would have disappeared before the emergence of Aksum. Even legends, up to now, make the population in the villages assure that the first inhabitants came from Arabia... The inscriptions represent a clear evidence for close contact, since the writing, the language (in spite of a few differences of phonetics, syntax and vocabulary), but also the pantheon - with ʿAstar (ʿstr), Hawbas (Hbs), Almaqah (ʾlmqh) and other South‐Arabian / Sabaean deities -, point in places to a strong cultural imprint. Together with monumental structures (at Yeha, perhaps also at Kaskase) and artworks, especially in religious context, the epigraphic evidence show some kind of influence, or even power, although nothing today reveals any model of socio‐political system nor any expansion neither later fragmentation of the supposed model towards an "africanization" process. Since there is no indication in South Arabian sources of any migration, whatever its form, from this country at that time to Ethiopia, the paper would like to propose to reassess and debate on the nature of contacts between the highlands of Tigrai and southern Arabia in the 1st millennium BC, and furthermore on the chronology of this period.a, Les recherches menées depuis ces dix dernières années sur l'histoire ancienne de l'Éthiopie focalisent l'attention sur les relations des hauts plateaux du Tigray et d'Érythrée avec les populations et civilisations voisines, notamment celles de la Vallée du Nil. C'est une manière de reconsidérer l'histoire de l'Éthiopie au Ier millénaire avant notre ère, période souvent appelée " pré-aksumite " (suivant la formulation lancée par Fr. Anfray), de manière à mettre en évidence un processus de développement de la civilisation éthiopienne qui distinguerait une phase immédiatement préalable à l'émergence du royaume d'Aksum. Un tel argument contredirait l'idée d'une véritable civilisation " pré-aksumite " au faciès culturel homogène ; néanmoins, à considérer les différents éléments endogènes et exogènes, d'Égypte et de la Vallée du Nil à l'Arabie du Sud, on ne peut que souscrire à la complexité des traditions, des identités, voire des systèmes socio-politiques que la diversité rend difficile à comprendre. La présence d'éléments exogènes comme de tout témoignage de contacts ou d'empreintes de quelque nature que ce soit ne doit pas surprendre, d'autant plus si l'on tient compte de la position géographique de l'Éthiopie du Nord et de l'Érythrée au croisement d'importantes routes commerciales entre la Corne d'Afrique et le bassin méditerranéen d'un côté, l'Arabie du Sud et l'Océan indien de l'autre. L'élément sudarabique néanmoins apparaît à cette période plus important, au point qu'on a pu croire à un processus de colonisation ou à l'installation d'un état indépendant - en d'autres termes à la migration de populations sudarabiques en Éthiopie. L'hypothèse repose sur l'identification d'un système politique appelé " DʿMT " - selon les inscriptions datées de la première moitié du Ier millénaire -, qui se serait développé de manière locale et qui aurait disparu avant l'émergence d'Aksum. Les légendes locales rappellent du reste que les premiers habitants venaient d'Arabie du Sud... Les inscriptions représentent un témoignage évident de contacts étroits avec l'Arabie du Sud : l'écriture, la langue (en dépit de quelques différences phonétiques et syntaxiques, voire de vocabulaire), mais aussi le panthéon - sont nommées ʿAstar (ʿstr), Hawbas (Hbs), Almaqah (ʾlmqh) et d'autres divinités sudarabiques ou sabéennes - sont la manifestation d'une lourde influence. Les structures monumentales (Yeha, peut-être aussi Kaskase) et les sculptures (en particulier de contexte religieux) s'ajoutent aux témoignages épigraphiques pour donner l'image d'une forte influence, voire d'un pouvoir, dont rien toutefois ne permet d'identifier un quelconque système socio-politique ni même une quelconque expansion ou à l'inverse un morcellement résultant d'un processus d'" africanisation ". Dans la mesure où les sources sudarabiques ne donnent aucune indication d'une quelconque migration en Éthiopie, quelle que soit sa forme, la présentation propose de revoir et de débattre de la nature des contacts entre les hauts plateaux du Tigray et l'Arabie du Sud au Ier millénaire avant notre ère - notamment à travers les particularités données par l'épigraphie -, et plus avant sur la chronologie de cette période.

Even if South Arabian influence is obvious in economy, trade, and social structures in both "pre-Aksumite" and Aksumite civilization, the history of Ethiopia is still misunderstood. Therefore, the archaeological investigations on the site of Wakarida (Tigrai region / Ethiopia) have two major aims: 1/ a contribution to the periodization of the Antiquity in Ethiopia - since no chronological classification of any artefact has been yet established for Ancient Ethiopia; 2/ a study of the evolution of Ancient Ethiopian civilisation and its contacts with other countries, from the Mediterranean Sea to India. The choice of this site is due on one hand to its geographic situation (even if distant of the main axes of circulation already known, it is turned towards the Red Sea), on the other hand to an important chronological sequence that may be obtained according to the already collected pottery on surface. A comparative study has to be carried out especially on potteries coming from various sites, but also on different types of construction, and artefacts. Before any extensive excavation, the archaeological potential of the site as well as its area and its organization had to be assessed as a priority. Specific fieldwork objectives were to implement a sampling design which employed geomantic techniques including GPS (Global Positioning System) and GIS (Geographic Information System) to initiate a more systematic survey which employed specific techniques including geophysical methods. Three test excavations consisting on soundings have been opened, and a few pedestrian surveys have been carried out around the site, in order to recognize the real expansion of the archaeological area, and even other settlements nearby.; Si l'établissement, au Ier siècle de l'ère chrétienne, du royaume d'Aksum sur le plateau du Tigray, dans le nord de l'Éthiopie est assez bien documenté par les sources anciennes auxquelles s'ajoutent quelques inscriptions, la civilisation dite "pré-aksumite", installée entre le VIIIe et le Ve siècle avant l'ère chrétienne, pose aujourd'hui d'importantes questions. Non seulement cette dernière reste mal connue, mais surtout le lien susceptible d'exister entre les deux civilisations n'est pas clairement défini, alors même que l'une et l'autre apparaissent d'une manière ou d'une autre en rapports plus ou moins étroits avec l'Arabie du Sud. L'étude du site de Wakarida, sur les contreforts orientaux du plateau du Tigray, constitue, dans un tel cadre, une première "fenêtre" de réflexion. Son choix repose d'une part sur sa situation géographique, loin des grands axes commerciaux reconnus mais manifestement tourné vers la mer Rouge et par conséquent susceptible d'apporter une autre vision des rapports avec l'Arabie du Sud ; d'autre part - et au vu des éléments repérés au préalable in situ - sur la mise en place sinon d'une séquence stratigraphique importante, du moins des premiers jalons d'un référentiel céramologique et chronologique. Inédit, le site ne pouvait toutefois faire l'objet d'un engagement important sans préalable. Une première campagne a donc été destinée à évaluer son potentiel archéologique et s'est organisée selon trois objectifs : une étude topographique - avec mise en place de repères géographiques -, une étude archéologique - sous la forme de prospections géophysiques et de sondages -, une étude du mobilier céramique - première approche d'une typologie raisonnée.

Since the 1970's, Aksum stands in area under discussion since the development of culture in the Ethiopian highlands appears to be, even now, the subject of much debate. What role did it play, when did it emerge to prominence, and what were its relations with pre-existing societies and cultures? And above all, to what extent was Aksum a conduit for external influences, Mediterranean and South Arabian, or even vice versa? The aim of a short visit in Tigrai region was a general survey of Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites (Yeha and around, Adowa and around, Hawzen and Gulo Makada, the Eastern part of Tigrai, the region of Atsbi-Dera' and the one of Medri Senafe), and also a geographical study of the kingdom of Aksum, to assert the identification of tribes and regions mentioned in the descriptions of military campaigns. Several pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites around Aksum and within the study area proposed for a first survey have recently been excavated or surveyed by other teams: Yeha (Iris Gerlach, since November 2009), Haulti (Holger Hitgen, since 2009-2010), Maqabər Ga'əwa (Ricardo Eichmann & Pawel Wolf, since 2009). Thus, the preliminary survey concentrated on documenting several sites first surveyed by H. Berhe (Aksum) et le Tourism and Culture Commission of Tigrai Regional State (TCCTRS, Mekele) in the region of Atsbi-Dera, east Mekelle.; Le rapide examen historiographique de l'ancienne Éthiopie tend à montrer le rôle encore très conjectural d'Aksum dans le développement de la civilisation "aksumite" à partir de la fin du IIe siècle de notre ère. Les similitudes culturelles perceptibles aux périodes antérieures (architecture, écriture, céramique, cultes...) avec l'Arabie du Sud reposent encore sur une simple transposition des repères sud‐arabiques à la Corne d'Afrique et sont aujourd'hui discutées, à raison, notamment par D.W. Philippson. Manifestées essentiellement à travers les vestiges d'une architecture monumentale et les dédicaces d'une élite gouvernementale, il est probable que les relations entre les deux mondes ont outrepassé les seuls engagements politiques et commerciaux dont l'origine remonterait bien au‐delà de l'ère chrétienne sans que l'on puisse pour autant en établir le schéma directeur, ce dont se fait l'écho la terminologie "pré-aksumite" qui marque les déficiences de nos connaissances aussi bien en terme de chronologie que de faciès culturel. Une première mission de reconnaissance - de courte durée - lancée en 2010 a eu pour objectif d'évaluer le potentiel des recherches en la matière et plus particulièrement, avec l'aide des dernières prospections menées notamment par H. Berhe (Aksum) et le Tourism and Culture Commission of Tigrai Regional State (TCCTRS, Mekele), l'emprise d'une culture "pré‐aksumite" sur l'ensemble du plateau du Tigray.

Since the 1970's, Aksum stands in area under discussion since the development of culture in the Ethiopian highlands appears to be, even now, the subject of much debate. What role did it play, when did it emerge to prominence, and what were its relations with pre-existing societies and cultures? And above all, to what extent was Aksum a conduit for external influences, Mediterranean and South Arabian, or even vice versa? The aim of a short visit in Tigrai region was a general survey of Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites (Yeha and around, Adowa and around, Hawzen and Gulo Makada, the Eastern part of Tigrai, the region of Atsbi-Dera' and the one of Medri Senafe), and also a geographical study of the kingdom of Aksum, to assert the identification of tribes and regions mentioned in the descriptions of military campaigns. Several pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites around Aksum and within the study area proposed for a first survey have recently been excavated or surveyed by other teams: Yeha (Iris Gerlach, since November 2009), Haulti (Holger Hitgen, since 2009-2010), Maqabər Ga'əwa (Ricardo Eichmann & Pawel Wolf, since 2009). Thus, the preliminary survey concentrated on documenting several sites first surveyed by H. Berhe (Aksum) et le Tourism and Culture Commission of Tigrai Regional State (TCCTRS, Mekele) in the region of Atsbi-Dera, east Mekelle.; Le rapide examen historiographique de l'ancienne Éthiopie tend à montrer le rôle encore très conjectural d'Aksum dans le développement de la civilisation "aksumite" à partir de la fin du IIe siècle de notre ère. Les similitudes culturelles perceptibles aux périodes antérieures (architecture, écriture, céramique, cultes...) avec l'Arabie du Sud reposent encore sur une simple transposition des repères sud‐arabiques à la Corne d'Afrique et sont aujourd'hui discutées, à raison, notamment par D.W. Philippson. Manifestées essentiellement à travers les vestiges d'une architecture monumentale et les dédicaces d'une élite gouvernementale, il est probable que les relations entre les deux mondes ont outrepassé les seuls engagements politiques et commerciaux dont l'origine remonterait bien au‐delà de l'ère chrétienne sans que l'on puisse pour autant en établir le schéma directeur, ce dont se fait l'écho la terminologie "pré-aksumite" qui marque les déficiences de nos connaissances aussi bien en terme de chronologie que de faciès culturel. Une première mission de reconnaissance - de courte durée - lancée en 2010 a eu pour objectif d'évaluer le potentiel des recherches en la matière et plus particulièrement, avec l'aide des dernières prospections menées notamment par H. Berhe (Aksum) et le Tourism and Culture Commission of Tigrai Regional State (TCCTRS, Mekele), l'emprise d'une culture "pré‐aksumite" sur l'ensemble du plateau du Tigray.

As dinâmicas sociais de estruturação de espaços políticos em meio rural permanecem ligadas aos processos mais amplos de construção e de reconstrução do Estado na África sub-saariana. Este capítulo visa contribuir para a compreensão das modalidades de participação e/ ou exclusão, dos mecanismos e estratégias de actores sociais em áreas rurais fronteiriças na estruturação de espaços políticos em relação com o processo de (re)construção do Estado em áreas rurais. O processo de reconstrução do Estado na Etiópia a partir de 1991 teve repercussões para a demarcação de fronteiras internacionais e fronteiras internas político-administrativas. A ocorrência de uma guerra inter-estatal entre a Eritreia e a Etiópia entre 1998 e 2000 acentuou a importância de averiguar as ramificações internacionais dos processos internos de construção e de 'reconstrução' do Estado. Com efeito, a transformação das relações entre os actores sociais em áreas transfronteiriças foi propulsionada, condicionada e negativamente afectada pelas trajectórias contraditórias dos processos de construção e de reconstrução do Estado na Eritreia e na Etiópia respectivamente. O presente estudo insere-se num Projecto que visa apreender as Dinâmicas sociais na estruturação de espaços políticos em contextos rurais africanos, privilegiando uma perspectiva comparativa. O presente capítulo é o resultado de um compromisso interdisciplinar e de criação de um enquadramento teórico comum tendo por referência central a análise do político em África em contexto multipartidário segundo uma grelha analítica que permite identificar e comparar continuidades e/ou rupturas na estruturação dos espaços políticos em contextos rurais. No âmbito do projecto de Investigação seguiu-se uma estratégia pluralista em termos dos pressupostos teóricos em torno dos conceitos centrais do projecto, a saber: Estado; actores sociais; poder local e espaço(s) político(s). Assim sendo, este capítulo estrutura a análise em torno do conceito central de espaço(s) político(s) em relação com as dinâmicas sociais de estruturação destes espaços, isto é espaço(s) político(s), em áreas rurais. Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT /MCTES) - POCI/AFR/59228/2004

Mäqabǝr Ga‘ǝwa is a recently unearthed site which is located in the Tigray Regional State, Eastern Zone, Wuqro Kilte Awla’elo district, in a village named Addi Akaweh. The team, led by the author, carried out an archaeological excavation at this site, which is locally attributed to the legendary queen named “ Ga‘ǝwa”, also known as Yodit or Gudit. Operating in the perspective of preventive archaeology, the team’s main objective was to check the potential of the site before its destruction for the construction of a new small town. The team opened twelve trenches and subsequently discovered altars bearing Pre-Aksumite inscriptions, a statue of a seated woman and other monuments., Rapport preliminaire sur la fouille archeologique de Mäqabǝr Ga‘ǝwa, à Addi Akaweh (Tigre, Ethiopie) ; Le site nouvellement découvert de Mäqabǝr Ga‘ǝwa est localisé dans le Tigré, zone orientale, district de Wuqro, dans un village nommé Addi Akaweh. L’équipe, dirigée par l’auteur du présent rapport, effectua des fouilles archéologiques sur ce site localement attribué à une reine du nom de “ Ga‘ǝwa”, aussi appelée Yodit or Gudit. Le principal objectif était de tester le potentiel du site dans une perspective d’archéologie préventive, avant son éventuelle destruction pour cause de travaux publics. Dans cette optique, douze tranchées ont été pratiquées. L’équipe a découvert des autels portant des inscriptions pré-aksumites, une statue de femme assise et d’autres monuments., Hiluf Berhe. Preliminary Report on the Archaeological Excavation of Mäqabər Ga‘əwa at Addi Akaweh (Tigrai, Ethiopia). In: Annales d'Ethiopie. Volume 24, année 2009. pp. 15-31.

Even if South Arabian influence is obvious in economy, trade, and social structures in both "pre-Aksumite" and Aksumite civilization, the history of Ethiopia is still misunderstood. Therefore, the archaeological investigations on the site of Wakarida (Tigrai region / Ethiopia) have two major aims: 1/ a contribution to the periodization of the Antiquity in Ethiopia - since no chronological classification of any artefact has been yet established for Ancient Ethiopia; 2/ a study of the evolution of Ancient Ethiopian civilisation and its contacts with other countries, from the Mediterranean Sea to India. The choice of this site is due on one hand to its geographic situation (even if distant of the main axes of circulation already known, it is turned towards the Red Sea), on the other hand to an important chronological sequence that may be obtained according to the already collected pottery on surface. A comparative study has to be carried out especially on potteries coming from various sites, but also on different types of construction, and artefacts. Before any extensive excavation, the archaeological potential of the site as well as its area and its organization had to be assessed as a priority. Specific fieldwork objectives were to implement a sampling design which employed geomantic techniques including GPS (Global Positioning System) and GIS (Geographic Information System) to initiate a more systematic survey which employed specific techniques including geophysical methods. Three test excavations consisting on soundings have been opened, and a few pedestrian surveys have been carried out around the site, in order to recognize the real expansion of the archaeological area, and even other settlements nearby.; Si l'établissement, au Ier siècle de l'ère chrétienne, du royaume d'Aksum sur le plateau du Tigray, dans le nord de l'Éthiopie est assez bien documenté par les sources anciennes auxquelles s'ajoutent quelques inscriptions, la civilisation dite "pré-aksumite", installée entre le VIIIe et le Ve siècle avant l'ère chrétienne, pose aujourd'hui d'importantes questions. Non seulement cette dernière reste mal connue, mais surtout le lien susceptible d'exister entre les deux civilisations n'est pas clairement défini, alors même que l'une et l'autre apparaissent d'une manière ou d'une autre en rapports plus ou moins étroits avec l'Arabie du Sud. L'étude du site de Wakarida, sur les contreforts orientaux du plateau du Tigray, constitue, dans un tel cadre, une première "fenêtre" de réflexion. Son choix repose d'une part sur sa situation géographique, loin des grands axes commerciaux reconnus mais manifestement tourné vers la mer Rouge et par conséquent susceptible d'apporter une autre vision des rapports avec l'Arabie du Sud ; d'autre part - et au vu des éléments repérés au préalable in situ - sur la mise en place sinon d'une séquence stratigraphique importante, du moins des premiers jalons d'un référentiel céramologique et chronologique. Inédit, le site ne pouvait toutefois faire l'objet d'un engagement important sans préalable. Une première campagne a donc été destinée à évaluer son potentiel archéologique et s'est organisée selon trois objectifs : une étude topographique - avec mise en place de repères géographiques -, une étude archéologique - sous la forme de prospections géophysiques et de sondages -, une étude du mobilier céramique - première approche d'une typologie raisonnée.

International audience; Since the 1970s, the so-called “pre-Aksumite” civilisation and Aksum stand in area under discussion since the development of culture in the Ethiopian highlands appears to be, even now, the subject of much debate. What role did Aksum play, when did it emerge to prominence, and what were its relations with the other societies and cultures? And above all, is there any connection between both “pre-Aksumite” and Aksumite civilisations? One of the aims of a short visit in Tigrai region was a general survey of “Pre-Aksumite” and Aksumite sites (Adwa and around, as well as Hawzen, and on the eastern side, the region of Atsbi-Deraʾ and the one of Medri Senafe), in order to estimate the importance of the archaeological evidence. This preliminary survey concentrated on documenting several remains in these regions, some of them first surveyed by Hiluf Berhe (Aksum) and the Tourism and Culture Commission of Tigrai Regional State (TCCTRS, Mekele).; Depuis les années 1970, la civilisation dite « pré-aksumite » et le royaume d’Aksum sont au coeur de tous les débats qui tournent autour du développement de la civilisation des hauts plateaux du nord de l’Éthiopie. Quel rôle a joué Aksum, quand son royaume a-t-il émergé et quels étaient les apports et échanges avec les autres civilisations ? Et surtout, y a-t-il un lien entre la civilisation dite « pré-aksumite » et celle du royaume d’Aksum ?Une première mission de reconnaissance – de courte durée – lancée en 2010 dans la région du Tigray (les régions d’Adwa, Hawzen et Feresmay, ainsi que plus à l’est, celles de Atsbi-Deraʾ et de Medri Senafe), a eu pour objectif notamment d’évaluer le potentiel archéologique en la matière, avec l’aide des dernières prospections menées entre autres par Hiluf Berhe (Aksum) et le Tourism and Culture Commission of Tigrai Regional State (TCCTRS, Mekele) sur les hauts plateaux du Tigray.

Projet franco-éthiopien de recherches archéologiques et épigraphiques dans la région du Tigray (Éthiopie) - périodes pré-aksumite et aksumite - (VIIe siècle av. n.è.-VIIe siècle de n.è.), sous la direction de Iwona Gajda & Fabienne Dugast (UMR " Orient & Méditerranée " / Mondes sémitiques, Paris); Even if South Arabian influence is obvious in economy, trade, and social structures in both "pre-Aksumite" and Aksumite civilization, the history of Ethiopia is still misunderstood. Therefore, the archaeological investigations on the site of Wakarida (Tigrai region / Ethiopia) have two major aims: 1/ a contribution to the periodization of the Antiquity in Ethiopia - since no chronological classification of any artefact has been yet established for Ancient Ethiopia; 2/ a study of the evolution of Ancient Ethiopian civilisation and its contacts with other countries, from the Mediterranean Sea to India. The choice of this site is due on one hand to its geographic situation (even if distant of the main axes of circulation already known, it is turned towards the Red Sea), on the other hand to an important chronological sequence that may be obtained according to the already collected pottery on surface. A comparative study has to be carried out especially on potteries coming from various sites, but also on different types of construction, and artefacts. Before any extensive excavation, the archaeological potential of the site as well as its area and its organization had to be assessed as a priority. Specific fieldwork objectives were to implement a sampling design which employed geomantic techniques including GPS (Global Positioning System) and GIS (Geographic Information System) to initiate a more systematic survey which employed specific techniques including geophysical methods. Three test excavations consisting on soundings have been opened, and a few pedestrian surveys have been carried out around the site, in order to recognize the real expansion of the archaeological area, and even other settlements nearby.; Si l'établissement, au Ier siècle de l'ère chrétienne, du royaume d'Aksum sur le plateau du Tigray, dans le nord de l'Éthiopie est assez bien documenté par les sources anciennes auxquelles s'ajoutent quelques inscriptions, la civilisation dite "pré-aksumite", installée entre le VIIIe et le Ve siècle avant l'ère chrétienne, pose aujourd'hui d'importantes questions. Non seulement cette dernière reste mal connue, mais surtout le lien susceptible d'exister entre les deux civilisations n'est pas clairement défini, alors même que l'une et l'autre apparaissent d'une manière ou d'une autre en rapports plus ou moins étroits avec l'Arabie du Sud. L'étude du site de Wakarida, sur les contreforts orientaux du plateau du Tigray, constitue, dans un tel cadre, une première "fenêtre" de réflexion. Son choix repose d'une part sur sa situation géographique, loin des grands axes commerciaux reconnus mais manifestement tourné vers la mer Rouge et par conséquent susceptible d'apporter une autre vision des rapports avec l'Arabie du Sud ; d'autre part - et au vu des éléments repérés au préalable in situ - sur la mise en place sinon d'une séquence stratigraphique importante, du moins des premiers jalons d'un référentiel céramologique et chronologique. Inédit, le site ne pouvait toutefois faire l'objet d'un engagement important sans préalable. Une première campagne a donc été destinée à évaluer son potentiel archéologique et s'est organisée selon trois objectifs : une étude topographique - avec mise en place de repères géographiques -, une étude archéologique - sous la forme de prospections géophysiques et de sondages -, une étude du mobilier céramique - première approche d'une typologie raisonnée.