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We report the results of a detailed analysis of ostrich eggshell (OES) beads derived mainly from Cultural Layer 2 (CL2) of Locality 2 at the Shuidonggou site (SDG2) in North China, which is dated to ca. 31 ka cal BP. The eggshells belong to the extinct ostrich Struthio anderssoni. Based on microscopic examination, morphometric analysis, and experimental replication, we identify clear differences in morphology, size, technology, and style. Results indicate that the technology of bead making is similar to that used in most Middle and Later Stone Age sites in Africa and recorded ethnographically. Both well-made and poorly-crafted OES beads were produced at SDG2. Drilling experiments conducted in the framework of this study show that hafted stone points were probably used to make the perforations. Only occasionally beads were deliberately polished on inner and outer eggshell surfaces. Beads morphology and technology suggest that distinct types of beads were made by different individual craftspeople. This supports the hypothesis that several human groups visited the Shuidonggou site and used OES beads as an information technology about 31 ka cal BP.

The aim of this study was to develop a detailed and accessible set of reference images of the normal radiographic anatomy of the digits of the ostrich (Struthio camelus), with emphasis on the metatarsophalangeal joint and its arthrography. The distal excised pelvic limbs of 10 normal ostriches of different ages (ranging from 10 to 365 days of age) obtained from an abattoir were radiographed, and 2 arthrograms were performed. To illustrate the normal radiographic anatomy of the tarsometatarsal bone, 39 images were selected, labelled, and presented along with detailed descriptions and corresponding images of the bony skeleton. These results provide a valuable dataset to assist in understanding the normal anatomy of the ostrich metatarsophalangeal joint and digits and allow comparison of abnormal corresponding structures in clinical cases in ostriches.

Ostrich ( Struthio spp.) eggshells are present in archaeological assemblages in many regions of Africa and Asia. However, and unlike other artifacts and ecofacts, there are no standardized guidelines for observing and recording non-ornamental ostrich eggshell. Here, we review prior research that focuses on facets of the taphonomic history of ostrich eggshell assemblages, and we document results from our actualistic studies of the changes in color that occur when ostrich eggshells are heated. We further propose some guidelines for recording ostrich eggshell in archaeological contexts, which include burning categories and quantification methods. These guidelines are intended to facilitate the development of large, comparative, and standardized ostrich eggshell data sets that will contribute to our understanding of site taphonomy and past human behavior.

A specialized region of the bill tip characterized by a complex arrangement of mechanoreceptors and referred to as a bill tip organ, has been identified in numerous avians. A bill tip organ was initially inferred in kiwi species by the presence of numerous, bony pits in the rostrum of the bill, and later confirmed histologically. This study enumerates and compares the number and distribution of pits present in the bill tip in the ostrich and emu. The heads from 10 ostrich and 5 emu were prepared for osteological examination. The pattern and total number of pits was similar between the two species. However, the ostrich had significantly more pits in the regions underlying the Culmen and Gonys, whereas the emu displayed significantly more pits in the dorsal part of the mandibular rostrum. The relatively even distribution of pits in the inner and outer surfaces of both the mandibular and maxillary rostra suggest that the bill tip of the ostrich and emu are equally sensitive externally and intra-orally, as opposed to probing birds, where the major concentration of pits is located on the outer surfaces of the bill tips. The presence of pits in the bill tips of extant paleaognaths may be of relevance in interpreting the pits in the rostra of extinct therapod dinosaurs. The presence of bony pits in a region which is also well supplied with sensory nerves is highly suggestive of a bill tip organ in the ostrich and emu and which needs to be confirmed histologically. Anat Rec, 300:1705-1715, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The effect of heat-treatment on foaming properties of ostrich albumen was investigated. At pH 7.5, coagulation of ovotransferrin (OT) resulted in minimum foaming capacity (FC) and maximum foam density (FD). While both exposure of sulfhydryl groups of ovalbumin (OV) and OT-OV interactions improved FC at lower pH, neither of them had beneficial effect on FC at pH 9. At pH 9, FC and FD were mildly affected by heat-treatment because of less aggregation of OT, then FC decreased due to covalent aggregates composed of ovomucin and OV, but at higher temperatures, higher level of OV unfolding resulted in enhanced FC.

Ostrich farming is an important livestock industry in different world regions with a diverse offer of products and services. In Colombia, as in other countries, this market led the importation of animals from countries like Canada, United States of America and South Africa for breeding objectives. With the animals, specific pathogens for these ratites could be introduced. Libyostrongylus spp. is a strongylid nematode with worldwide distribution, which can induce a severe disease and mortality in infected animals. Limited studies in Colombia have identified parasites in ostrich farming systems. The aim of this study was to identify parasites of the genus Libyostrongylus to a species level in faecal samples from ostrich farms in three departments of Colombia. Five ostrich farms from Boyacá, Meta and Tolima were sampled in 2011 and in 2013 to obtain fresh faecal samples which were further processed by flotation tests for egg visualization and faecal culture for infective larvae identification by morphological and morphometric parameters. One from the five farms, located in Meta department, was positive for strongylid eggs in both sampling periods. After faecal culture, infective larvae were identified as Libyostrongylus douglassii. These results corroborate previous records of Libyostrongylus in ostrich farms from Meta and confirms, for the first time, infection by L. douglassii in ratites from this region. Further studies must identify associated determinants for infection and its effects on the flock health and production.

1. Hatching success of ostrich eggs is poor (50–60% of fertile eggs). The current study was designed to identify the timing of key stages in the development of the ostrich embryo. 2. Growth of both embryo and wing length during 42 d of incubation was comparable and approximately linear, with a more or less weekly doubling in size up to 35 d of incubation. 3. The embryo eye size increased more rapidly than beak length and reached a maximum of ~16.2 mm by 28 d of incubation, whereas beak length increased continuously until hatching at 42 d. 4. Linear regression equations were derived from morphometric measurements of embryos between 7 and 42 d. 5. Information stemming from these results can be used to estimate the age of dead-in-shell embryos in an attempt to identify timing of incubation problems that potentially result in low hatchability of fertile eggs.

Ostrich farming is a new field of livestock production in Egypt and still in its infancy stage in comparison to the poultry industry. Parasitism is considered as a potential health problem hindering the development of ostrich production resulting in economic losses. Feathers and fresh faecal samples were collected from 26 farmed ostriches and examined microscopically for external and internal parasites. Three species of ectoparasites ; Gabucinia bicaudata (3.85%) , Dermoglyphus pachycnemis (3.85%) , Struthiolipeurus struthionis (3.85%) and four species of internal ones; Strongylid egg " Libyostongylus sp. or Codiostomum sp." (3.85%) , Cryptosporidium sp. (15.38%) Eimeria sp. (3.85%) , Balantidium struthionis (7.69%) were recorded and identified. Dermoglyphus pachycnemis was reported for the first time in farmed ostrich in Egypt.

Twelve Mycoplasma (M.) strains isolated from the nose, the trachea, and the lung of ostriches (Struthio camelus) displaying respiratory disease were investigated. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences placed five of these strains within the M. synoviae cluster, and seven strains within the M. hominis cluster of genus Mycoplasma, which was further confirmed by analyses of the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic spacer region, and partial rpoB gene and amino acid sequences. Genomic information as well as phenotypic features obtained by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight (MALDI-ToF) mass spectrometry analysis and serological reactions indicated that the strains examined are representatives of two hitherto unclassified species of genus Mycoplasma, for which the names Mycoplasma nasistruthionis sp. nov., with type strain 2F1AT (= ATCC BAA-1893T = DSM 22456T), and Mycoplasma struthionis sp. nov., with type strain 237IAT (= ATCC BAA-1890T = DSM 22453T), are proposed.

In rapidly growing animals there are numerous selective pressures and developmental constraints underpinning the ontogenetic development of muscle-tendon morphology and mechanical properties. Muscle force generating capacity, tendon stiffness, elastic energy storage capacity and efficiency were calculated from muscle and tendon morphological parameters and in-vitro tendon mechanical properties, obtained from a growth series of ostrich cadavers. Ontogenetic scaling relationships were established using reduced major axis regression analysis. Ostrich pelvic limb muscle mass and cross-sectional area broadly scaled with positive allometry, indicating maintained or relatively greater capacity for maximum isometric force generation in bigger animals. The length of distal limb tendons was found to scale with positive allometry in several tendons associated with antigravity support and elastic energy storage during locomotion. Distal limb tendon stiffness scaled with negative allometry with respect to body mass, with tendons being relatively more compliant in larger birds. Tendon material properties also appeared to be size-dependent, suggesting the relative increased compliance of tendons in larger ostriches is due in part to compensatory distortions in tendon material properties during maturation and development, not simply from ontogenetic changes in tendon geometry. Our results suggest that the previously reported increase in locomotor economy through ontogeny in the ostrich is likely due to greater potential for elastic energy storage with increasing body size. In fact, the rate of this increase may be somewhat greater than the conservative predictions of previous studies thus illustrating the biological importance of elastic tendon structures in adult ostriches.

Ostrich (Struthio camelus) is a species belonging to the Struthionidae family of Struthioniformes order that does not have the flying ability among birds. The aim of this study was to make a subgross investigation on anatomical structures of middle ear in ostrich and to determine the morphometry of the columella. In the present study, 4 adult ostrich heads were used in the study. Tympanic cavity and the formations inside are removed from the skull by protecting the cranial roof. Subgross examinations of tympanic cavity, columella and other anatomic structures were then performed, and morphometric measurements of columella and some anatomical structures were performed using a digital calliper.It was determined that tympanic cavity, surrounded by ear capsule (os oticum), had a conical shape and was covered with mucosa that was tightly adjacent to the periosteum. Tympanic membrane, columella and osteochondral structures, ligaments, a branch of external ophthalmic artery and the presence of chorda tympani were detected in tympanic cavity. It was observed that columella was placed diagonally in tympanic cavity. The vestibular (proximal) end having a circular shape was found to have a large basis and annular ligament which ended up with thickened, small columns. Finally, we demonstrated anatomy and morphometric values of middle ear in ostrich. The anatomy and formations of the middle ear are clearly shown. It can be asserted that anatomical formations in the middle ear of an ostrich are similar to other birds.

With the aim of characterising the different stress patterns in several egg types and evaluating the resistivity of the eggshell while impacting in free fall, experimental tests and computational simulations have been performed on eggs of the species Gallus gallus (domestic hen), Struthio camelus (ostrich), and Testudo sp. (tortoise). The different types of failure were determined for each taxa and stress distribution maps were recorded and correlated between experimental results and simulations using finite element analysis (FEA). For domestic hens, the numerical results obtained in both tests have highly correlation with the results obtained in previous works; for ostrich (S. camelus) and tortoise (Testudo sp.) eggshells, this new data represented a useful tool to understand in further works the failure mechanisms of the eggshells. More interestingly, the present study provides the first empirical and mathematic results that allow confident safety intervals to be established that relate to the laying process in the poultry industry

Contents The effects of three climates (hot and dry, mild and humid and Alpine) and three flock densities ( 300 m2) on ostrich reproductive and productive traits were studied. Data were compared with the benchmark target sets by the World Ostrich Association (Ostrich benchmark Performance Targets. Version 2, May, 2008) for reproductive qualifications of ostrich. No significant difference was observed on egg production, weight, fertility, hatchability and day-old chicks weight among the three climate conditions; however, the Alpine climate had a lower performance trend. Mild and humid climates had a significant effect of age at sexual maturity for both males and females as well as on the duration of egg production season. Stocking density did not show significant difference on egg production, hatchability, age of male and female at sexual maturity and on duration of egg production season, while an area >300 m2 showed a reduction in egg weight and day-old chick weight. Further, an area

This study determined the distribution and specialized morphology (gaps and fenestrations, irregular endothelium, internalization of luminal material) of vessels in the spongy and erectile tissue of the phallus in the ostrich. Specimens from the phallus harvested from 18 sexual mature and active ostriches were utilized. General routine fixation was used for tissue blocks and then they were processed conventionally for observation under the Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM). The spongy tissue in the root of the phallus exhibited several blood vessels (mainly venules) within connective tissue strands. The capillaries displayed thick and attenuated endothelial profiles, whereas the venules were lined with an attenuated endothelium. Both vessel types displayed fenestrations and prominent gaps supported by a continuation of the basal lamina. Numerous cytoplasmic processes extended from the capillary endothelium, in places appearing to enclose and sequestrate luminal contents by phagocytosis. The internalized material appeared in the form of relatively large, pale vesicles. The endothelium was extremely irregular in profile, in some instances appearing to be composed of more than one layer of squamous cells. The erectile tissue lining the phallic sulcus presented relatively few capillaries and venules. These vessels exhibited features similar to those seen in the spongy tissue but the endothelial cells were markedly more complex and irregular in design.

In 2011, the commercial ostrich production industry of South Africa experienced an outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), subtype H5N2. Surveillance using antibody and antigen detection revealed 42 infected farms with a between-farm prevalence in the affected area of 16%. The outbreak was controlled using depopulation of infected farms, resulting in the direct loss of 10% of the country's domestic ostrich population. Various factors in the ostrich production system were observed that could have contributed to the spread of the virus between farms, including the large number of legal movements of ostriches between farms, access of wild birds to ostrich camps and delays in depopulation of infected farms. Negative effects on the ostrich industry and the local economy of the ostrich-producing area were observed as a result of the outbreak and the disease control measures applied. Prevention and control measures applied as a result of avian influenza in South Africa were informed by this large outbreak and the insights into epidemiology of avian influenza in ostriches that it provided, resulting in stricter biosecurity measures required on every registered ostrich farm in the country.

Introduction: Ostrich characteristics include fast running, of which the probable enablers have been studied. Yet little research has taken place on one anatomical feature. It is mainly the special integuments on the ostrich foot which facilitate fast running on sand, because as point of direct sand contact they bear the whole weight and provide all the forward force. This study elucidates aspects of the integuments. Material and Methods: A stereo microscope, scanning electron microscope (SEM), and confocal scanning laser microscope were used to observe these integuments. Their surface structure was shown accurately in photographs. An SEM equipped with energy dispersive spectroscopy was used to check element contents of the upper and bottom areas and those on the lateral area of the 3rd toe. Results: The content of some chemical elements on the upper area (Mg 2.04%, Si 0.18%, P 1.97%, Ca 0.59%, and S 0.69%) was higher than that of the bottom area (Mg 0.14%, Si 0.09%, P 0.10%, Ca 0.28%, and S 0.90%). Zinc was the particular element on the upper area, while sodium, chlorine, and potassium were the specific elements on the bottom area. The parts which must withstand different frictions contained different chemical compounds. Conclusion: The microscopic plane with layer-like structure and stripes may contribute to the wear-resistance of the papillae. The polygonal and prism structures are helpful to fix papillae in a firmer way.

A recently discovered articulated partial skeleton of Ornithomimus from the Upper Cretaceous Dinosaur Park Formation of Alberta, Canada is remarkable in the extent and quality of preservation of integumentary structures including feathers. It is the first ornithomimid to preserve a tail bearing extensive plumaceous feathers that are slightly more elongate in comparison to those present on the remainder of the body. However, the underside of the tail and the hind limb distal to the middle of the femur appear devoid of plumage. Overall, the plumage pattern in Ornithomimus is similar to that of Struthio camelus (ostrich) and other large palaeognaths, indicating a probable function in thermoregulation. The specimen also preserves the body outline around the legs, including a skin contour anterior to the femur, analogous to skin webs in extant birds. Whereas the knee web of birds bridges the knee to the abdomen, in Ornithomimus it spans from the mid-femoral shaft to the abdomen, and is herein referred to as an anterior femoral web. This is the first report of such soft tissue structures in non-avian theropods. It may indicate that the resting position of the femur was positioned more anteroventrally in ornithomimids than in most theropods, and in that sense may have been transitional to the situation in modern birds.

The hyoid bone of the ostrich was divided into two parts; basihyoid and horns. The basihyoid consisted of three components; paraglossal, basihayle and urohyale. The paraglossal was unpaired,lay within the tongue parenchyma.On the other hand; the basihaylewas flat and octagonalcontinuing caudally by urohyale, which was stick like, compressed laterally.It reached at the first six trachea ringslevel. On the other hand, the horns included two pairs: ceratobranchiale and epibranchiale. The ceratobranchiale horn was ossified, concave and the longest one. It had bulges extremities for articulates with the basihayle proximally and epibranchiale horn distally, while the epibranchiale horn was cartilagenous structure, shorter than the ceratobranchiale and its end was tapered. The hyoid bone of the ostrich was firmly attached to the tongue, larynx,trachea and the cervical muscculature tissue and all underlying structures by the connective tissue.

Intensification of ostrich farming revealed that egg hatchability was remarkably lower than the wild. This review considers the factors leading to, as pertaining to the ostrich, egg and incubator. Ostrich genotype, age, season and congenital problems affect clutch and egg sizes and egg quality- fertility to lead a successful hatch. Egg treatment prior incubation can later reduce hatchability, affected by storage conditions and duration. Most detrimental factors lie in the incubator and hatcher management. Egg correct positioning and turning in the appropriate incubator humidity and temperature are likely to yield high hatch. Variability in egg size, shell quality, pore sizes and numbers govern the water loss and exchange of gases. The hatcher management is important when chicks need intervention. Dead-in-shell embryos, early or late were likely to be affected by all of the above factors plus egg microbial contamination or be merely nutritional.Int J Appl Sci Biotechnol, Vol 3(4): 566-578

The ostrich is the largest living bird and has unique characteristics in its locomotor system that differentiate it from other bird species. The purpose of this study was to provide a reference atlas of reference-interval computed tomography (CT) and cross-sectional anatomy of the tarsometatarsal region and digits in the ostrich (Struthio camelus). The pelvic limbs of 25 ostriches were used for this imaging study. The transverse CT images were obtained from the middle third of the tarsometatarsal bone to the distal end of the third digit. The specimens were frozen and sectioned with an electric band saw at 1.5-2 cm intervals. The CT images were compared with the corresponding frozen cross sections. The bones, ligaments, and tendons were identified and labeled at each 1.5-2 cm intervals. The CT images provided anatomic details of the tendons and ligaments in the tarsometatarsal region and digits of the ostrich. The transverse CT images provided an excellent depiction of the anatomic structures of the leg and foot when compared with the corresponding frozen cross sections. The information presented in this study may be used as an initial reference when evaluating the CT images of an ostrich's tarsometatarsal region and digits. Moreover, the information provided in this report may be helpful in determining definitive diagnoses of musculoskeletal disorders affecting the lower leg in this species.

The study contains the description of the ostrich fat by estimating the chemical content, which included moisture, protein, fat, ash, cholesterol, minerals and lipid-soluble vitamins, including vitamin (E andA) and the estimation of lipoproteins. Chemical properties were also studied which include peroxide value (PV), free fatty acids (FFA), saponification number (SN), iodine number and Physical properties include viscosity, density and specific gravity, refractive index, melting point and ester value (EV). Fatty acids were identified by using gas chromatography (GC). The results showed the percentage of moisture, protein, fat and ash were 5.56%, 5.16%, 87.88% and 1.03%, respectively. The mineral includes sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, iron and selenium reach to 8.5, 2.5, 40.11, 12.96, 78.6, 0.532 and 7.86 ppm respectively, cholesterol content was 50.63 mg / 100 g, vitamins content A and E was recorded 72.13 and 91.30 mg / ml respectively. The fat has good chemical and physical properties, such as viscosity, density and specific gravity, refractive index, melting point, saponification number, iodine number and ester value. While the results of lipoproteins in the ostrich fat HDL was 65 mg / dl, LDL 52 mg / dl and VLDL 35 mg / dl and triglycerides reach to 75 mg / dl. The peroxide number was 0.86 equivalent Meq O2 / Kg, and the percentage of the free fat acids reach to 0.38%. The fatty acid compassion was analyzed by gas chromatography (GC) and also showed nine saturated and unsaturated fatty acids including oleic acid, palmitic acid, arachidonic acid, erucic acid, heneicosanoic acid, undecanoic acid, lauric acid, caproic acid and myristic acid.

Background Libyostrongylus douglassii, Libyostrongylus dentatus and Libyostrongylus magnus are nematodes that infect ostriches. The first species has been identified in ostriches from Africa, Europe, Americas and Oceania. Although the natural range of ostriches is Africa, L. dentatus was first described in birds from the USA and later identified in Brazil, where co-infections with L. douglassii have been commonly reported. Libyostrongylus magnus is known from the original description only. There are a few reports on infections with L. douglassii in ostriches from Africa and all farmed birds examined are from the southern region of the continent. The aim of this report was to verify Libyostrongylus spp. infections in wild ostriches from Ethiopia. Fecal samples from ostriches, Struthio molybdophanes, were collected and submitted to coproculture. Infective larvae were identified to the species level based on general morphology and morphometry. In addition, phylogenetic analysis of the first and second internal transcribed spacer (ITS1 and ITS2) of the nuclear ribosomal DNA was performed. Results Infective larvae from Ethiopian ostriches had the morphological characteristics of L. dentatus. Confidence interval estimate for sheath tail length from Ethiopian Libyostrongylus sp. isolates overlapped one for Brazilian L. dentatus. Neighbor-joining and Maximum Likelihood phylogenetic trees based on sequences of the ITS1 and ITS2 regions revealed that the Ethiopian samples belong to the L. dentatus species clade. Monospecific infections with L. dentatus were confirmed in Ethiopian wild ostriches, opposed to the co-infections typically found in the Americas. Conclusions To our knowledge, this is the first record of L. dentatus from African ostriches, the region from which this parasite originated.

The development of gut microbiota during ontogeny in vertebrates is emerging as an important process influencing physiology, immune system, health, and adult fitness. However, we have little knowledge of how the gut microbiome is colonised and develops in non-model organisms, and to what extent microbial diversity and specific taxa influence changes in fitness-related traits. Here, we used 16S rRNA gene sequencing to describe the successional development of the faecal microbiota in juvenile ostriches (Struthio camelus; n = 71) over their first three months of life, during which time a five-fold difference in weight was observed. We found a gradual increase in microbial diversity with age, an overall convergence in community composition among individuals, multiple colonisation and extinction events, and major taxonomic shifts coinciding with the cessation of yolk absorption. In addition, we discovered significant but complex associations between juvenile growth and microbial diversity, and identified distinct bacterial groups that had positive (Bacteroidaceae) and negative (Enterobacteriaceae, Enterococcaceae, Lactobacillaceae) correlations with the growth of individuals at specific ages. These results have broad implications for our understanding of the development of gut microbiota and its association with juvenile growth.

H9N2 subtype avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have been isolated from various species of wild birds and domestic poultry in the world, and occasionally transmitted to humans. Although H9N2 AIVs are seldom isolated from ostriches, seven such strains were isolated from sick ostriches in China between 2013 and 2014. Sequence analysis showed several amino acid changes relating to viral adaptation in mammals were identified. The phylogenetic analyses indicated that these isolates were quadruple reassortant viruses, which are different from the early ostrich isolates from South Africa or Israel. Most of the ostrich virus carried a human-type receptor-binding property. The chicken experiments showed the ostrich strains displayed low pathogenicity, while they could cause mild to severe symptoms in chicken. Theses strains could efficiently transmit among chickens, and one strain showed higher transmissibility. The virus could not kill mice, and merely replicated in the lung of mice. The ostrich strains could not efficiently transmit between guinea pigs in the direct contact model. These results suggested we should pay attention to the interface between ostrich and other domestic fowl, and keep an eye on this population when monitoring of influenza virus.

Forty-eight 3-month old African ostrich females were divided into four groups: control and 3 experimental comprising 12 animals each. All the animals were fed the adopted diet and the experimental groups additionally received a feed supplement based on shell rock and bentonite, at a rate of 5 g/kg, 10 g/kg and 15 g/kg, respectively, for 9 months. At the beginning and the end of the experiment blood samples were collected for hematological and biochemical analyses. At the end of the experiment, 3 ostriches from each group were slaughtered and the quality of their meat was examined. At 12 months of age the weight of the birds in the experimental groups was significantly higher (P≤0.05) in comparison to the control group, by 11 kg, 13.3 kg or 16.4 kg, respectively. During the experiment, an increase in the number of red blood cells, leukocytes and hemoglobin was recorded, however all tested hematological parameters remained within the range of physiological values. The biochemical blood parameters in all groups of ostriches did not change significantly at the beginning and the end of experiment. However, the levels of total protein, glucose, Ca and P in the experimental groups showed an upward trend in correlation with the dosage of the tested feed additive. Feed additive contributed to a change in the chemical composition and biological value of the meat. In comparison with the control group, an increase in ash, fat, protein and energy content, the level of mineral elements and vitamins in the meat of the experimental ostriches was noted, in a reliable dependence on the inclusion rate of the feed additive (P≤0.05). We concluded that the use of feed additive positively affects body mass and hematological blood parameters, as well as the nutritional and biological value of ostrich meat., Četrdeset i osam crnih afričkih nojeva, ženki u dobi od tri mjeseca podijeljeno je u četiri skupine. U kontrolnoj i tri pokusne skupine bilo je po 12 životinja. Kontrolna (ili prva) skupina hranjena je prilagođenim obrokom, dok su pokusne skupine, druga, treća i četvrta, dodatno primale dodatak hrani, mješavinu ljuski stijena i bentonita u dozama od 5 g/kg, 10 g/kg ili 15 g/kg tijekom 9 mjeseci. Na početku i na kraju pokusa uzimani su uzorci krvi za hematološke i biokemijske analize. Na kraju pokusa po 3 noja iz svake skupine je žrtvovano te je pretražena kakvoća njihova mesa. U dobi od 12 mjeseci u svim je skupinama utvrđeno značajno povećanje tjelesne mase: tjelesna masa ptica u pokusnim skupinama bila je značajno viša (P≤0,05), i to za 11 kg u drugoj skupini, za 13,3 kg u trećoj skupini i za 16,4 kg u četvrtoj skupini, u usporedbi s kontrolnom skupinom. Tijekom pokusa opažen je porast brojnosti eritrocita, leukocita te koncentracije hemoglobina, ali su ti, kao i ostali testirani hematološki pokazatelji, bili unutar fizioloških vrijednosti. Biokemijski krvni pokazatelji u svim skupinama nojeva nisu se značajno mijenjali na početku ni na kraju pokusa. No, razine ukupnih proteina, glukoze, Ca i P, pokazivale su rastući trend u svim pokusnim skupinama u korelaciji s dozom testiranog dodatka hrani. Dodatak hrani utjecao je na promjene u kemijskom sastavu i biološkoj vrijednosti mesa. U usporedbi s kontrolnom skupinom, zabilježen je porast u sadržaju pepela, masti, proteina i energije te u razini minerala, vitamina i nekih aminokiselina u mesu pokusnih nojeva, u postojanoj ovisnosti o udjelu dodatka hrani (P≤0,05). Zaključili smo da je uporaba dodatka hrani povoljno utjecala na rast, hematološke pokazatelje krvi, kao i na nutritivnu i biološku vrijednost mesa nojeva.

Nematodes of the Libyostrongylus genus are hematophagous parasites found under the ostrich's proventriculus membrane: they are frequent and can cause 50% of mortality in chicks and occasionally death in adults. With the aim of determining the presence of the Libyostrongylus genus in two private collections, one located in Ayapango, State of Mexico and the other in Amacuzac, Morelos, a total of 27 fecal samples were collected between August and December of 2016. Samples were analyzed using the flotation technique. The eggs were quantified using the McMaster technique. Positive samples were cultured to obtain infective larvae and to be identified by their morphometric characteristics. Only 18 samples collected in Ayapango were positive to Libyostrongylus douglassii. This is the first time that L. douglassii is reported in Mexico.

The behavioural patterns of six captive ostriches (Struthio camelus) were studied at Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Bachok Campus between July and September 2014. The main purpose of the study was to determine the behavioural patterns of ostriches in captivity to provide the useful information for better management action. The ostriches were observed daily for 11 hours from 0700 hrs until 1800 hrs for 45 days by using the focal sampling technique. Six categories of behavioural patterns were observed namely resting, locomotion, ingestive, comfort, aggression and thermoregulation. The highest behaviour observed was walking compared to other behaviours, while the lowest was running. The result of the study showed a significant difference of behavioural patterns of captive ostriches between different observational periods except for locomotion and aggression behaviours. The finding of the study showed that ostriches reared in captivity possessed similar behavioural patterns to those remaining in the wild, although some captive circumstances imposed minor differences.

This study, facilitated by the use of immunohistochemistry, indicated the presence of taste buds in Dromaius novaehollandiae but not in Struthio camelus. Seen at the light microscope level, the taste buds consisted of follicular cells and receptor cells. The follicular cells were located at the periphery of the taste bud, essentially encapsulating the receptor cells. Two morphologically distinct receptor cells were identified. Immunohistochemical labelling for neurofilament identified gustatory nerves within the taste bud. The distribution of taste buds in D. novaehollandiae matched strategic locations in the oropharynx along which food could be sampled, according to the feeding method described for these birds. Future feeding studies would be necessary in D. novaehollandiae to determine the importance of taste discrimination in their diet. This study represents the first confirmed report of a sense of taste in any ratite species.

Biomineralization is the process by which living organisms produce minerals. One remarkable example is the formation of eggshells in birds. Struthiocalcins present in the ostrich (Struthio camellus) eggshell matrix act as biosensors of calcite growth during eggshell formation. Here, the crystal structure of struthiocalcin-1 (SCA-1) is reported in two different crystal forms. The structure is a compact single domain with an α/β fold characteristic of the C-type lectin family. In contrast to the related avian ovocleidin OC17, the electrostatic potential on the molecular surface is dominated by an acidic patch. Scanning electron microscopy combined with Raman spectroscopy indicates that these intramineral proteins (SCA-1 and SCA-2) induce calcium carbonate precipitation, leading to the formation of a stable form of calcite in the mature eggshell. Finally, the implications of these two intramineral proteins SCA-1 and SCA-2 in the nucleation of calcite during the formation of eggshells in ratite birds are discussed.

Ostriches (Struthio camelus) are herbivorous birds with a digestive physiology that shares several similarities with that of herbivorous mammals. Previous reports, however, claimed a very low methane emission from ostriches, which would be clearly different from mammals. If this could be confirmed, ostrich meat would represent a very attractive alternative to ruminant—and generally mammalian—meat by representing a particularly low-emission agricultural form of production. We individually measured, by chamber respirometry, the amount of oxygen consumed as well as carbon dioxide and methane emitted from six adult ostriches (body mass 108.3 ± 8.3 kg) during a 24-hour period when fed a pelleted lucerne diet. While oxygen consumption was in the range of values previously reported for ostriches, supporting the validity of our experimental setup, methane production was, at 17.5 ± 3.2 L d− 1, much higher than previously reported for this species, and was of the magnitude expected for similar-sized, nonruminant mammalian herbivores. These results suggest that methane emission is similar between ostriches and nonruminant mammalian herbivores and that the environmental burden of these animals is comparable. The findings furthermore indicate that it appears justified to use currently available scaling equations for methane production of nonruminant mammals in paleo-reconstructions of methane production of herbivorous dinosaurs.

Avian eggshells serve the dual purposes of protecting the developing embryo from the external environment while also facilitating the loss of water vapor and the required exchange of CO2 and O2 gases. Pores that span the eggshell enable the loss of water and trans-shell gas exchange. Although knowledge of the geometry of these spaces is necessary to generate accurate estimates of the rate of gas diffusion across the shell, few techniques exist to obtain these data. Estimates of gas conductance across eggshells are typically calculated from eggshell thickness and the size and number of the pores on the exterior eggshell surface; the trans-shell pore spaces are assumed to be cylindrical in shape. To enable the testing of this assumption, we devised a novel method to visualize the three-dimensional morphology of eggshell pores using PU4ii, a polyurethane-based resin. Casts of the pores of eggshells of the domestic chicken (Gallus gallus )a nd House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) were unbranched and varied in diameter throughout their length, while casts of the pores of eggshells of the Ostrich (Struthio camelus) revealed a complex network of interconnected spaces. The simplicity of this technique and the stability and resilience of the resulting casts provide opportunities to predict gas flux across the shell and to evaluate the morphology of eggshell pores among birds from different taxonomic groups.

The distribution of Herbst corpuscles in the oropharynx of the ostrich and emu has recently been documented. However, although the morphology of these mechanoreceptors is well known in neognathous birds, little structural information is available on the Herbst corpuscles of ratites. Tissue sections from those regions of the oropharynx known to possess a high concentration of Herbst corpuscles were sampled from ostrich and emu heads collected after slaughter and prepared for light and transmission electron microscopy. Intra-oral Herbst corpuscles in the ostrich and emu displayed the same basic components (capsule, outer zone, inner core and axon) described in neognathous birds. However, some important differences were observed, notably, the presence of myofibroblasts in the capsule, sensory cilia in cells of the outer layers, a relatively larger, less organized outer zone and narrower inner core, and variations in the shape of the axon. The previously unreported presence of myofibroblasts in the capsule possibly indicates its ability to contract, thus altering the tension of the capsule, which in turn has implications for the conduction of vibrational stimuli. The sensory cilia in the myofibroblasts of the capsule bordering the outer zone, and in the fibroblasts of the outer zone itself, may play a regulatory role in controlling the contraction of the capsule. Such a function has not previously been reported for Herbst corpuscles in any species of bird. Anat Rec, 298:783–796, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Commercial ostrich farming is constrained by the absence of a formal animal recording and evaluation scheme as well as by current farming practices. Artificial insemination may have an important role in overcoming these limitations, but requires a thorough knowledge of sperm morphology. Although the morphological characteristics of normal ostrich sperm have been documented, little information is available on the incidence and structural peculiarities of defective sperm in this species. Semen smears were prepared from the ejaculates of five ostriches (Struthio camelus), stained and evaluated. Defects were observed in 17% of sperm studied. Tail defects constituted the most common anomaly. Various forms of bending were the main tail defect, ranging from gentle to acute bends of the principal piece, Dag-like coiling at the head base, sharp reflexes of the midpiece as well as coiling of the endpiece. In contrast, head defects were comparatively low in frequency, with macrocephalic sperm being the defect most frequently observed in this region. Bent, microcephalic, acephalic and round sperm heads were also noted but were few in number. Cytoplasmic droplets occurred frequently in the fixed smears, either associated with the sperm or as free-lying droplets. A small percentage of sperm with multiple defects was recorded. The incidence of morphologically normal sperm in ostrich semen compared favorably with that reported in emu semen, another commercially farmed ratite. However, the range of defects differed appreciably between the two species. Sperm tail anomalies were the most frequent category in the ostrich, whereas head defects comprised the main grouping in the emu.

The subdivisions of the trigeminal nerve (N. ophthalmicus R. medialis and N. intramandibularis) innervating the upper and lower bill tip, respectively, were well developed in both the ostrich and emu and displayed extensive branching. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that both nerves displayed features typical of a mixed, peripheral nerve. Nerve fibre size in the ostrich and emu was larger than that reported in domestic poultry. There were a significantly higher number of myelinated nerve fibres in the N. ophthalmicus R. medialis in the emu by comparison with the same nerve in the ostrich, or by comparison with the N. intramandibularis of either species. As myelinated nerve fibres supply Herbst corpuscles, and these structures have been demonstrated in this region in these two species, this may indicate that the upper bill of the emu is more sensitive to vibrational stimuli than the upper bill of the ostrich or the lower bill of both species. The large size of the nerve fibres, the high nerve fibre count and the particular distribution of the nerves in the bill tip support the existence of a well-developed sensory area in this region of the ostrich and emu.

Information on feather and skin growth is important for the development of mathematical optimisation nutritional models for ostriches. Ostriches (n = 65) were subjected to a four-stage formulated growth diet programme (pre-starter, starter, grower and finisher), with declining protein and energy content. Nine birds were weighed, stunned, exsanguinated, defeathered, skinned and eviscerated at 1, 54, 84, 104, 115, 132 and 287 days of age. Feathers from four pre-selected locations on the body were harvested and weighed. The wet skin weight, wet unstretched skin size and wet unstretched crown size were measured at each slaughter stage. The live weight, feather and skin yields of the birds increased with age at slaughter, as did feather shaft diameter. Prediction models were developed to estimate the yield of the skin in terms of live weight and of empty body protein weight to aid in diet formulation. The allometry of feather growth was determined from total feather weight, as the maturation rates of the feathers differ from that of the ostrich body. Results from this study will aid in setting up a mathematical optimisation nutritional model for ostriches.

The objective of this study was to investigate the morphological features of the proventriculus of African ostrich (Struthio camelus). The location, appearance, and histological characteristics of the proventriculus were observed on postnatal day 90. The entire proventriculus had the appearance of a distensible sac; and exhibited a large number of glands. Under light microscope, the proventriculus wall was composed of mucosa, submucosa, muscular layer and adventitia. The mucosa was further divided into the lamina epithelialis, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae. The submucosa was relatively thick and contained compound tubular glands having oxynticopeptic cells, mucous cells, and endocrine cells. These features of the proventriculus are possibly related to the dietary habits of the African ostrich, and they imply that this specie has a strong ability to digest and absorb food.

Flexor tendons function as energy storage and shock absorption structures in the tarsometatarso-phalangeal joint (TMTPJ) of ostrich feet during high-speed and heavy-load locomotion. In this study, mechanisms underlying the energy storage and shock absorption of three flexor tendons of the third toe were studied using histology and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Macroscopic and microscopic structures of the flexor tendons in different positions of TMTPJ were analyzed. Histological slices showed collagen fiber bundles of all flexor tendons in the middle TMTPJ were arranged in a linear-type, but in the proximal and distal TMTPJ, a wavy-type arrangement was found in the tendon of the M. flexor digitorum longus and tendon of the M. flexor perforans et perforatus digiti III, while no regular-type was found in the tendon of the M. flexor perforatus digiti III. SEM showed that the collagen fiber bundles of flexor tendons were arranged in a hierarchically staggered way (horizontally linear-type and vertically linear-type). Linear-type and wavy-type both existed in the proximal TMTPJ for the collagen fiber bundles of the tendon of the M. flexor perforatus digiti III, but only the linear-type was found in the distal TMTPJ. A number of fibrils were distributed among the collagen fiber bundles, which were likely effective in connection, force transmission and other functions. The morphology and arrangement of collagen fiber bundles were closely related to the tendon functions. We present interpretations of the biological functions in different positions and types of the tendons in the TMTPJ of the ostrich feet.

The columella auris of the ostrich is derived as in the crocodile from three sources; the two upper segments of the hyoid arch (pharyngohyal and epihyal) and a laterohyal component. The latter contributes the homologue of the crocodilian suprastapedial (or lacertilian intercalary) as well as the tympanic process and the material of the lateral limb (which is not lacking as stated in the literature) of the lateral prong (supracolumellar arcade). Conditions in Struthio camelus confirm the views expressed by the authors in their paper on Crocodilus niloticus regarding the homologies of the columellar processes. The avian infracolumellar process represents the crocodilian infrastapedial plus the interhyal which in addition to primary arch material, includes a secondary subepidermal part. The ceratohyal (usually called stylohyal in the literature) remains attached to the columella through the infracolumellar process.

Ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis of extinct ratite species is of considerable interest as it provides important insights into their origin, evolution, paleogeographical distribution and vicariant speciation in congruence with continental drift theory. In this study, DNA hotspots were detected in fossilized eggshell fragments of ratites (dated ≥25000 years B.P. by radiocarbon dating) using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). DNA was isolated from five eggshell fragments and a 43 base pair (bp) sequence of a 16S rRNA mitochondrial-conserved region was successfully amplified and sequenced from one of the samples. Phylogenetic analysis of the DNA sequence revealed a 92% identity of the fossil eggshells to Struthio camelus and their position basal to other palaeognaths, consistent with the vicariant speciation model. Our study provides the first molecular evidence for the presence of ostriches in India, complementing the continental drift theory of biogeographical movement of ostriches in India, and opening up a new window into the evolutionary history of ratites.

1. Feeding costs are the largest expense in an ostrich production system, and protein is one of the more expensive components of the diet. This study evaluated the growth response of ostrich chicks on diets containing different concentrations of protein (amino acids). The diets were formulated to contain three concentrations of protein (one diet with 20% less protein than the conventional concentration, L; one diet with the conventional concentration of protein, M and one diet with 20% more protein than the conventional concentration, H) for each of the phase diets. The phase diets were pre-starter, starter, grower and finisher. 2. This study includes the analysis of ostrich body weight (BW) by modelling growth with linear polynomial and non-linear functions for all the data not separated for treatments. In total, 3378 BW recordings of 90 animals were collected weekly from hatch (d 0) to 287 d (41 weeks) of age. 3. Seven non-linear growth models and three linear polynomial models were fitted to the data. The growth functions were compared by using Akaike's information criterion (AIC). For the non-linear models, the Bridges and Janoschek models had the lowest AIC values for the H treatment, while the Richards curve had the lowest value for M and the von Bertalanffy for the L treatment. 4. For the linear polynomial models, the linear polynomial of the third degree had the lowest AIC values for all three treatments, thus making it the most suitable model for the data; therefore, the predictions of this model were used to interpret the growth data. Significant differences were found between treatments for growth data. 5. The results from this study can aid in describing the growth of ostriches subjected to optimum feeding conditions. This information can also be used in research when modelling the nutrient requirements of growing birds.

Herbst corpuscles are widely distributed throughout the oropharynx of the ostrich and emu in contrast to the general situation in birds. Knowledge of the comparative distribution of Herbst corpuscles in the oropharynx of these two commercially important ratite species may assist in a better understanding of their feeding habits. Tissue sections representing all parts of the oropharynx of five ostrich and five emu heads collected after slaughter were prepared for light microscopy, the Herbst corpuscles counted, and the relative percentage of corpuscles calculated for defined anatomical regions. Herbst corpuscles were more widespread in the oropharynx of the emu (where they were additionally found in the tongue and laryngeal mound) than in the ostrich but were absent from the pharyngeal folds in both species. The results further indicated that Herbst corpuscles were strategically located to aid in the handling and transport of food. In this context, the high concentration of Herbst corpuscles in the prominent median palatine and ventral ridges in the ostrich denote these structures as sensory organs, namely the palatal and interramal organs. The presence of these sensory organs, coupled with the higher relative percentage of Herbst corpuscles located on the rostral oropharyngeal floor, indicate that the part of the oropharynx caudal to the mandibular and maxillary rostra forms an important sensory region in the ostrich. Additionally, species-specific concentrations of Herbst corpuscles within the oropharynx were identified which appear to assist in the accurate positioning of the tongue and laryngeal mound for cleaning the choana (internal nares) after swallowing.

The paper presents the results of investigation of the amount of biogenic nutrients in the blood of the African Ostrich (Struthio camelus) fed low mineral content diets in the temperate continental climate in the western region of Ukraine. Blood samples were taken from the wing vein. The serum of males of about two years of age was used for analysis. In the study area, Struthio camelus were bred in an intensive manner, where the birds were in limited areas with free access outside. The amount of minerals in the feed strongly affected the level of biogenic nutrients in blood. The study of haematological parameters of trace minerals in the blood of African Ostriches is of great diagnostic value in determining the internal changes and pathological diagnosis of defects in the organism.