Search

Summary This paper analyzes the effect of firm and other characteristics on the incidence and intensity of improved financial performance among non-farm microenterprises in Ghana, using data from the 1998/1999 Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS 4). The results indicate that firm characteristics, including urban and regional location, significantly affect the incidence and intensity of improved performance, but entrepreneurial characteristics are unimportant. The firm’s capital stock does not affect the propensity and intensity of better performance, reflecting that the value of assets owned is low and insufficient to have a measurable impact on enterprise productivity and performance.

The paper explores the use of multi-item summated scales for the measurement of the perceived performance of the food system and of an index to measure consumer food-related welfare. Scales are developed that encompass a range of factors that influence the welfare consumers derive from food, including food safety, convenience, ethical issues, health and nutrition, taste and cost. These scales are applied to a national sample of food consumers in the United States and the United Kingdom. On the basis of the survey results, there is evidence that the scales are both reliable and valid measures of the perceived performance of the food system in both countries. An index of consumer food-related welfare is developed that weights the various performance measures according to respondents' measure of importance. Survey respondents judge that the food system is not performing particularly well in either country. Although more work is required on the use of summated multi-item scales for this purpose, the results suggest that this is a potentially useful approach that provides relevant information on the impact of different elements of the food system on consumer welfare.

The paper employs structural equation modelling to explore the process by which consumers assess the safety of beef at the point of purchase. The data employed in the analysis are collected through a telephone survey in six European Union member states. The results indicate differences in the process by which the safety of beef is assessed by consumers between the study countries. The implications of the results for policy within the European Union are discussed.

The costs associated with gastrointestinal infection (GI) in the province of British Columbia, Canada, were estimated using data from a population-based survey in three health service delivery areas, namely Vancouver, East Kootenay and Northern Interior. The number of cases of disease, consequent expenditure of resources and associated economic costs were modeled as probability distributions in a stochastic model. Using 2004 prices, the estimated mean annual cost per capita of gastrointestinal infection was CAN$128.61 (207.96 euros), with a mean annual cost per case of CAN$1,342.57 (2,170.99 euros). The mean estimate of the overall economic burden to British Columbia was CAN$514.2 million (831.5 million euros) (95% CFI CAN$161.0 million to CAN$5.8 billion; 260.3 million euros to 9.38 billion euros). The major element of this cost was the loss of productivity associated with time away from paid employment by both the sick and their caregivers. Sensitivity analysis suggested that the uncertainty associated with the base model assumptions did not significantly affect the estimates. The results are comparable to those obtained in an earlier study using a similar analytical framework and data from the city of Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.

This research seeks to identify consumer segments related to consumption of functional food and nutraceutical products in Canada. The segments are differentiated by consumer receptivity to functional foods and nutraceuticals. In turn, receptivity is tied to attitudes, motivations and knowledge related to food/diet and connections with health. At one extreme, a segment emerges that is highly receptive to functional foods and nutraceuticals, and shows a keen interest in learning about foods that have health benefits. A second segment, conversely, has low receptivity, but demonstrates a higher degree of knowledge related to the relationship between food/diet and health. A key driver of receptivity towards functional foods and nutraceuticals appears to be perceptions of disease threat, which tend to increase with age. Pre-emptive use of messages relating to the preventative properties of these products does not seem to have a major impact on the receptivity of consumers.

This paper reports the results of a study of the propensity of male consumers to consume functional food and/or nutraceutical products containing lycopene as a means to reduce the risk of prostate cancer. The analysis uses protection motivation theory (PMT) to understand the key determinants of consumption behaviour of three products namely, a non-prescription pill, tomato juice and a snack bar. Data are collected through face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire elicited in a shopping mall in Guelph, Ontario, Canada and estimated through probit models. Results suggest that the elements of threat and coping appraisal are significant explanators of the propensity to purchase each of the three product variants. The PMT variables, age and knowledge of health and/or nutrition are significant explanatory variables, the latter of which diminishes the propensity to purchase products containing lycopene as a means to reduce the risk of prostate cancer.

Factors influencing the development and commercialization of functional food and nutraceutical (FFN) products are explored. Count data models are developed to relate firm, market, and regulatory covariates to the number of FFN product lines firms have under development, on the market, and in total. Canadian firm-level innovation data were taken from Statistics Canada (2003) Functional Food and Nutraceutical Survey. Firms involved in product development/scale-up had more product lines in total and on the market. Firms with a strong and positive perception of the impact of regulatory reform related to generic health claims and harmonization of Canadian regulations with U.S. regulations had fewer product lines in total and on the market. Firms with more positive perceptions of the business impact of structure and function health claims had more product lines on the market. One implication of the study is the importance of developing policies and reforming regulations which better enable use of generic health claims on FFN products. Further, policies which better enable or foster development/scale-up of product lines would increase the Canadian FFN sector's ability to develop new products. [EconLit: O130, L500, Q180]. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

China’s rapid ascent into the ranks of the global economic powers generally elicits marvel at its fortitude and doggedness, and also engenders concerns over the costs for the people, land and other natural resources that undergird this growth. This is particularly so as China extends its economic and political reach beyond its borders and to ever more distant regions. Perhaps nowhere do such attitudes converge so starkly, but also where ambivalence is compounded so immeasurably, as in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

This article presents the results of stage-one of a two-stage program of research study to identify the factors motivating adoption of enhanced food safety controls in the red meat and poultry processing enterprises in Canada. The results are reported in the form of illustrative quotations drawn from the in-depth interviews (n = 34) with food safety and quality assurance managers of these firms operate in Ontario. It highlights that decisions at the level of the firm are complex and motivated by a number of market-based, regulatory and liability incentives, and the impact of each incentive on the adoption of food safety controls highly depend on the characteristics of the firm and the market where it operate in. It emphasizes the importance of adopting an ‘‘incentive-based regulatory approach’’ in the Canadian food processing industry. � 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

This study explores the association between the adoption of food safety and quality assurance practices in the Canadian food processing sector and firm characteristics. A conceptual model is developed recognizing that the relative importance of a firm's incentives to adopt enhanced food safety and quality assurance practices is influenced by the firm's characteristics and activities. Binomial logit models are estimated to explore the association between adoption of various combinations of food safety and quality assurance practices including hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP). The findings show that the adoption of food safety and quality practices varies widely between individual firms according to, among others, firm size, country of ownership and control, level of innovativeness, level of export orientation, forms of food safety inspection, and the subsector in which the firm operates. Incentives of being able to access foreign markets play an important role in influencing HACCP adoption. La presente etude analyse le lien entre l'adoption de pratiques visant la salubrite et l'assurance de la qualite des aliments au sein de l'industrie canadienne de la transformation et les caracteristiques des entreprises. Nous avons elabore un modele conceptuel reconnaissant que l'importance relative des incitatifs qui motivent une entreprise a adopter des pratiques ameliorees en matiere de salubrite et d'assurance de la qualite des aliments est influencee par les caracteristiques et les activites de l'entreprise. Nous avons estime des modeles logit binomiaux pour examiner le lien entre l'adoption de diverses combinaisons de pratiques visant la salubrite et l'assurance de la qualite des aliments, y compris les systemes HACCP (analyse des risques et maitrise des points critiques). Les resultats ont montre que l'adoption de ces pratiques variait considerablement d'une entreprise a l'autre en fonction, entre autres, de la taille de l'entreprise, du pays de propriete et de controle, du degre d'innovation, du degre de vocation exportatrice, des programmes d'inspection de la salubrite des aliments et du sous-secteur dans lequel une entreprise evolue. La perspective de penetrer les marches etrangers joue un role important dans l'adoption de systemes HACCP.

Surveys of water consumption patterns in Canada and the USA show a high frequency of alternative water use, including bottled water and water treatment devices. An in-depth understanding of the public perception of municipal water would enable public health and water utility professionals better to address the needs of residents in their jurisdictions. We explored these perceptions and the self-described behaviour and needs of participants served by municipal water systems in the City of Hamilton, Ontario (Canada). We conducted three focus groups; two with men and women aged between 36 and 65 years, and one with men and women aged between 20 and 35 years. In general, participants expressed negative views of the municipal water supplied to their homes. Concerns included unpleasant sensory qualities of the water, perceived poor source-water protection, a perceived insufficiency in water treatment and testing and potential contamination along the distribution system. Reasons for alternative water use included perceived improvements in quality and safety over regular tap water, although convenience also contributed to bottled water use. Participants wanted more information on water testing and suggested a variety of dissemination approaches. This study suggested important lines of inquiry and action regarding the perception of municipal drinking water in this population.

Public concern about food safety is placing increasing pressure on government agencies to be more prescriptive and proactive in their regulation of the food industry. However, given the scarcity of public sector resources, concerns about the impact of regulation on competitiveness and the scale of the task at hand, there is growing interest in co-regulation, with public and private sectors working hand-in-hand to deliver safer food at lower (regulatory) cost. This paper explores the scope for the co-regulation of food safety in the UK and North America, where there are distinct differences in the established regulatory processes. The authors conclude that opportunities clearly exist, to varying degrees in the different countries analysed, but that considerable obstacles remain to the widespread adoption of co-regulatory practices in the area of food safety.

Supermarkets have spread extremely rapidly in developing countries after the ‘take-off’ in the early to mid-1990s. Former analyses of supermarket diffusion have not adequately explained the sudden burst and then exponential diffusion of supermarkets in the late 1990s and early 2000s. We argue that rather than taking demand and market institutional and organizational conditions as ‘exogenous’, as former analyses have tended to do, modern food retailers instead have treated local conditions as substantially ‘endogenous’. To enable their rapid growth, supermarkets undertake ‘proactive fast-tracking strategies’ to alter the ‘enabling conditions’ of entry and growth. Beside the retail investments that have been extensively treated in recent literature, these proactive strategies focus on improving the ‘enabling conditions’ via (i) procurement system modernization and (ii) local supply chain development. One important strategy retailers have used to facilitate (i) and (ii) is to form symbiotic relationships with modern wholesale, logistics and processing firms. An example we address is ‘follow sourcing’, where a transnational retailer encourages transnational logistics and wholesale firms with whom the retailer is working in home markets, to locate to the developing country. This is a spur to globalization of services in support of retail. Follow-sourcing has been treated for example in the automobile manufactures sector (follow-sourcing from spare parts manufacturers)—but not in the food sector. A second important strategy is that of multi-network-sourcing, in which supermarkets source from national, regional and global networks. We analyze that strategy here, adding to the literature which to date has touched on this theme only scantly, and for the first time identify typical paths, present preliminary evidence (from Central America and Indonesia) concerning this multi-sourcing-network strategy and discuss trade implications. One of these is the move to primacy of South–South trade in supermarket sourcing—a new dimension of globalization. By introducing this link of retailer transformation and trade into the literature, we hope to spur a new line of research that is timely in light of the trade, development and globalization debates in developing countries.

This study assesses quantitatively the economic incentives for firms to adopt food safety controls and the potential impact of a number of firm- and market-specific characteristics on this behavior, focusing on the red meat and poultry processing sector in Canada. The results suggest that market-based (private) incentives have a greater impact on the food safety responsiveness of firms in this sector than government regulatory actions. This creates challenges for regulators in defining policy instruments that promote greater levels of food safety control in food processing sectors rather than constraining firms from taking initiatives that exceed regulatory requirements. Copyright 2006, Oxford University Press.

This paper examines the impact that food safety standards in the context of international markets for high-value agricultural and food products have on developing countries. It recognises that food standards can act as barriers to trade, but at the same time argues that the challenges posed by evolving standards can also act as catalysts for the upgrading of food safety management capacity and the basis for competitive positioning in high-value markets. Regardless, of whether the ‘standards as barriers’ or ‘standards as catalysts’ perspectives is adopted, it is contended that developing countries need to adopt a strategic perspective in addressing the opportunities and challenges presented by high-value agricultural and food markets in the context of evolving food safety standards. Cet article etudie l'impact sur les pays en developpement des normes de surete alimentaire, developpees dans un contexte de marches internationaux de produits agricoles et alimentaires a forte valeur ajoutee. Il reconnait que c...

The likelihood of the voluntary adoption of hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) among food processing firms is evaluated by exploring the perceptions of food safety managers with respect to a range of possible motivating factors including the exogenous pressure to adopt HACCP, efficacy of existing food safety controls, perception that HACCP will improve the firm's food safety controls, relative costs and benefits of HACCP implementation, impact of HACCP on business performance, and the nature of barriers to implementing HACCP. While market-based factors exert substantial pressure on firms to adopt HACCP, many food safety managers perceive that their existing food safety controls are adequate to meet existing food safety demands. While good manufacturing practice (GMP) and traceability are considered the most efficacious food safety controls, HACCP is most often perceived to provide intangible and “incidental” benefits that are often not recognized by food safety managers a priori. An important barrier to the voluntary adoption of HACCP is the perceived questionable appropriateness of HACCP for enhancing food safety controls, while financial constraints can be an absolute barrier to implementation. The results suggest a number of potential strategies through which the implementation of HACCP might be facilitated and enhanced through cooperation and coordination between regulators and industry organizations. La probabilite que les entreprises de transformation des aliments adoptent volontairement le systeme HACCP (analyse des risques et maitrise des points critiques) a eteevaluee en examinant les perceptions des gestionnaires de securite alimentaire envers certains facteurs de motivation possibles tels que la pression exogene, l'efficacite des moyens de controle existants, la perception voulant que le systeme HACCP ameliore le controle de la securite alimentaire de l'entreprise, les couts et les avantages relatifs de la mise en place du systeme, les repercussions du systeme sur la performance de l'entreprise et la nature des obstacles a la mise en place du systeme. Bien que des facteurs de marche exercent d'importantes pressions pour que les entreprises adoptent ce systeme, de nombreux gestionnaires de securite alimentaire estiment que leurs moyens de controle existants repondent adequatement aux demandes actuelles de securite alimentaire. Bien que les bonnes pratiques de fabrication (BPF) et la tracabilite soient considerees comme les moyens de controle de la securite alimentaire les plus efficaces, le systeme HACCP est le plus souvent percu comme procurant des avantages intangibles et ≪accessoires≫ qui, souvent, ne sont pas reconnus a priori par les gestionnaires de securite alimentaire. La pertinence discutable percue du systeme HACCP comme moyen d'ameliorer le controle de la securite alimentaire constitue un important obstacle a l'adoption volontaire du systeme, bien que les contraintes financieres peuvent etre un obstacle absolu a sa mise en place. Les resultats suggerent un certain nombre de strategies potentielles grâce auxquelles la mise en place du systeme pourrait etre facilitee et amelioree par la collaboration et la coordination entre les organismes de reglementation et les entreprises de l'industrie de la transformation des aliments.

This paper explores the ways in which consumers assess the safety of food in restaurants and other eating-out establishments, and the resulting impact on restaurant choice. The analysis builds on the existing literature on restaurant choice more generally and a growing body of studies on the impact of official inspection information on the perceived safety of restaurants. Based on a two-stage consumer study in the City of Hamilton in Ontario, Canada, involv- ing focus groups and a postal survey, the research highlights how consumers base their assessment of food safety in restaurants using a range of visible 7

This study estimated the health burden and costs associated with gastroenteritis in the City of Hamilton (Ontario, Canada). The number of cases, number of different resource units used, and cost per resource unit were represented by probability distributions and point estimates. These were subsequently integrated in a stochastic model to estimate the overall burden and cost in the population and to depict the uncertainty of the estimates. The estimated mean annual cost per capita was Can dollar 115. The estimated mean annual cost per case was Can dollar 1,089 and was similar to other published figures. Gastroenteritis represented a significant burden in the study population, with costs high enough to justify prevention efforts. These results, currently the most accurate available estimates for a Canadian population, can inform future economic evaluations to determine the most cost effective measures for reducing the burden and cost of gastroenteritis in the community.

Summary. — This article explores the motivations behind the decision of small-scale producers to grow nontraditional vegetables under contract for export. Based on a survey of small-scale producers in Zimbabwe, four factors are identified as motivating contracting, namely, market uncertainty, indirect benefits (e.g., knowledge acquisition), income benefits, and intangible benefits. Respondents are clustered according to the relative importance of these factors in their contracting decision. Four clusters are identified and related to the characteristics of these farmers including size of the farm, amount of land devoted to export crops, access to alternative markets, and the proportion of family income derived from export crops. The results suggest that there are systematic differences between farmers in their decisions to contract which needs to be recognized in contract design and management. 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

There is evidence that the challenges of complying with stricter food safety and quality standards are acting to exclude small-scale producers from export supply chains for high-value agricultural products. The case of Hortico Agrisystems illustrates the considerable challenges and costs faced by supermarket suppliers in sourcing from a broad base of small-scale producers in the context of evolving food safety and quality standards. While small-scale producers are able to achieve levels of compliance at least equal to those of large-scale producers, multi-tiered and dynamic systems of control are required to maintain control. These need to include measures that facilitate compliance, incentives to reward good performance and penalties to punish non-compliance. In establishing a sustainable supply system in this context, both exporters and small-scale producers face a steep learning curve in adjusting to new requirements, further emphasising the need for supply chains to be responsive to change.

The findings of this research suggest that consumer perceptions of the risks associated with beef relate not only to concerns about health and safety, but also the financial, psychological, performance and social consequences of the choices made at the point-of-purchase. Furthermore, a negative relationship is found to exist between perceived risk and interest in beef, perceived consistency, ability, experience and confidence in the local butcher. Cluster analysis highlights the existence of three segments of consumers that hold considerably different views on the risks associated with beef. Intention to consume beef differed across these segments; however the clusters did not display any significant differences on the basis of demographic variables with the one exception of age. Information sources and use differed significantly across these segments.

This paper provides a brief introduction to the evolution and nature of private food safety and quality standards, highlighting the resultant impacts on the structure and modus operandi of supply chains for agricultural and food products and the challenges posed for processes of agricultural development. It serves as an introduction to a series of papers that provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge regarding private food safety and quality standards in both an industrialised and developing country context. In so doing, it aims to provide a catalyst for further research on this rapidly evolving field of inquiry.

This study investigates the role of risk tolerance in shaping Canadian consumers' willingness-to-pay for food safety risk reductions. Non-hypothetical experimental auctions were used to elicit consumer valuations of food safety improvement. To identify the relationship between food safety concern and risk-reduction valuations, individual risk-perception scores are constructed based on questionnaire responses. Results show willingness-to-pay for improved food safety tends to decrease as individuals become more risk tolerant. Differences in bids across naive and informed rounds of bidding tend to become smaller with risk tolerance for individuals who initially overestimated the food safety risk. La presente etude a examine le role que joue la tolerance a l'egard du risque dans la volonte de payer des consommateurs canadiens pour diminuer les risques concernant la securite alimentaire. Nous avons organise des encheres experimentales non hypothetiques pour obtenir l'evaluation des consommateurs concernant l'amelioration de la securite alimentaire. Pour determiner le lien entre l'inquietude concernant la securite alimentaire et l'evaluation de la diminution du risque, nous avons utilise les scores individuels sur la perception du risque calcules a partir d'un questionnaire. Les resultats ont montre que la volonte de payer pour obtenir une securite alimentaire accrue tend a diminuer a mesure que les consommateurs deviennent plus tolerants a l'egard du risque. Les differences d'offres des encheres naives et informees tendaient a diminuer avec la tolerance a l'egard du risque pour les individus qui, au depart, avaient surestime le risque liea la securite alimentaire.

This paper reports the levels of HACCP implementation, costs of implementation and operation, and benefits of implementation for the Mexican meat industry. One hundred and sixty Federal Inspection Type (TIF) enterprises were surveyed, with a 58% response rate. Only 18% of the TIF enterprises interviewed had totally adopted HACCP, while 20% did not have an interest in adoption. The norm of ISO 9000 appeared to be an intermediate step in HACCP implementation. The results show that investment in new equipment and microbiological tests of products accounted for most of the implementation and operational costs, respectively. The main benefit reported was reduction in microbial counts, while staff training was reported as a significant problem. The study shows that although the level of total HACCP implementation is not high, HACCP has implications for both the domestic and international markets.

The purpose of this research was to examine the factors that underpin risk perceptions for meat hazards and assess the degree to which these perceptions reflect overall concern. It also sought to identify any differences that exist in information use. A total of 238 meat customers were surveyed in Cork, Ireland. An analysis of consumer perceptions revealed a two-factor structure, ‘dread’ and ‘unknown’, similar to Slovic (1992). A perceptual map of the various hazards associated with meat clearly highlighted different groups of hazards and the differing perceptions associated with them. There were groupings between BSE, E-coli and Salmonella, antibiotics, growth hormones and genetic modifications, and saturated fats and cholesterol. Cluster analysis highlighted the differences in attitudes towards meat hazards across the sample population. However, an analysis of the demographic and behavioural variables found no distinguishable features across the identified segments, except in their use of written inform...

The impact of supermarkets on small producers in developing countries has received much attention in recent years, predominantly focusing on global commodity chains for nontraditional agricultural products to industrialized country markets (see, e.g., Dolan, Humphrey, and Harris-Pascal; Dolan and Humphrey). More recently, attention has been focused on the evolution of supermarkets within developing countries, in particular Latin America (see, e.g., Reardon and Berdegue; Weatherspoon and Reardon). Experience in both contexts suggests that the increasing demand for high-value fresh produce can provide new opportunities for enhanced small producer livelihoods. However, the standards (including food safety and quality requirements) and supply reliability demanded by supermarkets, raise challenges for small producers. Indeed, there is evidence that supermarket buyers in both industrialized and developing countries are increasingly sourcing from large commercial growers. Significant benefits can be derived by both buyers and sellers from long-term partnerships along supply chains, particularly in satisfying nonprice demands (Perosio et al.). Fearne and Hughes suggest that effective communication between and within stakeholders is

Income growth alone cannot solve the problem of malnutrition and may in fact create problems linked to overweight and obesity. The challenge from the nutrition perspective is how to sustainably improve the quality of diets, as well as other health-nutrition related behaviours, across different populations and age groups? In nutrition debates in developing countries there is growing interest in the capacity of the private sector to contribute to improved nutrition outcomes. Discussions have incorporated thinking around value chain frameworks, which emerged in the late 1990s to help development actors design interventions that responded to the needs of the private sector and contributed to development outcomes.Value chain approaches can provide useful frameworks to examine the food system and the potential to achieve improved nutritional outcomes by leveraging market-based systems. However, understanding the links between value chains, the overall business environment in which they operate, and nutrition among targeted populations is complex, involving actors and activities working across agriculture, health and nutrition, and very little evidence exists on the potential or the trade-offs involved.In this paper we explore how a value chain framework can inform the design of interventions for achieving improved nutrition. Conceptually, there are three main channels for value chains to improve nutrition: (1) through increased consumption of nutritious foods (a demand side pathway); or (2) through increased incomes from value chain transactions (a supply side pathway) or (3) through increased nutrition value-addition in the chain transactions. These three pathways are interlinked and involve complex dynamics that are not straightforward to understand.We also highlight how these pathways are context specific, and introduce typologies based on supply and demand profile of the specific value chain. Where adequate supply and demand for a specific food exists, interventions would focus on optimising the efficiency and flow of nutrition added-value along the chain. Where demand is constrained or overconsumption is a problem, interventions would work primarily to change consumption patterns, either directly (for example, food transfers) or indirectly (such as, social marketing) shaping market demand. Where supply is constrained, interventions would focus on enhancing supply-side capacity by improving production practices, organising production and post-harvest activities to increase efficiency, and facilitating the expansion of market opportunities. We conclude with a summary of key research areas in this emerging field.

Private sector responses to the challenge of managing food safety are explored. This paper clarifies the objectives of this special issue, introducing the key issues in each of the following articles. The degree and manner of regulatory compliance, an important element of any strategic food safety management decision, are discussed. Separate of the response to regulations, the incentives of firms to implement advanced management systems are documented. The paper pays particular attention to firm efforts to minimize the potential for product recalls.

This paper explores the impact of sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) measures in developed countries on developing country exports of agricultural and food products. It identifies the problems that developing countries face in meeting SPS requirements and how these relate to the nature of SPS measures and the compliance resources available to government and the supply chain. The paper examines the impact of the WTO's SPS Agreement on the extent to which SPS measures impede exports from developing countries. It identifies the problems that limit the participation of developing countries in the SPS Agreement and their concerns about the way in which it currently operates.

This article explores the incentives that motivate the adoption of food safety controls by businesses through a study of HACCP adoption in the U.K. dairy processing sector. The study identifies four key factors that have motivated the adoption of HACCP, namely, internal efficiency, commercial pressure, external requirements, and good practice. Respondents to the survey are clustered according to the relative importance of these factors in their adoption decision. Four clusters are identified and related to the characteristics of firms, including firm size and type of products manufactured. The results indicate that there are systematic differences in the HACCP adoption process between individual firms.

Twenty-four manufacturers of ready to eat meat products were provided with an EFSIS 1 hygiene audit. Subsequently, the technical or owner–manager of the company was interviewed. Analysis of the quality management systems operated and assessed was compared with the International Life Sciences Institute’s (ILSI) model for quality assurance management. Findings demonstrate that whilst there remain deficiencies in quality management systems in small businesses, particularly with respect to the lack of technical expertise, the efficacy of hands-on management should also be recognised. The research supports the view that ISO 2 and Total Quality Management (TQM) philosophies are instructive frameworks for the implementation of quality assurance management within the small food business sector.

Directive 93/43/EEC introduced the concept of good hygiene practice, in response to a pan‐European increase in the incidence of food poisoning, to foster a preventive approach to food safety. UK legislation reinforces the EU position that food businesses are responsible for the implementation of good hygiene practices. The response of the food industry has been to develop audited standards of hygiene, higher than explicit legal requirements. Small businesses have, however, been slow to adopt industry hygiene standards. A case study of small manufacturers of ready to eat meat products investigated the reasons for this. Businesses were first audited to the EFSIS[1] standard, to compare current practice with recommended best practice. Second, technical managers or owner‐managers were interviewed, to gain an insight into their knowledge of industry standards in particular, and the process of hygiene management in general. The analysis found significant differences in the knowledge of technical managers and owner‐managers, with the latter often unaware of the existence of audited standards. It is argued, therefore, that, in order to increase the implementation of good hygiene practices, further programmes to inform small food businesses about industry standards are required.

This article discusses a number of issues that are influencing the evolution of food safety regulation in developed and, to a lesser extent, developing countries. Whilst not definitive, it aims to highlight those factors which are considered crucial to an understanding of contemporary food safety controls in both the public and private spheres. These issues include criteria applied to assess the need/justification for food safety regulation, relationships between public and private food safety control systems, alternative forms that public food safety regulation can take, strategic responses to food safety regulation, and the trade implications of national food safety controls. The article serves as an introduction to these issues, which are discussed at greater length in the other papers that make up this special issue of Food Policy .

This paper reports the results of a study of the costs and benefits associated with the implementation and operation of HACCP in the UK dairy processing sector. The results suggest that the major cost of implementing and operating HACCP in dairy processing plants is staff time required to document the system. The costs of capital investment and external technical expertise are less important. The most important benefit is the enhanced ability to retain existing customers. The results have implications for the adoption of HACCP in the UK dairy processing sector as well as the food industry as a whole.

This article addresses the role and impact of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Agreement on prospects for export trade by developing countries. The SPS Agreement aims to facilitate discussion under the aegis of the World Trade Organization (WTP). It provides an enquiry and dispute settlement procedure; it also offers certain concessions and aid to developing and least developed countries. The article presents data on participation and several objective measures of the way the Agreement works for developing countries. Participation in the Agreement by developing countries is relatively low, despite the fact that several current issues (for example aflatoxins, salmonella) impact directly on such countries. The article suggests ways that developing countries can benefit further from the operation of the SPS Agreement, and explores how the standards operated by certain countries might act as a trade barrier to exports from developing countries. [Econ-Lit citations: L660, F100, Q170] © 1999 John Wiley & Sons.

Whilst major multiple food retailers in the UK have gained commercial advantage from increased sales of own-branded food products, this trend has exposed them to greater risks of product failure. In a bid to manage these risks, multiple food retailers have implemented complex and very costly food safety control systems in the procurement of own-branded products. Using a transaction costs framework, the paper suggests that multiple food retailers have encouraged the development of third party agencies as institutions through which the costs associated with food safety controls can be reduced, whilst maintaining an acceptable risk of product failure. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

An understanding of the process by which businesses comply with legal requirements is an essential, although frequently ignored, aspect of food safety regulation. The process of compliance is investigated through a postal survey and in-depth interviews with technical directors in a cross-section of food manufacturers and retailers in the UK. Although there are differences in the specific manner in which individual businesses comply with food safety regulations, it is evident that firms follow a common sequence of activities when deciding whether to comply with a new regulation, the stage at which compliance is implemented, and the specific changes made in order to achieve compliance. It is argued that the promulgation of efficient and effective food safety regulations requires an understanding of the compliance process.

Presents the results of a postal questionnaire to UK food and drink manufacturers on the costs of compliance with food regulation. In particular, the questionnaire focused on the usefulness of compliance cost assessments ‐ introduced by the Government in 1985 across all government departments as an analytical tool for assessing the regulatory costs to business ‐ as they relate to food businesses. Explains that the questionnaire sought to establish to what extent food companies actually costed the impact of food regulation on their business operations and explored other aspects of food regulation, such as the benefits and constraints. Reports the results which gave some unexpected insights on the costs of compliance with food regulation. For example, the majority of respondents were not aware that the Ministry of Agriculture Fisheries and Food carried out compliance cost assessments on food regulation; around two‐thirds of the sample found it “difficult” or “very difficult” to identify where compliance costs would affect their company and an even greater proportion (more than three‐quarters) said they would have problems quantifying compliance costs. Concludes that the compliance cost assessment, as a tool for helping to analyse the cost of food regulation on businesses, is an inappropriate method for the food sector and the development of new methods should be considered.

The paper describes the use of the Delphi method to estimate the incidence of food-borne Salmonella in the UK and the effectiveness of alternative control measures. A panel of experts of food-borne Salmonella participated in the Delphi survey, which involved five rounds of questioning taking place in the period July 1993 to January 1994. Participants were asked to give initial estimates for a number of parameters and invited to revise these estimates through progressive rounds of the survey at which the group responses were reported back. This process resulted in a reduction in the variation between the estimates given by individual experts. The final estimated annual incidence of food-borne Salmonella in the UK was 537,000, although significant variation remained between, individual estimates. The foods judged to be the most important modes of transmission were poultry and poultry products (50% of cases) and eggs and egg products (26% of cases). The panel was also requested to estimate the effectiveness of strategies available to reduce the incidence of food-borne Salmonella from all sources. The most effective methods were judged to be food irradiation and mandatory application of HACCP, although there were significant differences in the judged effectiveness of these technologies for individual respondents. The paper demonstrates the efficacy of the Delphi method as a mechanism for reconciling differences between expert judgements of the incidence of food-borne disease and the effectiveness of alternative control strategies.

Few studies have examined consumer acceptability or comprehension of cholesterol-lowering claims on food labels. Our objective was to assess consumer attitudes and understanding of cholesterol-lowering claims regarding plant sterols (PS) and oat fibre (OF). We conducted two studies on: (1) PS claims and (2) OF claims. Both studies involved a randomized mock-packaged experiment within an online survey administered to Canadian consumers. In the PS study (n=721), we tested three PS-related claims (disease risk reduction claim, function claim and nutrient content claim) and a ‘tastes great’ claim (control) on identical margarine containers. Similarly, in the OF study (n=710), we tested three claims related to OF and a ‘taste great’ claim on identical cereal boxes. In both studies, participants answered the same set of questions on attitudes and understanding of claims after seeing each mock package. All claims that mentioned either PS or OF resulted in more positive attitudes than the taste control claim (P

The chapter contributes to on-going debates about the inclusion of smallholders in export value chains for high-value agricultural products. Specifically, it investigates the factors driving the procurement practices of exporter of fresh fruits and vegetables in sub-Saharan Africa, and specifically sourcing from smallholders. A survey is undertaken of exporters of fresh fruit and vegetables in sub-Saharan Africa. The resulting data are used to estimate econometrically the propensity of exporters to source from smallholders, and the intensity of sourcing among those exporters who do procure from smallholders. Explanatory variables include firm and market characteristics, supply chain costs, type of product, availability of alternative sources of supply, and judgments regarding the performance of smallholders and other sources of supply.The propensity to procure from smallholders is found to be negatively associated with being a small exporter and the performance of medium- and large-scale producers. Exporters are more likely to source from smallholders if they have their own production capacity and smallholders are judged to perform well. The requirement of customers to comply with private food safety standards is found to have no significant effect on the propensity to procure from smallholders. Conversely, compliance with private standards has a strong influence on the intensity of sourcing from smallholders. Exporters judging smallholders to perform well are more likely to source intensively from smallholders, but to source less if they judge their own production to perform well. High fixed costs tend to be associated with lower intensity of sourcing from smallholders. The results suggest that compliance with private food safety standards does not drive the exclusion of smallholders from export value chains; indeed, conversely, the requirement to comply with such standards is associated with greater intensity of sourcing from smallholders. Smallholders evidently play a key role in the defrayment of risk by exporters in that many exporters combine their own production with smallholder procurement. Costs of procurement from smallholders, however, remain an issue. Evidently, the fixed costs of smallholder supply chains increase appreciably with the intensity of sourcing. The research reported here provides a new perspective on the inclusion of smallholders in export value chains for horticultural products. The incorporation of smallholders into these value chains is seen as the outcome of the procurement decisions of exporters. Contrary to much of the discourse in this area, the results suggest that smallholders can and do compete in export value chains for horticultural products even in the context of exacting food safety standards.

Background: Sodium-related claims on food labels should facilitate lower-sodium food choices; however, consumer attitudes and understanding of such claims are unknown. Objectives: We evaluated consumer attitudes and understanding of different types of sodium claims and the effect of having hypertension on responses to such claims. Design: Canadian consumers (n = 506), with and without hypertension, completed an online survey that contained a randomized mockpackage experiment, which tested 4 packages that differed only by the claims they carried as follows: 3 sodium claims (disease risk reduction, function, and nutrient-content claims) and a tastes-great claim (control). Participants answered the same questions on attitudes and understanding of claims after seeing each package. Results: Food packages with any sodium claim resulted in more positive attitudes toward the claim and the product healthfulness than did packages with the taste control claim, although all mock packages were identical nutritionally. Having hypertension increased ratings related to product healthfulness and purchase intentions, but there was no difference in reported understanding between hypertensives and normotensives. In general, participants attributed additional health benefits to low-sodium products beyond the wellestablished relation of sodium and hypertension. Conclusions: Sodium claims have the potential to facilitate lowersodium food choices. However, we caution that consumers do not seem to differentiate between different types of claims, but the nutritional profiles of foods that carry different sodium claims can potentially differ greatly in the current labeling environment. Additional educational efforts are needed to ensure that consumers do not attribute inappropriate health benefits to foods with lowsodium claims. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01764724. Am J Clin Nutr doi: 10.3945/ajcn.112.052910.

The paper employs contingent valuation to estimate “willingness to pay” for reductions in the risk of food poisoning. The analysis accounts for the range of adverse health effects resulting from nonfatal cases of food poisoning as well as the risk of loss of life. A number of hypotheses regarding the value consumers attach to improvements in food safety are explored based on the results from a contingent valuation survey. Regression analysis is used to assess the factors influencing expressed “willingness to pay” for safer food, including demographic factors, personal experience of food poisoning and beliefs and attitudes about food-borne risk.

The paper explores the factors influencing consumer acceptance of new food technologies through an in-depth analysis of consumer reactions to food irradiation. Consumer acceptance/rejection of innovative food technologies is the result of a complex decisionmaking process which involves an assessment of the perceived risks and benefits associated with the new technology and existing alternatives. The acceptance of a new food technology is not simply related to the basic characteristics of the process itself but also the individual food consumer and the economic, political and social environment in which food choices take place. Consequently, it is difficult to make generalisations about consumer acceptance/rejection of particular food technologies. Therefore, strategies aimed at improving the rate at which such technologies are adopted must address a wide range of issues related to the technology itself and the food system into which it is introduced.

The traditional approach to the analysis of food policy treats government as an impartial 'clearing house,' balancing the needs of different groups and correcting for market failures. Recent writings on political economy, particularly relating to agriculture, argue that policy making should be treated as an endogenous component of the food system which depends on the nature of the political institutions and the policy-making process and on interest groups and their relative strengths. In this paper these ideas are discussed in relation to food policy generally and, in particular, to three specific examples: food safety; food research and development (RD and food labeling. The preliminary analysis presented in this paper supports the view that this is a fruitful area for further investigation. Copyright 1995 by Oxford University Press.