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The Planetary Defense Conference 2023 addressed an asteroid threat scenario as difficult to confront. This article examines potential actions of relevant stakeholders, including States, the International Asteroid Warning Network, the Space Mission Planning Advisory Group, Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, and the United Nations Security Council. To that effect, different sources are taken into consideration in this analyisis, such as the legal international framework, the practice of States in multilateral fora and the opinion of scholars. The conclusions shed light on the challenges that the international community will have to face and proposes a preventive approach to mitigate the impact of such a potential catastrophe. • The impact of a huge asteroid would have catastrophic consequences on Earth. • Deflection would be difficult or impossible with a 12.5-year lead time. • Several issues would play out within the international scientific community. • Legal, social and economic aspects that governments will address are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Traditionally, the governance of outer space and the regulation of space activities have been State-centred. During the last decade, however, global space governance has been characterized by the influx of private space actors with the capacity to influence the political decision-making and regulatory scenes. This has led to laws and policies that seek to transform the status of outer space from one beyond property and sovereignty to one subject to territorial dynamics, such as through the institution of private property. Within this context, this article investigates the production of authority in modern global space governance and presents the power of private space actors at the root of such authority. At a second level and recognizing the importance of all space actors, including private actors, the article argues for the establishment of a pluralistic legal order for space activities, harmonizing the traditionally State-centred space law framework with the modern needs of the space industry that bring private actors to the fore. The article suggests the Moon Agreement as a tool for inspiration towards the construction of such a framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The Common Heritage of Humankind principle is the jurisprudential basis of priority rights. • Two aspects of priority right: priority right to mine/recover, priority right to the abstracted resources. • Considering share conversion, transition of priority right. • The implementation of rights should be considered on a case-by-case basis. • Considering investment and contribution of each actor and the principle of balanced interests as main factors. The commercial exploitation of space natural resources is becoming feasible, however, there's no specific and practicable international regime of space resources activities in lex lata yet. One of the to-be-settled key issues is how to confirm the right over the prospected or abstracted resources to the relevant space actors. The "Building Blocks for the Development of An International Framework on Space Resource Activities" drafted by the Hague International Space Resources Governance Working Group in 2019 provides the concept of priority right to space resources, which leads to a hot international debate. The common heritage of humankind principle in lex ferenda should be served as the jurisprudential basis of priority rights to space resources. The space law in future should not adopt the concept of priority right to seek for or prospect space resources. Priority right should include two aspects: priority right to mine/recover and priority right to the abstracted resources. In the process of designing this priority right, the specific mechanisms like share conversion, transition of priority right should be considered. There could be more than one state or space actor who have priority right to various extent and in different stages in context of the exploitation of the same resources, and the allocation of priority rights and the approaches to implement these rights should be considered on a case-by-case basis, according to the extent of the investment and contribution of each actor and the principle of balanced interests from the international perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Commercial spaceflight development necessitates striking a delicate balance between the public nature of outer space and the plivate nature of commercial human spaceflight. Consequently, it is imperative to establish an international liability Tegime tO e#ectively manage the costs and lisks associated with commercial human spaceflight. While general rules are provided by international space law, some nations engaged in space activities have implemented national laws to regulate liability for damages. However, establishing an international liability regime encounters various challenges, including the absence of uniform liability insurance, inconsistencies in constituent elements of liability and uncerminties surrounding the assumption and allocation of liability. To address these challenges comprehensively, the international community can introduce compulsory liability insurance, enforce strict liability for damages incumed during commercial human spaceflight operations, identify liable parties through active participation and establish a dual-liability system that fosters consensus while ensuring equitable treatment for all stakeholders involved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Luridica is the property of Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Lodzkiego and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Strategic documents of the European Union (EU) in the space sphere are analyzed in this Article. It is concluded that despite the active use of the "space doctrine" concept in the EU, regulating public legal relations through the establishment and adoption of the corresponding branch doctrine it is not an ongoing practice. The author substantiates the view that the "space doctrine" concept is not sufficiently studied today. Despite the claim that the term "doctrine" is of military origin, security and defense doctrine can be a tool of command, of education, or transformation. The dialectic-materialistic method of cognition was used as a general scientific method, which enabled to carry out a comprehensive scientific analysis of doctrinal provisions in the development of the concept of the EU space doctrine, which is proposed to be used as a unifying term for the latest European acts in the field of space security and defense. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This scientific research paper analyzes the link between space technology and space law through specifically designed Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) systems applied in manned spacecraft missions, notably by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The risk of inadequate HCI systems may lead to a wide range of undesired consequences, including risks of error or failure of mission objectives, wrongly displayed information, unavailable data and confusion of the data presented, this potentially putting astronauts aboard the spacecraft in life-threatening circumstanced within their extraterrestrial working environment. Consequently, the blame is put on the lack of appropriate policies addressing the regulation of space-related HCI systems. Hence, an international public policy framework is proposed in order to ultimately ensure astronauts' safety in space exploration, as well as minimizing the risk of space-related accidents occurring during manned spacecraft missions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reveals the latest perspectives of global digital governance for space exploration. Approaches to the formation of a general concept of global digital governance, which is focused on ensuring security, stability and inclusiveness in the digital space, are analysed. It was revealed that the formation of a model of global digital governance is characterized by certain trends that reflect the aspirations of states to ensure national security, technological leadership and economic growth. The key trends in the formation of digital governance have been identified. The importance of global digital governance for space law is determined. The main possibilities of global digital governance for space exploration are highlighted: development of international coordination and cooperation; ensuring security and infrastructure protection; development of technological innovations; expansion of economic opportunities and inclusiveness; development of science and education in the field of space law; guaranteeing environmental responsibility. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reveals the importance of space for national security. The points of interaction between space activities and national security are identified, which reflect the growing importance of outer space for ensuring the security of States and emergency management, the growth of international cooperation in the field of space technologies. The newest possibilities of space to ensure national security (warning and military intelligence systems; communication systems and means of coordination; systems of space monitoring of the environment and resource management; systems of border and maritime surveillance; development of other technologies; development of global cooperation) are revealed. The problems of ensuring the priority of national security in the use of space resources have been formed, with the formation of a global strategy that geopolitical stability and prevention of the militarization of space should become key aspects for ensuring the national security of any State. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To ensure the proper functioning of Ukraine as a space nation, one of the important factors is the development of domestic legal opinion and legislation on the outlined issue. And if the topic of the formation of space law in Ukraine appears to be more researched, then its direction, such as remote sensing of the Earth from space, requires a more detailed legal analysis and legislative regulation. Evidence of this is the draft Law of Ukraine "On State Regulation in the Field of Earth Remote Sensing," proposed in 2014, which has not yet been adopted, although its adoption is part of Ukraine's obligations under the Ukraine- EU Association Agreement. In such a case, the issue of researching the legal basis of remote sensing of the Earth from space becomes relevant, where the legal nature of this phenomenon is of primary importance. In the course of the conducted scientific research, the following legal features of remote sensing of the Earth from space were proposed: 1) it is a type of information collection based on the method of observation, which is part of such a management function as monitoring; 2) it is the activity on special space systems or their separate elements operation, as well as the accumulation, processing, integration and distribution of relevant data about the Earth; 3) it is a set of space and informational means that are functionally and organizationally interconnected and ensure proper remote sensing of the Earth from space; 4) the main technical means of remote sensing of the Earth are: radars, lidars, laser altimeters, spectrometers, radiometers, accelerometers, rangefinders, echo sounders, scatter meters, etc.; 5) it is a set of legal relations, the object of which is information necessary for the development of many spheres of human activity: meteorology, ecology, nature management, seismology, prevention of emergency situations of natural and man-made origin, agroforestry improvement activities, in the field of security and defense of the country, etc. The subjects of such legal relations are defined as operators, primary subjects of service provision, secondary subjects of service provision, consumers, as well as a set of authorized controlling authorities. The reasons for the emergence of such legal relations, to which the author includes international and domestic normative acts dedicated to the legal regulation of remote sensing of the Earth, are also revealed; 6) it is a comprehensive institution of space law; 7) is an interdisciplinary science that combines scientific developments in the specifics of space meteorology, geodesy, geology, hydrology, oceanology, earth science, etc. Based on the selected features, the author's definition of the concept of remote sensing of the Earth from space is formulated in the work. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy production, transportation, and industrial operations, which have higher carbon footprints, are frequently the focus of climate change mitigation measures. It is important to keep in mind that the processes involved in outer space launch operations, such as manufacturing, shipping and infrastructure construction have environmental impacts as well. It is critical to take into account the possible effects of space launches on the Earth's climate from a legal and regulatory perspective as the space industry is expanded rapidly. When rocket propellants burn, carbon dioxide (CO2) and harmful gases are released into the atmosphere, which contributes to greenhouse gas emissions from space launches. This research paper in Part II elaborates on human rights perspective to climate change. Part III investigates the influence of outer space activities on climate. In Part IV, the evaluation of the disproportionate effects of space launch emissions on marginalised and vulnerable populations is discussed, with an emphasis on the concepts of climate justice and equity. Part V conducts a study of national laws, international environmental treaties, space law and policy procedures asserting liability and determining compensation for potential climate damage resulting from space launch activities. Part VI proposes establishment of specific liability frameworks and policy considerations through international cooperation for space launch operations liable for any negative climate repercussions along with incentivizing sustainable propulsion technologies and supporting green infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this article is to analyze Ukraine's space policy from the viewpoint of its correlation with space law, to clarify the peculiarities of the respective interaction, its advantages and weaknesses, as well as to develop recommendations for improving the efficiency of space activities using the mechanisms of strategic planning and improving the systemic links between policy and law. The study is carried out in a chronological context: from the collapse of the USSR and the formation of an independent Ukrainian State to the present day, taking into account the dominant trends at each stage. Based on a systematic analysis of political processes and their correlation with law-making and law enforcement mechanisms, the author concludes that the current state of Ukraine's space activities is in crisis. This situation is largely due to the absence/insufficiency of strategic planning of space activities in Ukraine. Until Ukraine is placed outside the brackets of the world's space powers, it is necessary to pay serious attention to the development of a doctrine of Ukraine's space activities with the broad involvement of science. On its basis, having taken into account all economic, political, infrastructural, technological factors, as well as current existential challenges, the Strategy of Space Activities of Ukraine should be elaborated, with a legal component as an organic part of it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article examines various aspects of responsibility for irresponsible space activities related to the use of artificial intelligence. It is stated that the existing legal instruments for regulating AI do not allow us to fully make space law effective and compatible with this technology, as well as the risks that this technology can bring. An analysis of the Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1971) is carried out, an interim conclusion is made that its norms apply to spacecraft that used AI technology. It is found that the "problem of many hands" inherent in space activity leads to difficulties in tracing the causal relationship between the action of a particular person in the chain of creation, maintenance, use of AI, etc. and the damage caused by an autonomous spacecraft. The article reveals the key contradictions of the current norms of AI responsibility for irresponsible space activities and suggests ways to solve them by developing and adopting comprehensive rules of conduct in space activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Part XI Regime and the International Seabed Authority: A Twenty-Five Year Journey" is a comprehensive book that provides an overview of the Part XI regime of UNCLOS and the ISA. It covers topics such as the evolution of the ISA, dispute settlement, deep seabed mining, and liability issues. The book offers valuable perspectives for academics, practitioners, and students interested in deep seabed mining. "Regulation of Risk: Transport, Trade and Environment in Perspective" explores the regulation of risk in transportation, trade, and the environment. It covers various risk issues and challenges, including international trade, safety, public health, and new technological developments. The book provides valuable insights for advanced students, legal scholars, policymakers, and practitioners in the field. "The International Legal Regime Relating to Marine Protected Area in Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction: Identifying and Addressing Gaps" examines the gaps in existing legal regimes concerning MPAs in ABNJ. It offers valuable insights into the topic and remains relevant in academic, diplomatic, and policy discussions. "Conserving Biodiversity in Areas beyond National Jurisdiction" is a collection of papers that explore the conservation of marine biodiversity in ABNJ. It provides a comprehensive overview of the issues and challenges surrounding the establishment and management of MPAs in these areas. The book includes contributions from scholars, negotiators, and experts in the field, offering diverse perspectives. "Navires Autonomes: [Extracted from the article]

In light of the renewed global interest in Earth’s sole natural satellite, this Article ventures into the intricate legal dynamics shaping the development of a lunar mining industry. It starts by illuminating how various models of Outer Space governance can influence three critical aspects of lunar mining: (i) resource ownership rights, (ii) adherence to a non-interference policy, and (iii) commitment to environmental protection. The analysis encompasses a range of legal structures, including (a) the U.N. Outer Space treaties; (b) Alliance-based frameworks such as the Artemis Accords led by the United States, the International Lunar Research Station driven by China, the Principles proposed by the Moon Village Association, and the Building Blocks Framework spearheaded by the Hague International Working Group; as well as (c) national legislations related to space resources coming from the United States, Luxembourg, the United Arab Emirates, and Japan. Addressing the potential confusion that can stem from this diverse legal landscape, the Article proposes the creation of a unifying authority that can streamline this fragmented landscape. Drawing on precedents, the Article underscores the proposed agency’s alignment with existing Outer Space governance paradigms. It then argues for this organization’s formation under the auspices of the United Nations and provides recommendations on its structure, membership, leadership, and governance. Through the successful implementation of this proposal, this Article hopes that the Moon becomes the epicenter of a thriving mining industry set to fuel humanity’s further exploration of the universe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, new space actors have entered the field of space activities with great enthusiasm. The United Arab Emirates (UAE) is one of these newcomers investing in this domain with a broad prospect based on a specific strategy and policy. Accordingly, in 2019, the UAE developed a legal framework to govern diverse space activities in line with its strategy and policy. This Law covers many challenging and complex items that have long been on the agenda of the Legal Subcommittee of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. This article aims to investigate the UAE National Space Law to bring to light the extent to which they are moving in line with the existing principles of international space law. Firstly, the Law, among other national legislation, will be assessed to determine whether it reshapes or reflects the existing international space law. Secondly, the key provisions of the Law will be highlighted and analyzed. The final part will discuss the correlation of this Law with the concept of NewSpace. In conclusion, the author will highlight the importance of multilateralism and collective decision-making processes in developing international space law principles. • The UAE supports the private sector through favorable legislation. • The UAE National Space Law covers complex issues of international space law. • The UAE defines outer space by applying both spatialist and functionalist. • The UAE provides a new interpretation of the principle of non-appropriation. • The UAE National Space Law is in precise conformity with NewSpace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Outer space offers great potential, in terms of technological developments, access to natural resources and possibilities of exploration of and beyond the Moon. However, the exponential growth in the number of satellites, actors and types of space activities creates challenges for the continued Safety, Sustainability and Security (S3) of space activities. These challenges can be summarized as Congestion, Competition and Contestation in space, with all these trends converging (C4). This article explores how the European Union (EU) has over the past two decades been developing a space policy and how it can contribute to an effective, equitable and sustainable global governance of outer space. It argues that the EU is building a solid backbone to become a relevant power in global space governance across its different policies, but also that there is more potential to be realized, especially concerning the shaping future space law and governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Public & Private International Law Bulletin is the property of Public & Private International Law Bulletin and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Besides the numerous benefits offered by outer space, manned spaceflight has lead to some negative effects manifested by various forms of pollution when introducing terrestrial substances and materials. Considering the Rome II Regulation, Article 7 applies in cases of non-contractual obligations arising out of environmental damage or damage sustained by persons or property as a result of such damage. Giving particular emphasis on space-faring member states of the European Union and the European Space Agency in regards to the damage and/or the event giving rise to it may occur within an extraterrestrial environment, Rome II does not theoretically grasp the notion of orbital pollution due to it not being identified as an "environmental damage" in any legal source. When attempting to identify orbital pollution as an environmental damage by drawing a parallel to Rome II, two elements are analyzed: (a) specific Earth-orbits polluted with orbital debris; and (b) potential damages to persons and spacecrafts resulting from space-faring nations' failure to mitigate domestic orbital debris; this critical analysis, hence, examines whether Rome II does justice for extraterrestrial environmental damages and further argues that the extraterrestrial environment - along with persons and property within - is just as equally endangered as the terrestrial environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research article explores the issue of the formation of international legal principles on the prevention of the placement of weapons in outer space (1959-1979). The historical prerequisites and main provisions of key international treaties related to this issue are analyzed. The gradual formation of key agreements in the context of political confrontation and mistrust between the leading space powers, which is considered in the research, was an important step in limiting and containing the arms race in outer space. The article also discusses the limitations and gaps of the main agreements of international space law and related agreements, which only partially regulate the military use of space and do not address new types of weapons and technologies that can be deployed or used in outer space for military purposes. The article suggests that one of the ways to strengthen the international legal framework for outer space demilitarization is the development of new international agreements that would prohibit the proliferation and use of such weapons and technologies in space, and that would protect outer space from aggressive military activities. Moreover, the article justifies the importance of the international legal regulation of the military use of outer space as a tool for preventing an arms race in outer space. It can include such issues as regulation of new types of weapons and their deployment that are not prohibited by main international agreements of international space law and ensuring the peaceful use of outer space. The article also presents an explanation concerning a concept of «weaponization of space», which is part of the military use of space. In this vein, it evokes the necessity of further strengthening of the international legal regulation of the discussed topic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In particular, the article hints at the possibility of conflicts between states due to competition for resources in space, as well as the lack of full regulation of legal aspects in interstellar space. Particular attention is paid to the development of international treaties and mechanisms aimed at resolving these issues and ensuring peace and cooperation in outer space. Such documents can become the basis for creating a single legal space in outer space, where the rights and obligations of all entities will be clearly defined. The article concludes by emphasizing that the development of future space technologies requires a global approach to legal regulation to ensure security and stability in space, as well as the use of these new opportunities for the common benefit of all mankind. The article examines the topical issue of application of private international law to space travel over distances of light years using advanced technologies of the future. Travelling in space over such a vast distance is becoming increasingly realistic due to the development of astronomical research and technological progress. Legal aspects are an important aspect of such travel, as space activities raise numerous legal issues. Private international law defines the legal status of persons and objects in space representing different states. The application of this law requires resolving issues of jurisdiction, ownership, liability, and conflict resolution between different states and space actors. Future technologies, such as high-speed interstellar transportation and expanded habitat modules in space stations, introduce new challenges to the regulation of these issues. The article raises a lot of questions to which answers will still be found, and this process is a process that belongs to the future. At this stage, it is not known who else in the world would raise similar issues in the context of private international law, public international law, and international law in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article is devoted to the study of the legal aspects of the implementation of the norms of space law in Ukraine regarding the implementation of the national registration of space objects. It was established that the registration-legal connection between a space object and the state is a legal element that determines the presence or absence of a stipulated right of state jurisdiction over a space object in outer space. It is proven that the implementation of the exclusive jurisdiction of the state depends on the existence of a clear mechanism for the national registration of space objects and the effective functioning of their state register. Based on the analysis of the norms of international space law, it was determined that the «state of registration» of a space object is its «launch state», which maintains a register of space objects. It is emphasized that the «launch state» should introduce a national procedure for registering space objects, which involves the creation of a state register. The legal significance of their registration lies in the fact that entering a space object into the register is a legally significant action that enables the application of the norms of national legislation. It is the "launch state" tha thas received and implemented the right to register the space object, will have the legal status of the "r egistration state" and will implement quasiterritorial jurisdiction over the object during its stay in out er space. It is argued that the legislative norm on the mandatory state registration of spacecraft in the State Register of Spacecraft of Ukraine does not currently create legal consequences for the subjects of the relevant legal relationship, since the Rules for the Registration of Spacecraft in Ukraine have not been approved by the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine yet. Legal uncertainty regarding the rules of their registration creates a potentially dangerous jurisdictional vacuum during the stay of spacecraft in outer space, which can lead to the emer gence of negative legal situations. The primary step of the state in solving this problem should be the establishment of a clear and effective procedure for the national registration of space objects. This will contribute to ensuring legal stability and compliance of Ukrainian space legislation with the norms and principles of international space law, as well as guaranteeing the preservation of Ukraine's jurisdiction over objects launched into outer space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims to describe and assess the dispute settlement mechanisms available to States in the context of space and telecommunications activities. Disputes either between private actors or between private actors and States are beyond the scope of this research. The choice to examine mechanisms and procedures for the settlement of international disputes in these specific areas stems from an elective affinity between these sectors, given the existing interaction between them. At a first level, the paper highlights the importance of mechanisms to prevent the creation of international disputes, both in the field of space law (mainly through Art. IX of the Outer Space Treaty) and in the field of international telecommunications (Arts. 45 para. 3, 48 of the ITU Constitution). Further, the general scheme of peaceful settlement of international disputes, as enshrined in the UN Charter not only applies to the disputes in question but is further specified in the context of space and telecommunications law (Liability Convention, Art. 56 of the ITU Constitution), with a clear orientation towards the use of diplomatic rather than judicial means of resolution. Last but not least, if the settlement of disputes through diplomatic means fails, the preferred judicial mechanism is that of arbitration, as it is clearly demonstrated by the Claims Commission of Art. XIV LIAB, the PCA "Optional Rules for Arbitration" of space disputes, the mechanism of Art. 41 of the ITU Convention as well as the relevant "Optional Protocol". The specific options for dispute settlement show that, in view of the common interest of States in "international goods" of a technical nature, the actors involved are mainly interested in the non-occurrence of disputes rather than in their resolution through judicial means. And when they do so, they choose to resort to flexible resolution mechanisms (arbitration) rather than to ordinary international courts. • There is an elective affinity between telecommunications and space activities. • States are mainly interested in preventing disputes than to resolve those arising. • States opt for diplomatic resolution mechanisms instead of jurisdictional ones. • Ιf diplomatic settlement fails, the preferred judicial mechanism is arbitration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We are experiencing a period of renewed interest in human activities in outer space and, in particular, the return of humans to the Moon. Multiple lunar missions, including the NASA led Artemis project and the China and Russia International Lunar Research Station propose a sustained human presence on the Moon which will require in-situ resource extraction and usage. This article explores the likely impact of statements and actions by states on the future evolution of international space law in relation to space resource activities, highlighting the urgent need for greater clarity in the law regarding space resource activities. It will examine the relevant international law, domestic legislation, multilateral agreements, and recent international discussions concerning space resource activities. It concludes that the current international space law regime lacks clear laws regarding space resource activities and emphasises the importance of space law evolving in order to progress with industry and exploration. • Current international law lacks clear guidance regarding the legal frameworks applicable to space mining. • Competing domestic laws and guidelines may create tension between competing users of the Moon. • An international framework is needed to clarify the rules of resource extraction and use in space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is no doubt that space matters in today's time. We have become highly reliant on space science and technology; life without it cannot be imagined. No one can deny the significance of space safety. Thus, for the smooth functioning of life, there is a need for safety and security in outer space. So, it would not be wrong to say that we are at the mercy of these new space technologies. Currently, space debris has been facing universal embryonic challenge to the sustainable activities of outer space, and if not coped at the earliest, the world would face titanic catastrophe. From the preceding decades, there have been some crashing episodes that heightened the space debris build-up, and the speed at which myriad space activities have caused the production of debris. Such huge congregation of debris can pose dangers to the working space satellites. It could also fetch numerous challenges at the same time. In addition, the tremendous development in space technology, involvement of private sector in space activities, Anti Satellite tests adventure of space powers, weaponization and commercialization (space tourism) has made outer space more vulnerable. Presently, there is a dearth of stringent space laws with regards to the proliferation of space debris. So, these issues can have an impact on the long-term sustainability of space activities. Progressing and advanced space faring nations have found the worth of a proficient International Regime that can play a vital role for ordering, overseeing, and managing the research and advancement of space. The paper will magnet the attention towards the real legal, technical, financial and managerial facts. Some countries are capable of removing space debris but encounter many obstacles while applying such actions. Besides who will bear the expense for the removal of space debris as its prerequisites giant sum of money. This paper is going to put forward an independent international space regime (ISR). In order to meet the financial issues this paper proposed to establish a Global Debris Removal Fund. The old-fashioned space law regime is the core obstruction for the debris removal procedure. Finally, it is desirable that all legal issues be fixed through the innovative procedures and reformed international space law (ISL) system with inclusive coordination and co-operation. Thus, it would be the perfect ISR for the resolutions of remediation and mitigation of space debris. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses what Ghana needs for the development of legal and scientific education programmes to manage framework of biodiversity and the ecosystem. The first part of the article examines literature produced on this topic, which offers many clues about the challenges and opportunities facing Ghana, as well as the lessons that can be learned from both other space nations and actors in this field. When looking at perceptions, the second part explores material taken from ethically approved interviews which were conducted with experts in this field, whilst the third section provides an analysis of data taken from a survey in which respondents were asked targeted questions about Ghana's space and science education programmes, before summarising the key findings. The findings help to better understand the effect of biodiversity and the ecosystem. Finally, it is recommended that future work is required in the areas of: preserving, sustaining and maintaining biodiversity and the ecosystems; management frameworks for invasive species and biosecurity; management frameworks for environmental degradation and climate change; a management framework that focuses on the fair and equitable access to and sharing of the benefits of biodiversity resources with all communities in Ghana; and assessing and including biodiversity and ecosystem in the development process of space law and science education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid growth of China's national resources in the space domain may change the gap in power between China and the United States in relevant international rulemaking. This article proposes an analytical framework for identifying, comparing, and analyzing states' power resources critical to international rulemaking and uses the framework to compare the relevant resources between China and the United States in the space domain. First, this paper develops a method for identifying resources crucial to international rulemaking in outer space. The relevant resources of the two countries are then compared in this article. Finally, the article explores comparative advantages, consensus, differences, and cooperation possibilities of the two countries in specific international space rules. The framework could be adapted to compare diverse nations' resources critical to international rulemaking in other fields; it contributes to research on space law, international legislation, and national power. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on various aspects of state engagement in space, covering topics such as space diplomacy, challenges posed by space debris to the space economy's sustainability, and the regulation of space resource activities. Contributors delve into issues including the funding of dual-use space assets, contrasting EU and US attitudes toward space traffic management, and the strategic evolution of space activities in Portugal.

Portugal is one of the most recent countries to have passed national space legislation and to have in place a national space policy and strategy. The Portuguese Decree-Law no. 16/2019, of 22 January, and subsequent legal diplomas were not only an historical milestone, but above all, a strategic and geopolitical one. Relying on the European Space Agency's technical support, the country is developing a spaceport on the Azores islands for the launch of small commercial satellites. The signs are indeed positive, yet from a legal point of view, it is still premature to anticipate whether Portuguese space law can, in fact, provide a robust response to the growing interest in space activities in Portugal. As such, this contribution addresses the strategic, political, and legal evolution of space activities in Portugal, focusing on the current legal framework, its potential, but also the challenges it may encounter, assessing possible paths to improve and respond to public and private needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Article 11 (1) of the 1979 Moon Agreement enshrined the principle of the common heritage of humankind in space law. As of 2023, the Moon Agreement has been ratified by fewer than 20 countries, with many considering this principle the reason for it. This is mostly due to a lack of understanding (and many misconceptions) of its precise meaning and legal effects. However, due to the recent focus on space resource activities, it is fundamental that we understand it and how it can be helpful to regulate space resource activities in an equitable and fair manner. In this article, I analyse and explain the common heritage principle and its elements. First, I look at its interpretation in scholarly work in order to identify its features in international law. Following this, I address the Outer Space Treaty as the basis of the Moon Agreement. I end with an assessment of the latter treaty, to understand the dimensions of common heritage in space law. After these steps, I submit that the common heritage principle should not be discarded and remains the best approach to the issue of space resource activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the multifarious roles played by state actors in space, tracing the historical context of the Cold War space race and discussing the current landscape where commercial entities dominate much of space activity, yet states still hold regulatory and oversight responsibilities. Topics include the evolving balance between state and commercial involvement in space, the significance of state policies and regulations, and the importance of international political economy.

The UK Space Industry Act 2018 has now been supplemented with the new Space Industry Regulations. While examples of Space Tourism grace our screens and newsfeeds on an increasingly regular basis such as William Shatner's recent voyage (Luscombe, 2021) the UK Regulations also pave the way for 'human occupants' (UK Space Industry Regulations, Regulation 2) to experience such a flight (UK Space Agency, 2020). A key part of the regulations pertaining to human occupants is that they must provide 'informed consent' before embarking on such a flight. If, as is likely to be the case, future courts are to draw analogies with the current state of medical law in this area, spaceflight operators will have to tread carefully if they are to avoid vitiating any informed consent by 'bombarding' any willing human occupant with technical detail prior to their flight (Simmonds, 2020). Whilst this could prove legally problematic for 'capacitous' individuals within the meaning of the Mental Capacity Act 2005, it is likely to be even more so for those who could be deemed, in some aspects of their cognitive ability, to lack capacity. UK Space Legislation as it presently stands faces three problems: 1) There is presently no legal mechanism under UK Space Law to determine capacity. 2) As examples from the Court of Protection indicate, 'capacity' is a very nuanced legal concept and individuals who, on the fact of things, may appear to lack capacity as regards potentially risky activities, have been regarded by the Courts as, at least, partially capacitous in respect of certain decisions. Operators may find themselves having to tread a fine line to avoid claims of discrimination. 3) because of point 1) and the state of the Law of Contract as regards contractual relationships entered into by potentially incapacitous individuals, further significant legal problems may present themselves. This paper will focus primarily on the Law in England and Wales but some of the overarching conclusions will be of relevance to all UK jurisdictions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reveals the main aspects of the organization of cooperation in space activities at the initial stage of its development when the fiercest space race between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America was taking place. The main goals of the international community concerning joint research and development of outer space and celestial bodies, as well as the circumstances that influenced the formation of such cooperation at this stage, are explained and analyzed. In addition, the article is also concerned with the issue of the international bodies establishment related to the organization and control of joint space activity, the issue of the organization of interstate cooperation in outer space in the direction of creating communication accessible to the population of the entire planet with the help of satellites, the issue of legal regulation of joint activity in outer space and on celestial bodies, as well as the issue of creating an international network of spaceports for launching sounding rockets by all interested participants in space activities (in particular, to make it possible for non-state organizations to take part in space activities). Considering the modern competition among states in the struggle for dominance in outer space and on celestial bodies and the dangers that such a competition brings, the study returns to the origins of space activity to identify and analyze the factors that influenced the formation of international cooperation in space (both negatively and positively). The main focus is on international documents adopted by the United Nations General Assembly between 1959 and 1962. Specifically, the results of the study of the three main Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in this period regarding international cooperation in the use of outer space for peaceful purposes are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is the fourth article in the study related to analyzing the process of regulation of space activities. Considering the results of previous studies of documents adopted by the international community during the 1958-1963 period in the regulation of space activities, this article continues the presentation of the study of the process of Outer Space Public Law development. The article describes the initiatives of the international community (including the UN General Assembly) connected with the regulation of relations among States in matters of the use of outer space and celestial bodies. First of all, it describes the process of gradual formation of one of the most important international principles of Public Space Law, which can be attributed to the group of General Principles of Space Activities, namely, "The Principle of a Useful Cosmos". Also, legal conflicts and difficulties that arose at the initial stage of the formation of this principle as well as the consequences to which they could lead are described. In addition, the article describes the process of formation of another very important principle of Public Space Law that can also be included in the group of General Principles of Space Activity, namely, "The Principle of Space Traffic", which at that time already consisted of three special principles formed under the influence of specific international initiatives. Thus, the initiative to streamline space vehicle launches into outer space formed "The Principle of launch registration". The initiative to organize interaction among States regarding astronauts and space vehicles launched into space formed "The Principle of mutual assistance" In turn, the initiative to organize the safety of space activities formed "the Principle of Responsibility". At the same time, all these principles were developed only in the form of Conventionalis stipulatio, which were mainly set out in the Resolutions and Declarations of the UN General Assembly. Considering the above, it is necessary to pay attention again to the fact that the researcher should not expect from the "Outer Space Law" the form in which this "Law" is accustomed to consider, due to the exclusivity of the environment to which this new "Law" was formed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stagnation in the development of the process of regulation of relations in outer space and on celestial bodies as well as a large number of gaps and contradictions in this area along with impressive technical progress in the field of space activities and the expansion of its subject composition have led to the need to reconsider existing approaches to regulating such relations. This article is the beginning of an extensive study of the process and results of the regulation of space activities from 1958 to the present day. The purpose of this study is a deep analysis of international documents adopted for the entire period of space activities, as well as an attempt to highlight the basic principles, concepts, models, and rules of space activities. The results of this study will make it possible to understand the issues that remain unresolved and the gaps in the field of space law and also set new tasks for the development of space law and suggest ways to solve them. This article includes a review and analysis of international documents adopted at the first stage of the development of space activities (1958-1963), and also the goals and conditions for their adoption. As a result of this analysis, the article presents a list and description of the tasks that were formed by the international community at this stage along with the difficulties that arose at the stage of their formation and implementation. In addition, a new vision of the concepts that arose at this stage in connection with the need to regulate space activities is proposed. In the future, the results of this analysis will allow us to continue the study of space relationships to determine and describe the essence of the legal systems that regulate or may regulate space activities, as well as to identify (define, classify, and formulate) spatial-territorial jurisdictions and subject-object composition of participants in space activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The article highlights the actual problems of ensuring the Global Security of the World and Ukraine. The results of studying the experience of the Geneva Center for Security Policy and the legal provision of security are presented. The article presents the results of the Ukrainian experience of participating in the mission of the Geneva Center for Security Policy in terms of ensuring Space Security. The problem of Asteroid Hazard is singled out, and the possibility of its elimination using the Science & Space LLC launch vehicle as a carrier of kinetic weapons is described. The legal basis for the use of weapons in outer space and the inevitability of liability for their use are considered – even in the kinetic missile version, which is not a weapon of mass destruction. The world experience in the topic of Global and Space Security under study is considered.

The space industry is one of the most technologically advanced industries that aims for scientific explorations that benefit humanity on multiple fronts. Further, Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies comprise game-changing tools that could be utilized to facilitate space exploration aims. The emergence of AI in the space industry would evolve how both industries look. Since many challenges in the current space industry could be addressed by implementing artificial intelligence, space objects will create "Intelligent Space Objects". Different studies were conducted to explore the implementation of AI technologies in space activities and their legal implications. The scope of this paper goes beyond the existing work. It will investigate the main AI applications in space and then explore their legal challenges, including issues related to regulations, liability, and policy questions. Accordingly, it will discuss the need for developing a novel legal framework to address these challenges, creating a strategic opportunity for international collaboration between states and organizations that will contribute to advancing space law. This study will review, evaluate, and analyze the current situation and recommend ways to establish a novel international space organization. Doi: 10.28991/HIJ-2023-04-01-04 Full Text: PDF

Stagnation in the development of the process of regulation of relations in outer space and on celestial bodies as well as a large number of gaps and contradictions in this area along with impressive technical progress in the field of space activities and the expansion of its subject composition have led to the need to reconsider existing approaches to regulating such relations. This article is the beginning of an extensive study of the process and results of the regulation of space activities from 1958 to the present day. The purpose of this study is a deep analysis of international documents adopted for the entire period of space activities, as well as an attempt to highlight the basic principles, concepts, models, and rules of space activities. The esults of this study will make it possible to understand the issues that remain unresolved and the gaps in the field of space law and also set new tasks for the development of space law and suggest ways to solve them. This article includes a review and analysis of international documents adopted at the first stage of the development of space activities (1958–1963), and also the goals and conditions for their adoption. As a result of this analysis, the article presents a list and description of the tasks that were formed by the international community at this stage along with the difficulties that arose at the stage of their formation and implementation. In addition, a new vision of the concepts that arose at this stage in connection with the need to regulate space activities is proposed. In the future, the results of this analysis will allow us to continue the study of space relationships to determine and describe the essence of the legal systems that regulate or may regulate space activities, as well as to identify (define, classify, and formulate) spatial-territorial jurisdictions and subject-object composition of participants in space activities.

As the reliance on Global Positioning System (GPS) technology grows, so does the vulnerability to intentional disruption. This article delves into the fundamentals of GPS, exploring its functionality and significance in modern warfare. Drawing upon this understanding, it proposes a set of Navigation Warfare tenets--Safeguard, Intercept, and Preserve--to address the emerging threats to GPS. The article also emphasizes the increasing concern within the Department of Defense (DOD) regarding Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and GPS jamming. It argues that safeguarding GPS is of paramount importance to maintain operational advantage and protect military assets. By analyzing the potential consequences of a degraded or denied GPS environment, the article highlights the urgent need for proactive measures. To address these challenges, the article outlines a range of techniques, tactics, and procedures (TTPs) that senior military leaders can employ. Four key TTPs are proposed: Anticipation, Consistent Observation, Encryption, and Reporting. These measures aim to equip military forces with the necessary tools and strategies to effectively navigate and prevail in a degraded or denied GPS environment. Through this comprehensive examination, the article seeks to contribute to the discourse on the protection of GPS technology and provide practical guidance for military leaders in enhancing operational resilience. By adopting the proposed Navigation Warfare tenets and implementing the outlined TTPs, military forces can better prepare themselves to confront and overcome the challenges posed by EMI and GPS jamming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the presence of real risks to sustainable development, which manifest in the everyday reality of today. Attention is drawn to this issue in the context of the privileged position of certain states over others, enabling them to advance the concept of “war and peace” in their favor. Evidence is presented to confirm the lack of security guarantees even when adhering to international norms and having official agreements. The problems of state monopolies and individual private entities violating the principle of equality are outlined. The consequences of this phenomenon are demonstrated in the context of regulating outer space. Other challenges for ensuring collective security are characterized through the lens of the absence of sovereignty of any country within the confines of outer space. Various conflict resolution options for violations of rules or the order of space activities are identified, emphasizing the need to develop new rules for space flights and stay on space objects, followed by the implementation of different standards of behavior in space. The overall coherence of the material is achieved through the cumulative use of fundamental research methods such as analysis, argumentation, and presentation of evidence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research addresses the critical importance of long-term sustainability and coordinated management of space traffic in the era of rapidly increasing space activities. It focuses on the necessity for globally coordinated action and robust legal frameworks to ensure operational, feasible, and enforceable space sustainability and traffic management strategies. The discussion highlights the environmental, ethical, and economic challenges posed by space debris and the proliferation of space activities. It also examines key initiatives and guidelines for space sustainability and traffic management, including the roles of space situational awareness (SSA) and the integration of SSA capabilities with effective space traffic management (STM). The presentation emphasizes the urgency of promoting environmentally responsible behaviors and sustainable practices in space activities, advocating for a future-focused approach that balances current needs with the preservation of outer space for future generations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a comprehensive examination of the current and emerging challenges in the governance of space activities, focusing on promoting safety and security. Key international treaties and resolutions, including those under the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNCOPUOS), are discussed, highlighting their evolution in response to changing geopolitical dynamics and the expansion of space activities across various sectors. The paper addresses several critical challenges: ensuring diverse global voices are heard in space governance, managing the dichotomy of space in terms of its strategic value and dual-use nature, achieving consensus among the rapidly growing number of space-faring nations, defining and delimiting space, adapting to the commercialization of space activities, and confronting the growing problem of space debris. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]