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A factor analysis of a test battery that included early first-language (L1) achievement, L1 cognitive ability, second-language (L2) aptitude, and L2 affective measures to predict oral and written L2 proficiency was conducted. The analysis yielded 4 factors that were labeled Language Analysis, composed of L1 and L2 language comprehension, grammar, vocabulary, and inductive language learning measures; Phonology/Orthography, composed of L1 and L2 phonemic coding and phonological processing measures; IQ/Memory, composed of L1 intelligence and L2 paired-associate learning measures; and Self-Perceptions of Language Skills, composed of L2 motivation and L2 anxiety measures. The 4 factors explained 76% of the variance in oral and written L2 proficiency. Findings support the view that L2 aptitude is componential. Results are discussed in the context of long-term L1-L2 relationships and individual differences in L2 learning.

Increasing numbers of students are being diagnosed as simultaneously gifted and having a learning disability, although the identification procedures and characteristics of these students are matters of continuing debate. In the present study, postsecondary students with learning disability diagnoses (N = 357) were grouped according to their IQ scores, and the groups' cognitive and achievement characteristics were explored, with special attention to the proportions of each group that would meet various objective criteria for learning disability diagnosis. Many students in each group failed to meet any of the criteria, although higher IQ students were more likely to meet most of the criteria. In addition, the higher IQ group exhibited higher achievement scores than did the lower IQ group, although the achievement gaps were much smaller than the IQ differences. Implications for the validity of the gifted/LD category as well as future research directions are discussed. (Contains 4 tables.)

Fifty-four students were followed over 10 years beginning in first grade to determine best predictors of oral and written second language (L2) proficiency. Predictor variables included measures of first language (L1) skill administered in first through fifth grades, L1 academic aptitude, L2 aptitude (Modern Language Aptitude Test), and L2 affect (motivation, anxiety). All participants completed 2 years of L2 study in high school. Findings revealed strong correlations between early L1 skills and later L2 proficiency, but the Modern Language Aptitude Test was the best predictor of overall L2 proficiency and most L2 proficiency subtests. However, L1 word decoding was the best predictor of L2 word decoding skills. Early L1 skills, L2 motivation, or L2 anxiety added a small amount of variance to the prediction models. Findings suggested that language-related variables are the most robust predictors of L2 proficiency. Results are discussed in the context of long-term cross linguistic transfer of early L1 skills to later L2 aptitude and L2 proficiency.

This study examined the consequences of classifying postsecondary students as learning disabled (LD) using five objective sets of criteria: IQ-achievement discrepancies (1.0 to 1.49 SD, 1.5 to 1.99 SD, and greater than or equal to 2.0 SD), DSM-IV criteria, and chronic educational impairment beginning in childhood. The participants were 378 postsecondary students from two universities who had been previously classified as LD and were receiving instructional and/or testing accommodations. The agreement between diagnostic models was often low, both in terms of the proportion of students identified as well as which students were identified by the models. The discrepancy models identified the largest proportions of students as LD (10% to 42%), whereas fewer than 10% of participants met either of the other sets of criteria, and 55% of the participants were not classified as LD by any of the models. Implications for further research and practices in postsecondary settings are discussed. (Contains 5 tables.)

Despite the lack of empirical evidence, the term "foreign language learning disability" (FLLD) has become popular in the learning disabilities (LD) and foreign language literature. I contend that there is not a unique "disability" for foreign language learning and suggest instead that foreign language skills run along a continuum of very strong to very weak foreign language learners. To support my positions, I review problems with the definition and diagnostic criteria for LD. Then, I cite problems with the development and use of a logically consistent, easily operationalized, and empirically valid definition and diagnostic criteria for the FLLD concept and explain how proponents of this "disability" misuse the foreign language aptitude concept. Last, I detail implications for identifying students who exhibit foreign language learning problems, address policies that permit students to obtain waivers from or course substitutions for foreign language requirements, and describe issues hidden from foreign language educators because of the LD and FLLD concepts. (Contains 4 notes.)

This article reviews empirical evidence related to college students classified as learning disabled (LD) and foreign language (FL) learning by examining whether there are differences between: (a) students classified and not classified as LD enrolled in FL courses; (b) LD students with and without IQ-achievement discrepancies and FL aptitude, proficiency, and achievement; and (c) students classified as LD who pass FL courses or receive course substitutions. Findings show that there are no cognitive and achievement differences between students classified as LD and non-LD students enrolled in FL courses or between students classified as LD who pass FL courses or receive course substitutions. Findings have shown that there are no differences in FL outcomes between students classified as LD with and without discrepancies. Research findings over several years show that classification as LD is unimportant for determining whether or not a student will exhibit FL learning problems or fail FL courses.

This prospective study examined early first-language (L1) predictors of later second-language (L2) reading (word decoding, comprehension) and spelling skills by conducting a series of multiple regressions. Measures of L1 word decoding, spelling, reading comprehension, phonological awareness, receptive vocabulary, and listening comprehension administered in the 1st through 5th grades were used as predictors of L2 reading (word decoding, comprehension) and spelling skills in high school. The best predictor of L2 decoding skill was a measure of L1 decoding, and the best predictors of L2 spelling were L1 spelling and L1 phonological awareness. The best predictor of L2 reading comprehension was a measure of L1 reading comprehension. When L2 word decoding skill replaced L1 word decoding as a predictor variable for L2 reading comprehension, results showed that L2 word decoding was an important predictor of L2 reading comprehension. The findings suggest that even several years after students learn to read and spell their L1, word decoding, spelling, and reading comprehension skills transfer from L1 to L2.

High-achieving (HA) and low-achieving (LA), learning disabled (LD), and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) high school students were followed over two years of L2 study and compared on measures of L1 literacy (reading and writing) in elementary school, L1 cognitive ability, L2 aptitude, oral and written L2 proficiency, and L2 word decoding and spelling, and in L2 grades. Findings revealed significant differences between the HA and LA and the HA and LD groups on all of the L1 and L2 measures. No significant differences were found between the LA and LD groups on any of the L1 and L2 measures, and few differences were found between the HA and ADHD groups. Results replicated studies which have shown that L1 literacy skills are important for L2 learning. New findings showed that students classified as ADHD who have average or better L1 skills do well in L2 courses and that L1 literacy differences between high and low achieving L2 learners emerged early in elementary school, providing support for long-term cross linguistic transfer of L1 to L2 skills.

Fifty-four students were followed over 10 years and tested with native language measures in first through fifth grades and measures of foreign language aptitude and foreign language proficiency in high school. All students had completed two years of Spanish, French, or German. Students were divided into three groups based on their scores on the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS). Findings showed that the low anxious group scored significantly higher than the high anxious group on all native language measures beginning in the second grade. The low anxious group scored significantly higher than the high anxious group on all measures of foreign language proficiency and foreign language aptitude, and also achieved higher foreign language course grades. Few differences were found between the low anxious and average anxious groups on the native language and foreign language testing measures. Findings also showed that the FLCAS was negatively correlated with native language measures of reading, spelling and vocabulary as early as the beginning of first grade. The results suggest that the FLCAS is likely to be measuring students' perceptions of their language learning skills, and that language skills are likely to be a confounding variable in the findings of researchers who suggest that anxiety plays a primary role in foreign language proficiency and achievement. This article is relevant to all languages. (Contains 4 endnotes and 4 appendices.)

Fifty-four students were tested at specific time intervals over 10 years to determine best native language (NL) predictors of oral and written foreign language (FL) proficiency and FL aptitude. All participants completed two years of Spanish, French, or German. Each was administered measures of NL literacy, oral language, and cognitive ability in elementary school. A measure of FL aptitude was administered at the beginning of ninth grade and FL proficiency was evaluated at the end of the 10th grade. Among the variables, NL literacy measures were the best predictors of FL proficiency, and NL achievement and general (verbal) intelligence were strong predictors of FL aptitude. Results suggest that indices of NL literacy as early as first grade are related to FL proficiency and FL aptitude nine and 10 years later. Findings provide strong support for connections between L1 and L2 skills, and for speculation that "lower level" skills in phonological processing are important for written language development and oral proficiency in a FL. Appended are: Lists and descriptions of the NL measure and FL aptitude test. (Contains 4 tables.)

This study examined individual differences among beginning readers of English as a foreign language (EFL). The study concentrated on the effects of underlying first language (L1) knowledge as well as EFL letter and vocabulary knowledge. Phonological and morphological awareness, spelling, vocabulary knowledge, and word reading in Hebrew L1, in addition to knowledge of EFL letters and EFL vocabulary, were measured. The study also investigated the effect of socioeconomic background (SES) on beginning EFL readers. Participants included 145 fourth graders from three schools representing two socioeconomic backgrounds in the north of Israel. The results indicate that knowledge of English letters played a more prominent role than knowledge of Hebrew L1 components in differentiating between strong and weak EFL readers. The Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis was supported by L1 phonological awareness, word reading, and vocabulary knowledge appearing as part of discriminating functions. The presence of English vocabulary knowledge as part of the discriminant functions provides support for English word reading being more than just a decoding task for EFL beginner readers. Socioeconomic status differentiated the groups for EFL word recognition but not for EFL reading comprehension. (Contains 2 tables.)

Recently, talk of a new type of learning disability (LD)--a foreign language learning disability, or FLLD--has made its way into the LD and foreign language (FL) literature. However, no empirical evidence has been published to support the concept of a "disability" for FL learning by those professionals who use the term. In this article, the author takes the position that there is not a distinct "disability" that can be called an FLLD. He reviews several years of research evidence indicating that any proposal for such a distinct entity is problematic. To support his position, he reviews problems with the current definition and diagnostic criteria for LD. He then cites the many difficulties inherent in the development and use of (a) a logically consistent, easily operationalized, and empirically valid definition of and (b) diagnostic criteria for the FLLD concept. The author then discusses how FL learning problems occur along a continuum of very strong to very poor language learners, and he explains how the proponents of an FLLD misuse the concept of FL aptitude. Finally, the author cites implications resulting from the research evidence on FL learning problems and use of the term FLLD.

This study examined whether factors affecting first language reading acquisition also affect English Foreign Language (EFL) reading acquisition. Hebrew (L1) and EFL reading related measures were administrated to 145 fourth graders from the north of Israel who were beginning their first year of English instruction. Results from a Linear Structural Equational Analysis (LISREL) showed that the Hebrew independent variable consisting of morphological and phonological awareness, orthographic ability, and word reading (accuracy and speed) predicted EFL knowledge of letter sounds and names, word attack and reading comprehension. In addition to the Hebrew independent variable, English word recognition (accuracy and speed) predicted English reading comprehension. These results support the Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis (LCDH), which argues for core linguistic abilities that influence first and subsequent language reading acquisition.

In this study, college students classified as having attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who had fulfilled the foreign language (FL) requirement were compared with students classified as learning disabled (LD) or both LD and ADHD who had either substituted courses for the college FL requirement petition or had passed FL courses nonpetition on cognitive and academic achievement measures and in FL course grades. Findings revealed few between-group differences on the testing measures and also showed that all 5 groups scored in the average to above-average range on all measures of cognitive ability and academic achievement and achieved primarily average to above-average grades in college FL courses. Results indicated that petition status and disability classification were not important in differentiating the 5 groups cognitive ability, academic achievement skills, and graduating grade point average.

Colleges and universities often permit students classified as learning disabled (LD) and other students not classified as LD to substitute courses for or waive the foreign language requirement. The Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) has become an increasingly popular assessment tool to determine which students can or cannot pass foreign language courses and to diagnose a "disability" for foreign language learning. However, the use of the MLAT for these purposes has both theoretical and psychometric problems. These problems include misusing the MLAT to diagnose a learning disability or to classify students with a disability for foreign language learning; using a single test score to recommend course substitutions and waivers; using outdated test norms; and misunderstanding of the foreign language aptitude concept. The authors conclude by describing appropriate and inappropriate uses of the MLAT. (Contains 9 notes.)

Children classified as hyperlexic learn to read words spontaneously before age five, are impaired in both reading and listening comprehension, and exhibit word recognition skills above their linguistic and cognitive abilities. Despite their strong word recognition skills, previous studies have shown that the phonemic awareness skills of hyperlexic children are low and not commensurate with their word reading skill, in part because of their limited comprehension of phonemic awareness tasks. Heretofore, a very limited number of studies have investigated directly the orthographic processing, syntactic processing, and working memory skills of children with hyperlexia. In the present study, measures of orthographic processing, syntactic processing, and working memory skill were administered to three hyperlexic children and three normally achieving readers; in addition, measures of phonemic awareness, academic achievement, and cognitive ability were also administered. Results showed that the hyperlexic children performed above expectations on the orthographic processing measures based on their cognitive and linguistic abilities. The children with hyperlexia did not exhibit orthographic skills that were superior to the normally achieving readers, although ceiling effects on the orthographic tasks may not have allowed them to demonstrate this skill. The three children with hyperlexia achieved lower scores than the normally achieving readers on the syntactic processing measures and had great difficulty on the phonemic awareness measures. Only one of the three hyperlexic children performed at a level consistent with that of normally achieving readers on the working memory measures. Findings suggest the hyperlexic children had levels of orthographic processing similar to that of normally achieving readers, read words using strategies similar to those of normal readers, and had phonemic awareness skill that appears to be adequate for word analysis but could not be demonstrated on traditional phonemic awareness measures.

Two studies explore the relationship between foreign language teachers' perceptions of their students' academic skills and affective characteristics and their native language skills, foreign language aptitude, and oral and written foreign language proficiency. In Study I (replication), students who scored significantly lower on native language and foreign language aptitude measures were perceived by teachers as having weaker academic skills and also less positive attitudes, lower motivation, and higher levels of anxiety about foreign language learning than students who scored higher on these measures. In Study II (follow up), students from Study I and from an earlier study were followed through a second-year foreign language course and divided into high, average, and low groups according to their scores on a proficiency measure. Results showed that low proficiency students were perceived by foreign language teachers as having weaker academic skills and less positive affective characteristics, and also achieved lower course grades than high proficiency students. Findings suggest that foreign language teachers' perceptions of their students? affective characteristics and academic skills are related to the students' levels of native language skill.

A replication study compared 86 petition students who received course substitutions for the college foreign language (FL) requirement with 40 nonpetition students who fulfilled the requirement by passing FL courses. Findings indicate more than half of all the students did not meet criteria for learning disability classification. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Reports two studies comparing college students classified as learning disabled (LD) or as both LD and having attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who had either substituted courses for a foreign language requirement or had fulfilled the requirement by passing foreign language courses. Findings suggest students classified as both LD and ADHD may not necessarily experience serious problems with FL learning. (Author/VWL)

A study involving 158 college students with learning disabilities who were granted foreign language course substitutions found there were few cognitive and academic achievement differences among students with differing levels of IQ-achievement or achievement-achievement discrepancy on Modern Language Aptitude Test and American College Testing scores or graduating grade point average. (Contains references.) (CR)

Research on students with foreign language (FL) learning problems is reviewed and the Linguistic Coding Difference Hypotheses is described. The continuum of FL learning is explained and the role of linguistic variables in FL learning is supported. Recent research outcomes and a court decision regarding FL course substitutions are discussed. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Gives an overview of the aspects of learning disabilities in regard to teaching approaches and course substitutions for language requirements that foreign language department chairs should attend to including the following: definitions of learning disabilities, diagnosis of learning disabilities, teaching methodology for the struggling student, accommodations for the language requirement, and student rights. (Author/VWL)

Provides an extensive resource list on foreign language Learning in relation to at-risk students and students with foreign language learning problems. (Author/VWL)

Considers how children with hyperlexia who learn to read spontaneously before the age of five are impaired in reading and listening comprehension but have word recognition skills well above their measured cognitive and linguistic abilities. Reevaluates three adolescent hyperlexic students eight years after an initial evaluation. Finds levels of phonemic awareness were low and not commensurate with word reading skill. (SG)

Responds to an earlier article that introduced the concept of foreign language reading anxiety and reported the results of a preliminary study of reading anxiety. Argues that the explanations for the study findings are misguided. (Author/VWL)

Examines special issues surrounding foreign language (FL) requirements for students classified as learning disabled (LD). Focuses on why students experience FL learning problems, the problems with the definition of and diagnosis of LD, whether research supports traditional assumptions about LD and FL learning, whether students classified as LD should be permitted to substitute courses for or waive the college FL requirement, and implications of research. (Author/VWL)

A study involving a high-school student with hyperlexia and a student with above average word recognition skills, found they scored higher on Spanish proficiency tasks that required the exclusive use of phonological and phonological/orthographic skills than on Spanish proficiency tasks requiring listening comprehension and speaking and writing skills. (Contains references.) (Author/CR)

Responds to an article on learning disabilities and foreign language learning. Discusses assumptions about students classified as learning disabled (LD) with foreign language learning problems, and the assumption that students classified as LD need a different approach. (Author/VWL)

A study of 86 college students with learning disabilities (LD) that received permission to substitute courses for a foreign language (FL) requirement found that there were no differences in cognitive and academic achievement among students with different levels of discrepancy, graduating grade point average (GPA), or college FL GPA. (Author/CR)

A comparison of 46 college students with learning disabilities (LD) who received permission to waive a foreign language (FL) requirement with 21 students with LD who fulfilled the requirement found that more students who had petitioned had a 1.0 standard deviation discrepancy between IQ and achievement and were referred only for FL learning problems and not LD. (Author/CR)

Two studies examined students with learning disabilities who were allowed to substitute other courses for the college foreign-language (FL) requirement. Both studies found similar demographic, cognitive, academic achievement, and FL-aptitude profiles for the students. Article concludes that educators should not assume that students with LD require course substitutions for FL requirements or experience problems with FL learning. (Author/DB)

Discusses students classified as learning disabled in regard to foreign language requirements, since institutions are now obligated by the Americans with Disabilities Act to teach these students. Criteria on which these students are classified as learning disabled for foreign language study and granted waivers of course substitution to fulfill the foreign language requirement are investigated. (Author/VWL)

Two studies that included high school students classified as at risk for learning a foreign language are described. The first compared at-risk students classified as learning disabled with at-risk students not classified as LD. The second investigated only students classified as LD, comparing them with and without discrepancies between their scores on measures of intelligence and academic achievement (Author/JL)

A study examined the benefits of multisensory structured language (MSL) instruction in Spanish for 39 high school students at risk for foreign-language learning difficulties and 16 controls. On measures of oral and written foreign-language proficiency, the MSL and control groups scored significantly higher than those instructed using traditional methods. (Author/CR)

Seven sophomores at risk for problems with learning a foreign language were taught using a multisensory structured language approach. Over two years, they made significant gains on native language phonological/orthographic measures and a foreign language aptitude test. Despite gains, the students did not catch up with typical students on these measures. (Author/CR)

Best predictors of overall proficiency in a foreign language were examined in two experiments involving 60 high school female students in a private school and 36 10th graders in a coeducational public school. Best predictors were grade at the end of one year of study of the language and foreign language word decoding. (SLD)

This paper proposes that foreign-language learning problems result from difficulties with native-language learning. Research evidence is summarized showing that good and poor foreign-language learners exhibit significantly different levels of native-language skill and phonological processing ability. Potential challenges to this hypothesis are identified. (Author/DB)