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We assessed diurnal variation of Chironomidae exuviae in two small upland streams in temperate Australia, during summer. Understanding the diel periodicity of exuviae can be an important consideration for biomonitoring purposes or to investigate adult emergence patterns. We collected 1,813 floating exuviae, comprising 54 taxa from four subfamilies, from flowing water using a drift net. Unlike many northern hemisphere temperate studies, we observed that peak exuviae abundance (7.3 exuviae per m³) and taxon richness (1.7 taxa per m³) occurred in the dusk and night hours, with the lowest numbers (0.9 exuviae per m³) and taxon richness (0.6 taxa per m³) recorded in the late morning to early afternoon. We suggest that this could be an adaptation to avoid stressful weather during the heat of summer days, or it could be to avoid visual predators. The numerically dominant taxa exhibited peak abundance in the dusk/night samples which indicates predominant crepuscular/nocturnal patterns of adult emergence. This pattern was consistent across both streams surveyed. Our taxon inventory rose steeply during the first 24-h occasion, then at a reduced rate during the second and third days of sampling. For flowing water collections of exuviae that utilise drift-netting, we suggest that sampling at all sites includes at least three 24-h cycles and avoids periods of heavy rainfall and increased stream flow.

In many countries the ubiquitous farm dam or pond is an integral component of agricultural landscapes. In Australia there are in excess of half a million farm ponds, used largely for irrigation or for watering stock. In contrast to Europe, these wetlands are being decommissioned in response to the introduction of government policy that regulates water usage from these dams. They are also being in-filled with expanding urbanisation without consideration of their benefits as reservoirs of biodiversity. We compared the diversity of macroinvertebrates in farm dams with nearby stream habitats on a cool temperate tableland in central New South Wales. There was greater diversity in-stream than in the dams; however, dam sites showed a larger mean diversity and total diversity per site than in-stream. Species recorded in-stream were more frequently represented by single individuals while species were recorded more consistently in dams. We also observed that macroinvertebrate assemblages were more similar to those in the same dam in different seasons than to adjacent dams in the same season. Some species recorded had not previously been recorded from farm dams. In contrast to the general consensus that Australian farm dams are homogeneous environments with a range of common widespread species, we showed that they provide a variety of sustainable reservoirs of biodiversity within the landscape. They also have the potential to provide ‘stepping stones’ between undisturbed and modified habitats, in part countering the fragmentation that occurs as a result of agricultural practices.

Macroinvertebrates have been widely used in freshwater ecosystems as surrogates to assess the impacts of waste discharges and water pollution. However, often interpretations have been made on the impact of one pollutant in the presence of others that may provide an unidentified additive effective or otherwise confound the results. There have been few opportunities to study the impact of pollutants without such potentially confounding effects. We studied macroinvertebrates using a replicated kick sampling technique and identified to the family level to assess and compare the effects of zinc-rich coal-mine waste and organic pollution from treated sewage on an otherwise clean upland stream network within a world heritage area. We used multivariate analysis of macroinvertebrate assemblages from polluted and clean sites to measure and compare the effect of each waste impact to community structure. We also calculated three widely used biotic indices (Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) family richness, family richness, and abundance) and found that the EPT index was the only one to respond to both pollution types. Macroinvertebrate abundance was an important attribute of the study, with each source of pollution having a contrasting effect on total abundance. It also helped us to measure the relative response of families to each pollutant. There was an initial significant modification of macroinvertebrate assemblages below the outflow of each of the pollutants, followed by different degrees of recovery downstream.

Biodiversity offsets are voluntary conservation activities that are designed to offset residual, unavoidable damage to biodiversity caused by development activities. The concept is also known by terms such as setasides, compensatory habitat, and mitigation banks. Recent legislation in New South Wales (Australia) provides an additional legislative tool in the attempt to counter balance biodiversity loss due to expanding urbanisation. A key role is played by the consultant ecologist who is at the interface between other vested interests: governments, the legal system, developers, and landholders wishing to trade biodiversity credits. In this paper we reflect on the role of the consultant ecologist in the biodiversity offset (“BioBanking”) process, and touch on some of the pitfalls including the lack of knowledge of the function and components of most ecosystems, the immaturity of the scientific disciplines that underpin decision making, and problems on ensuring integrity of objectivity and independence in s...

In golf course development there is frequently remnant vegetation on the areas unused for infrastructure. We propose that these areas, together with a whole range of other reserves including sporting fields, cemeteries, railway reserves and educational facilities may be the source of degraded remnant vegetation and associated open space that could be used to provide offsets for biodiversity. We followed the changes in vertebrate biodiversity with low key alteration to management of the Camden Lakeside Golf Course to assess if such areas had the potential for biodiversity banking offsets. Birds, bats, frogs and reptiles increased in species diversity over time. Frogs and reptiles tended to peak in species numbers during the observational period but bat and bird diversity continued to increase. We concluded that on this ‘island’ within a matrix of urbanisation and cleared agricultural lands without remnant vegetation, observed changes in diversity made such areas potential sites for biodiversity banking offsets.

Summary 1. World wide, and in Australia, many frog populations have declined over the last two decades. The present study was undertaken to determine whether urbanization has affected frog diversity and abundance. 2. Five urban sites were paired with non-urban sites. Urban sites were in Katoomba and Blackheath, and were subject to physical environmental disturbance and impacted by storm water pollution due to urban runoff. Non-urban sites were in the Blue Mountains National Park and were effectively subject to no human impact. 3. Water quality at urban sites was typical of sites polluted with sewage, while non-urban sites exhibited water quality typical of ‘pristine’ natural bushland streams. 4. Six species were found at urban sites (Litoria peronii, Litoria dentata, Litoria verreauxii, Limnodynastes dumerilii, Limnodynastes peronii, Crinia signifera), with up to four species present at a site. Only one species (C. signifera) was recorded at non-urban sites, and frogs were absent from most non-urban sites. 5. The situation in non-urban sites mirrors the trend of decline observed in other montane regions. Surprisingly, frog abundance and diversity were higher in urban habitats, running counter to this trend. 6. We hypothesize that the salts, detergents and other chemicals in urban wastewaters provide frogs with a level of protection against disease, particularly chytridiomycosis.

The influence of weirs on the distribution of freshwater mussels was investigated in the Hawkesbury-Nepean River, Australia. Distribution of species and densities of size classes were strongly correlated with catchment level factors (e.g. location around a major impoundment, stream order). At catchment scale, weir height, presence of a fish barrier, fish ladder type and position above or below small weirs did not influence the presence/absence of mussel populations. Lower mussel densities in the upper catchment may therefore reflect inhibition of host fish migration. Where present, weir height and geomorphic reach type were linked to differences in densities among species. Geomorphic reach-based differences were reflected by the Hyridella species, but not Velesunio ambiguus. When population structure was described by size class distribution, there were significant differences between densities of small and medium mussels from weirs above, compared to weirs below, a major impoundment, but not for large mussels. Upstream populations may therefore be functionally extinct. Distribution of mussel size classes differed among geomorphic reach types with highest densities for each class found in the least human-impacted reaches. Small mussels were almost invariably found below the major impoundment, most frequently below weirs. Distribution patterns were inconsistent across species, suggesting habitat preference. V. ambiguus and Hyridella australis were most abundant in shale reaches, where assemblages were influenced by fish ladder type. Hyridella depressa and H. australis dominated in sandstone gorges and straights with assemblage density related to weir height. In upper catchment sandstone reaches, mussel assemblages comprising predominantly V. ambiguus were influenced by fish ladder type and weir height. While multiple factors defined localized distribution, large impoundments were linked with reduced population densities. The probable mechanism is the restriction of host fish movement and resulting lack of recruitment. In the Hawkesbury-Nepean River, smaller weirs also seriously impacted recruitment. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Alligator weed, Alternanthera philoxeroides (Martius) Grisebach, of the family Amaranthaceae, has become a weed in many countries outside of its natural range in South America. In Australia, it is classified as a weed of national significance because of its potential to devastate agricultural and natural ecosystems. In New South Wales, the weed management officers of local government areas are charged with its control. In 2007, we surveyed this group to determine the status of alligator weed in each jurisdiction and to determine the methods and resources used in its control. Half of the local government area officers who responded reported its presence. The age, number, and size of the infestations indicated that the weed continues to spread into new areas, and is well established in others, at least within local government areas. The resources provided for the weed's management across the local government areas was less than had been expended annually on its removal from a single swamp. The respondents acknowledged that the current approach was inadequate and the need for research into its management was identified. We conclude that, with current management, the weed will continue to spread and recommend that the community should be mobilized to identify new areas of infestation and appropriately train people (e.g. bush restoration consultants, Landcare groups) to remove the weed.

1. Australian freshwater turtles are widely distributed throughout the continent, and in each river catchment there are at least two taxa. In south-eastern Australia Chelodina longicollis and forms of Emydura macquarii co-habit within a waterway, although they have been shown to partition habitat within the water column in non-urban bodies of water. Limited comparative data are available for the urban populations. 2. Within urban Sydney C. longicollis (eastern long-necked turtle) and Emydura macquarii dharuk (Sydney short-necked turtle) share habitat. However, in contrast with non-urban studies of C. longicollis and other sympatric E. macquarii taxa, it was observed that the population profile of the two species was similar at all sites, and that C. longicollis were present in greater numbers than E. m. dharuk. 3. The continued degradation of preferred habitat, low recruitment, and potential competition from introduced turtles place both species in a precarious position. 4. The shallow, impounded waterways of the regulated urban bodies of water align more closely with the preferred habitat of C. longicollis than with that of forms of E. macquarii, which prefer deeper flowing waters or large wetlands adjacent to rivers. Emydura m. dharuk may be at greatest risk of extinction in urban areas. 5. Across urban Sydney, the low numbers of E. m. dharuk compared with C. longicollis may be due to the lack of mobility of E. m. dharuk such that individuals tend to be stranded in sub-optimal habitat. In contrast, C. longicollis has a greater propensity for overland movement, and a preference for the ‘new habitat’ resulting from urban impacts on the associated waterways, and thus appears to be able to utilize these modified urban waters more successfully. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

1. Microhabitat preferences of freshwater mussels and associated substrate characteristics were investigated across a range of geomorphic reaches in the Hawkesbury–Nepean River, Australia. 2. The structure of substratum patches available was strongly influenced by geomorphic reach type. In each reach type, mussel distribution was most frequently correlated with coarse sand and a roughness element characteristic for that reach. Roughness elements such as boulders and cobbles create a flow refuge and were linked with mussel size. 3. Small mussels tended to be associated with boulder-stabilized habitats and medium sized mussels with cobble habitats. Large mussels rarely co-occurred with any particular roughness element. Individual species were strongly linked to geomorphic reach type. This association may be due to species' differences in ability to colonize available microhabitat types. 4. The highly tolerant Velesunio ambiguus dominated shale reaches, characterized by fine sediments and human impacts. In contrast, Hyridella depressa dominated in gorges, utilizing small flow refuges among boulders, while H. australis were present in low densities across a range of substrate conditions. 5. The persistence of multispecies assemblages in mussel beds throughout the Hawkesbury–Nepean River implies similar niche utilization among species. Partitioning of habitats across species on the basis of size suggests some degree of habitat selection, or differential survival. At the local scale, microhabitat characteristics influenced the size distribution and densities of mussel assemblages. Continuing declines in mussel densities are likely to result from ongoing channel modification and increased siltation resulting from changes to riparian vegetation. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The predator–prey relationship plays an integral role in community structure. In the presence of habitat fragmentation, the dynamic interaction among co-existing species may be disrupted. In this paper we investigated the interaction between small skinks resident in open woodland remnants and the predatory birds that cross-forage between the remnants and the surrounding peri-urban matrix. Skinks were found in significantly fewer numbers in the edge of remnants compared to their core. In contrast, predatory birds were in largest numbers at the edge compared to the core of remnants. We found that there was a strong negative correlation between skink numbers and predatory birds (individually and combined) consistent with higher predation pressure in the edge compared to the core of remnants. Strike rates on decoys that mimicked skinks were also higher in the edge compared to core habitats, consistent with higher predation rates in this edge habitat.

Action on issues of ecological significance often requires changes in personal behaviour and political consensus on technologies to support these changes. Unfortunately, many consultation processes only engage a narrow range of stakeholders, usually those professionally engaged or already active on a range of community issues. This paper illustrates how people who are ‘hard to reach’ or seen as ‘apathetic’ might be engaged using ‘action-conversations’ that explore the social climate for action and how scientific/technical messages can be framed in the language of the community.

The role of animals in seed dispersal is widely acknowledged and turtles have been reported to act as vectors. All reports of turtles dispersing seeds to date have been via endozoochrony. The first evidence of turtles being epizoochronic dispersers of seeds via their carapacial algal mat is reported here. Chelodina longicollis is widespread and abundant throughout most of the eastern fringe of mainland Australia and throughout the largest inland river system, the Murray Darling Basin. They are the most terrestrially mobile of the Australian freshwater turtles and they are the most indiscriminate in habitat choice, inhabiting the entire range of water bodies from rivers to small ephemeral wetlands. Our results showed that turtles with even moderate carapacial algae can act as vectors in the dispersal of seeds associated with wetlands. However, as C. longicollis is unlikely to be unique among the freshwater turtles in this regard, we conclude that epizoochory is likely to occur in other turtle species.

Offsets, first formalised in the United States of America in the 1970s for wetland mitigation, are now widely used globally with the aim to mitigate loss of biodiversity due to development. Embracing biodiversity offsets is one method of governments to meet their commitments under the Millennium Development Goals and the Convention on Biological Diversity. Resource extraction companies see them as a method of gaining access to land, while the community may perceive them as a way of enhancing environmental outcomes. In New South Wales, Australia, BioBanking legislation was introduced in late 2006 with the aim of ‘no net loss’ of biodiversity associated with development, particularly expanding urban and coastal development. The strengths of the legislation are that it aims to enhance threatened species conservation, and raise the profile of conservation of threatened species and habitats. Weaknesses include (1) the narrowness of the definition of biodiversity; (2) the concepts are based on a flawed logic and immature, imprecise and complex science which results in difficulties in determining biodiversity values; (3) likely problems with management and compliance; and (4) an overall lack of resources for implementation and long-term monitoring. It is concluded that the legislation is a concerted effort to deal with biodiversity loss, however, stakeholders have concerns with the process, and it is unworkable with the complexity of such ecosystems (compared for example to carbon credit trading), and underdeveloped disciplines such as restoration biology and ecology. Despite these criticisms, there is a need for all stakeholders to work to improve the outcomes.

Historically, urban households supplemented the family diet by growing produce although there has been a transition from growing food to relying on the local supermarket for supplies. In parallel, urban populations have grown continuously and there are now more people living in cities than elsewhere. Consequently, agricultural lands are being increasingly transformed into urban landscapes where there is increasingly limited space for a garden to supplement the household diet. In Australia, for example, this is in stark contrast to reliance of the backyard garden that occurred from first colonisation through to after the post-World War II. However, in the recent decades, there has been an increased interest in growing in ‘healthy foods’. However, the amount of food that can be grown in the backyard has diminished with a trend towards smaller urban allotments and a widespread preference for units and townhouses rather than the ‘1/4 acre block’. With the continued increase in urbanisation and associated loss of agricultural lands and, for example, commitments of world leaders to reduce carbon emissions in response to Climate Change, the need for transition to greater urban self-sufficiency will become a reality. This is evidenced, for example, by the Cuban transition to urban agriculture with the introduction of strict trade sanctions. However, on the current trajectory of denser populations, resilience will be more difficult to achieve. The current transition ‘back to the future’ to more sustainable lifestyle may become a more widespread imperative with, for example, the increasingly interest in ‘healthy foods’, and the reduction in use of fossil fuels, for example, as a response to climate change or terrorism. To achieve this will require changing the current preconceptions of urban landscapes and thus government policies. It is therefore imperative that those who influence the development of urban communities recognise the need for urban sustainability.

Summary 1. Chironomids and chaoborids were collected across eastern Australia and Tasmania in dune, glacial, sinkhole and maar lakes. Based on sampling exuviae from these relatively undisturbed freshwater lakes, we observed that species richness on the Australian continent was substantially greater than previously reported, and challenge the long-standing view that chironomid species richness is depauperate in Australian lakes, compared with the northern hemisphere. 2. While chironomid species richness was equivalent across the four geographical regions sampled (tropical northern Queensland, Fraser Island, south-eastern mainland Australia and Tasmania), there were only five ‘cosmopolitan’ species found across all regions. In general, species distributions were more closely associated with geographical region than with lake characteristics, and there were species assemblage differences among biogeographical regions. More than half of the 134 identified species were restricted to a single geographical region. Overall, Tasmanian lakes had the highest proportion of locally endemic species. 3. Latitude and altitude more strongly influenced species assemblages than did lake chemistry, although species richness sometimes varied among lake geomorphic types within a region.

This study investigates the impacts on the Australian native eastern long-necked turtle Chelodina longicollis of wetland waters derived from (1) precipitation and groundwater flow and wetlands also supplemented with (2) irrigation runoff from agricultural lands, (3) tertiary-treated sewage effluent and (4) harvested stormwater. Influences of water quality parameters on population attributes of the turtle population are considered. A total of 951 C. longicollis were captured in a mark-recapture study over 8 months. Overall, a female sex ratio bias was observed, and a larger number of smaller turtles were found in wetlands not contaminated by recycled tertiary-treated effluent. Dissolved oxygen, temperature, surface area and emergent vegetation had the greatest impact on turtle population structure. The lower the dissolved oxygen, the smaller the surface area of the wetland, and the higher the percentage of emergent vegetation, the greater the number of juveniles present. Water quality parameters which would be detrimental to fish predators appear to provide a ‘safe haven’ for juvenile turtles at the most vulnerable life stage of turtles.

Recently, Australian interest in farm dams has focused on rates of harvest of surface waters (runoff), and the impact this has on nearby natural systems. Little research has been directed towards the role of these artificial water bodies in sustaining biological reserves within the wider ecosystem. Macroinvertebrate communities in three farm dams in the Central Tablelands of New South Wales were surveyed, and water quality variables were correlated with species richness and abundance. Community responses to habitat factors including sediment depth, stock use, vegetation and debris were also examined. Communities were described at several taxonomic levels in addition to allocation to trophic groups and primary functional feeding groups. Species richness and abundance of communities were found to vary between dams and between habitat types within dams. The extent of these differences was decreased when communities were described by either trophic status or functional feeding mechanisms. Habitats were influenced by water quality and by physical features of the habitat, with the two factors interacting to define equilibrium conditions. Localised conditions resulted in different macroinvertebrate communities. Physicochemical parameters that correlated most closely with communities included light penetration, chlorophyll-a and conductivity. Habitat factors that were most frequently linked with communities were sediment depth and canopy cover, with localised disturbances related to stock use affecting feeding groups rather than specific taxa. One of the major problems associated with increasing modification of landscapes by agriculture or urbanisation is the fragmentation of undisturbed habitats. Creation of joint aquatic and woodland habitats enhances biodiversity corridors. The recognition of the potential for farm dams as reservoirs of biodiversity and development of management practices that optimise this neglected biodiversity reserve may have much wider benefits biologically, aesthetically and productively.

I investigated whether exotic turtle species were capable of establishing breeding populations in the Sydney area and confirmed that two exotic species were present: Trachemys scripta elegans and Clemmys marmorata. Mature females of both species were recorded with shelled eggs in the oviducts and evidence of nesting by T. s. elegans species was noted. Trachemys scripta elegans were observed in a range of sizes which suggested that it has established a foothold, at least in southern Sydney. Competition from this exotic species could have a detrimental impact on the local species, Chelodina longicollis and Emydura macquarii dharuk.

1. The Hawkesbury-Nepean River provides potable water for 5 million people living in the Sydney basin, and water for agricultural and horticultural production that meets most of Sydney's daily needs for fresh food. Anecdotal evidence indicated that numbers of freshwater mussels have seriously declined in much of the river over recent decades. 2. A field survey revealed the presence of populations of three species of mussels, Hyridella depressa, Hyridella australis and Velesunio ambiguus in the river. Higher density mussel populations were most common in catchment areas with little human modification to the channel bed or adjacent vegetation communities. 3. Levels of disturbance of riparian vegetation and, to a lesser degree, land use, were identified as being strongly associated with the absence of mussels from some reaches. 4. Catchment geomorphology was also shown to be relevant to the abundance, population structure and suite of mussel species present in different geomorphic reaches of the river. Absence of mussels was noted from areas where they had been recorded in previous studies. These results demonstrate that mussel species are under threat in the catchment. 5. As filter feeders with the ability to remove excess nutrients and bioaccumulate toxic substances, freshwater mussels play an important role in natural remediation processes in freshwater systems. 6. The decline in mussel populations in the Hawkesbury-Nepean River highlights concerns for the overall health of the river system, and supports the need to identify the subsidiary impacts of physical habitat modification in developing both riverine and riparian management strategies. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This study assesses the risks in ecological restoration arising from transplanting into soil containing glyphosate residues. Four Australian restoration species were grown for 60 days in nonadsorbing media treated continuously with glyphosate to establish threshold concentrations for damage. Visual signs of injury were observed in three species, and severe effects on root growth in all species, at solution concentrations as low as 18 mg/L. Only the perennial grass Themeda sp. died at this concentration, with other species surviving at concentrations in the range 36–360 mg/L, beyond which all plants died. Fourteen days exposure followed by removal of glyphosate from root media produced similar effects. Field and glasshouse experiments with the relatively tolerant tree species Angophora costata showed that application rates in the range 10–50 L/ha of herbicide product (360 g/L) would be needed to sustain damage to young plants transplanted into soil typical of local restoration sites. The volume of spray delivered using a handoperated sprayer varied between operators by 5- and 10-fold to complete the same tasks, at the high end presenting a potential risk to the most tolerant species under field conditions, even when spray concentrations follow label instructions. For all but the most sensitive species, the risk of glyphosate residues in ecological restoration should be minimized by training operators of unregulated applicators to deliver controlled volumes of herbicide when spot spraying prior to transplanting.

Throughout Australia thousands of volunteers are engaged in Landcare projects that should help rehabilitate degraded landscapes. Many of these projects involve tree planting, but their seed is not necessarily of local provenance. Based on a survey of 85 Landcare groups working in the Hawkesbury-Nepean catchment, data were collected about Landcare groups' knowledge of their seed source, understanding of local provenance and the ecosystem in which they were planting trees and the source of funding for their projects. The findings from the study indicate that about one in five (21%) of the groups surveyed that introduced plant material were not aware of local provenance issues. Indirect indications were that a large number of Landcare groups state-wide may be doing more harm than good to the landscape while trying to rehabilitate it. The data also showed that one in seven (13%) of the groups funded by the Australian Government through the Natural Heritage Trust (NHT) had limited awareness of local provenance issues. With millions of dollars being spent on 'works on the ground', it would be prudent to allocate some funds to document and monitor current Landcare activities, so that the environmental outcomes can be quantified and more effective Landcare policies can be developed in the future.

Three farm dams near Raglan, New South Wales (Australia), were compared to investigate diurnal and seasonal patterns in water quality over a period of 1 year. The source of water in one dam was predominantly influenced by groundwater, another showed links with both groundwater and agricultural runoff, and the third collected runoff from urban and agricultural lands with no apparent groundwater input. Patterns in chemical profiles were compared to identify level of similarity in macro-trends of water quality. Within dams, micro-trends were contrasted with known chemical relationships in dam waters to explore links between land use and water quality. The three dams were shown to have quite distinct patterns of water chemistry. Within dams, trends were strongly linked with the differing water sources, evidenced by chemical patterns that matched those expected from the different dominant ion transfer pathways associated with surface water and groundwater flow processes. Phosphates were primarily linked with groundwater fluctuations, nitrogen as ammonium ions with urban runoff, and nitrates with storm events resulting in runoff from pastures. We conclude that, for farm dams, the combination of land use and preferential flow paths gives a more complete description of water quality impacts than land use alone.

The worldwide decline in frogs has been linked to a deadly disease (Chytridiomycosis) caused by the chytrid fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. We used Congo red to study chytrid fungi in skin scrapings taken from formalin preserved animals, from non-preserved decaying or dead animals, as well as from apparently healthy animals. We were able to distinguish immature and mature zoosporangia, zoospores and germling stages of the fungus within the host tissue. Staining patterns varied. Zoospores (including flagellum) stained orange but the walls of all other stages stained a reddish-orange. The inoperculate discharge tube was always intensely stained. However, when zoosporangia were within intact epidermal cells, only the exposed discharge tube stained unless the keratinized layer was breached. The epidermal cells either did not stain or stained pale orange. Congo red is cheap, easy to use and relatively non-hazardous, making it a valuable tool to study the spread and role of chytridiomycosis in frog decline.

Seven potential anuran breeding sites within Western Sydney were sampled between March and August 1997 to assess the effect of habitat disturbance upon species assemblages. The greatest species diversity and abundance was recorded in relatively less human impacted areas, than in more disturbed sites. Of the seven species recorded to chorus during cooler months, only Limnodynastes peronii successfully breed and only in disturbed sites. The species was also more abundant in such areas than more pristine habitat. Oviposition time influenced larval growth rate, although there was no defined trend over time. Intra-clutch variation in weight achieved (over 10 weeks) was greater than among clutches. Ability to take advantage of breeding habitat that is sub-optimal for other species, the ability to breed year around and larval growth plasticity have apparently pre-adapted this species to thrive in urban impacted habitat, in contrast to most local endemic species.

Habitat fragmentation due to clearing often results in an increase in edge areas compared with overall remnant size, but there are limited data on the influence of increased edge areas on generalist species. Therefore, the abundance of small (

Limnodynastes peronii was observed to successfully breed in small urban impoundments. Fecundity, egg viability and hatching success varied significantly, spatially and temporally. The predominant influence on breeding success was therefore deduced to be environmental. In contrast, growth varied more within populations than over time or between waterbodies and the observed results were considered to reflect genetic, rather than environmental, differences. Abnormalities were also hypothesised to reflect genetic differences and not environmental conditions.

The foraging ecology of Red Wattlebirds, Anthochaera carunculata, and Noisy Friarbirds, Philemon corniculatus, was compared across central eastern New South Wales. Both species forage significantly more frequently on Eucalyptus punctata, relative to its abundance, than on any other species in all sites and seasons. Noisy Friarbirds were often absent from sites with E. punctata when Red Wattlebirds were present and foliage gleaning.

This study examines the level of isolation of arthropod faunas present on specimens of the endemic woodland tree Melaleuca linariifolia by investigating the recovery of faunas after defaunation using insecticide. One tree from each of 21 pairs of trees was sprayed at the beginning of the project (early April 1994). After predetermined periods, three test trees were resprayed along with matched control trees. A total of 95 154 arthropods were collected and sorted during the project. The number of species present on the trees recovered within 16 weeks of spraying, with common species recolonizing within a fortnight. The rarer species both of mobile (Diptera) and relatively sedentary (Araneae) taxa reappeared at similar rates. Complete recovery of numbers occurred by week 8 after spraying. Evenness (as Simpson’s D) recovered over the first 2 months; however, both the number of individuals and the evenness continued to diverge from the pattern seen on the control trees until the end of the study. While the rate of movement of individuals and species was such as to provide an apparently complete set of replacement species within several months of perturbation, the structure of the community found on the trees was still seriously disrupted after 1 year. Comparison of the suites of species originally found on the trees with those found in the respray samples and the control samples showed that the set of colonizing species was no more similar to the original fauna of the tree than it was to those on the control tree. The relatively rapid colonization of the trees by a suite of rare species – not necessarily those that were on particular trees before perturbation – indicates that rarity was due neither to inability of the species to colonize the trees nor to the suitability of the trees for these species. Recovery of rare species was to a level similar to that found on the control trees. That the divergences from the controls continued (in number of individuals and in evenness), implies a definite connection between the different faunas of a tree and their partial isolation from fauna communities on other trees. Whatever the forces that maintain suites of species on each tree, it is not the ability of the species to reach and colonize trees, nor certain attributes of a tree, that make it suitable only for a particular subset of the species available. Trees are not isolated entities but neither are they part of a fully integrated community, either chronologically or spacially, and issues of scale are also likely to be important in understanding and estimating the dynamics and factors regulating biodiversity levels.

The estimation of the level of biological diversity is critical to conservation planning and management. In this paper, factors affecting arboreal arthropod biodiversity estimates are examined, namely, reproducibility between trees, the proportion of the foliage of a tree that needs to be sampled, the effects of placement position of collectors under the tree and geographical distance between sampled trees of the species Melaleuca linariifolia and M. decora. It was found that arboreal arthropod specimens are not randomly distributed on trees and that, on average, 33% fewer species and 52% fewer specimens occur on the northern (sunny) sides of the trees than on the southern sides. The placement of collectors therefore can radically affect the estimates obtained. The species area curve continued to rise for each host until the entire tree was sampled. The shapes of the curves obtained from the two hosts however, were markedly different and it is concluded that it is not possible to simply transfer protocols from one host species to another, very similar, host species. When the same collecting effort was applied, the same number of species were collected, though M. decora supports twice the number of species as M. linariifolia. Variations of as much as 50% were found between trees of the same species in the number of species present and none of the estimators of biodiversity richness, evenness or information gave consistent results. As a consequence of these observations, the use of changes in standard estimators in decisions related to the management of biodiversity need to be considered carefully. Complementarity, however, was found to be a useful and robust measure of similarity of faunas for both host species. A new descriptor of the geographical distribution of organismal biodiversity, the biodiversity neighbourhood, is described and two methods of measuring it, using either spatial autocorrelation or complementarity, are demonstrated.

Interpretation of trap bias in sampling freshwater turtles has previously relied on indirect methods. The data presented here provides the first comparison of a sample and total census of a waterbody. Eastern Longneck Turtles Chelodina longicollis Shaw were sampled in a 0.1 ha farm dam for three days immediately prior to drainage and a population census was subsequently carried out. Fyke nets proved to be an effective method of sampling the population. During the sampling phase 78% of males (n = 11) and 81% of females (n = 21) were captured, and there was no significant difference between the sample and the census in terms of population size structure (χ23 = 1.12, excluding juveniles) or sex ratio (χ21 = 0.008). None of the three resident hatchlings were captured despite a high probability of capture (p = 0.67). Hatchlings and juveniles combined made up 19.4% of the population and there were no immature resident females and few immature males. Based on the population profile, recruitment was intermittent ...

The paper examines mountain biking as an increasingly popular adventure recreation activity. Some of its extreme derivatives have been incorporated into international events (e.g. Olympics). We review trends in mountain biking, consider the appropriateness of this activity in public natural areas with a conservation mandate (e.g. national parks, nature reserves) and consider alternative locations. We conclude that (1) mountain biking will continue to increase in popularity; and (2) venues developed in rural areas outside of national parks have provided economic benefits to local communities; but (3) the evidence of social conflict with other users and/or environmental impacts is not clear, mainly because of data limitations. Careful management of natural areas designated for recreation and conservation is required as a precautionary approach. Successful models operate outside of national parks that demonstrate a ‘win–win’ solution for stakeholders.

Effects of World Heritage listing on visitation to a given destination have been widely debated but little-researched, especially those areas listed for their natural values. In a study of the Greater Blue Mountains (Australia) we found that five years after gazettal the majority of visitors were unaware that they had visited a World Heritage Area and, therefore, the status of the area had no effect on visitation for many. This was despite the majority of visitors being primarily motivated to visit the area for its natural beauty, and they were satisfied with their experience.

Biological diversity in Australia has been dwindling, even without the full onslaught of climate change with the anticipated decrease in numbers of species, communities and effects on associated ecosystems. This makes the impacts of climate change attractive for students undertaking research training in field biology in undergraduate and graduate zoology programs. The projects undertaken by such students are, of necessity, short-term and typically vary between several months and two years of field work. In this paper we consider if such projects are compatible with studying the effects of climate change on Australian native fauna. We conclude that there are limited opportunities for explicit outcomes; however, the research is valuable in a broader context of underpinning longer term research.

universities. These reforms have been focused largely on reducing the economic dependence of universities on government. In parallel with these reforms, there has been increasing pressure on universities to lift their performance in both teaching and research and there has been much talk of the research-teaching nexus. In this chapter we provide a case study as an example of how the authors have moved to integrate teaching and research in the face of fiscal adversity. We conclude that the outcomes were positive to all involved and provided an enhanced student learning and experience, while supporting the integration of teaching and learning for the academics involved. This integration of the twin activities of teaching and research provided academic staff with opportunities to develop their research initiatives beyond what would have otherwise been possible within the same timeframe if their research and teaching had not been entwined. However, we reflect that if science were not under siege there may not have been the incentive to change the status quo and drive the research-teaching nexus.

Academic and scientific literacy experts agree that becoming literate in an academic discipline involves coordinating language learning, and thinking in increasingly sophisticated ways to enable participation in discipline practices of knowledge construction. Despite this knowledge, understanding of writing pedagogies in tertiary science are in their infancy, and in the absence of universal methodologies of support there are potential consequences for research students as they progress from novice to expert in their discipline. We investigated the writing experiences of Science research students in an Australian university, with a focus on the writing needs of these students. Using a mixed method approach, quantitative and qualitative data were collected from 65 individuals (29 supervisors and 36 students) in an online questionnaire and in seven follow-up focus groups and interviews with 28 supervisors and nine students. The key themes which emerged from the data were the key role of supervisors, the relative importance and degree of difficulty of doctoral writing tasks and the anxiety, stress, struggle and high emotion, associated with “learning to write”, experienced by both students and supervisors. Despite considerable diversity, many supervisors were focussed on the product and outcome of writing, while many students struggled with the process of writing. Such struggles centred around the scatter gun of idiosyncratic, and sometimes good ideas which supervisors and students used to transition through liminal space to emerge with new writing skills and discipline understandings. There was a clear sense that the final product was the responsibility of the supervisor. Even to the extent of writing the thesis for the student. This indicates the time and publication pressures that students and supervisors are under with the rise of the enterprise university. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Canyoning has become a popular recreation activity in the Greater Blue Mountains World Heritage Area (Australia), and park management consider that the activity is having an impact on the local fauna of the fragile canyon ecosystems. Although only limited data exist on the native freshwater crayfish populations that inhabit these canyons, it has been suggested that freshwater crayfish have the potential to act as a rapid bioindicator of human impacts. As a preliminary assessment, we sampled crayfish from two canyons that received high visitation and two with low visitation. We recorded only a single species, Euastacus spinifer and this was found to occur at higher altitudes than previously recorded. There was no significant difference in crayfish abundance or size between visitation levels. There were, however, differences in crayfish abundance between individual canyons. Animals within a canyon had the same colour morph which we deduced to be genetic under selection pressure. We conclude that with an appropriate baseline dataset, crayfish could potentially provide a rapid assessment method for use by canyoners and other non-specialists to underpin management decisions.

The functional significance of allometric change in reptiles has received limited attention and the reason for such changes has been regarded as ‘obscure’. In this paper we report data on the Australian Pogona barbata , the eastern bearded dragon, from across their range and review changes in allometric growth among juveniles, and adult males and females and consider the functional relevance of these changes. There were significant differences in the population for mass, tail length, tail width, rear leg length and jaw length. These differences were consistent with differences required in locomotor performance and thus habitat use, together with access to different preferred dietary components.

Despite international concern for biodiversity loss, as urban pressure increases on the Cumberland Plain of Western Sydney, the native vegetation continues to be lost despite being classified as an ‘endangered ecological community’ under both state and federal legislation. While substantial sized remnants may evoke public attention, small developments are often approved without adequate attention to the long term impact on even the threatened species of the Plain. In this paper we provide examples of the way in which remnants that may be only a single housing lot in size, can be habitat for protected species. The on-going loss of these, often tiny reservoirs, is undoubtedly resulting in the loss of native biodiversity by ‘1000 cuts’. Key words: threatened species, endangered ecological communities, species loss, biodiversity loss Pp277 - 281 in The Natural History of Sydney, edited by Daniel Lunney, Pat Hutchings and Dieter Hochuli. Royal Zoological Society of NSW, Mosman, NSW, Australia. 2010

This paper reviews recent research into the ecological impacts of recreation and tourism on coastal marine fauna in Australia. Despite the high and growing importance of water-based recreation to the Australian economy, and the known fragility of many Australian ecosystems, there has been relatively limited research into the effects of marine tourism and recreation, infrastructure and activities, on aquatic resources. In this paper we have reviewed the ecological impacts on fauna that are caused by outdoor recreation (including tourism) in Australian coastal marine ecosystems. We predict that the single most potentially severe impact of recreation may be the introduction and/or dispersal of non-indigenous species of marine organisms by recreational vessels. Such introductions, together with other impacts due to human activities have the potential to increasingly degrade recreation destinations. In response, governments have introduced a wide range of legislative tools (e.g., impact assessment, protected area reservation) to manage the recreational industry. It would appear, however, that these instruments are not always appropriately applied.

Dwindling resources for tertiary education, has resulted in reduced emphasis on intensive, small group, staff – student collaborative project-based service learning. However, training scientists to manage significant issues, such as sustainable water use, requires an ability to engage both industry and community stakeholders. This paper describes the results of an ‘action conversations’ approach to explore community perceptions, teach students skills for community engagement, and evaluate their experience of this as a teaching and learning method. It suggests that there are significant parallels between factors contributing to successful community engagement and effective teaching and learning by students.

Road kills were counted in peri-urban Sydney and in regional New South Wales on roads with different volumes of traffic. Initial studies were conducted in late winter. Approximately equal numbers of birds and mammals were observed dead, while herpetofauna were absent. Most species killed were native, however, the species impacted and frequency of mortality events differed across regions of New South Wales. Higher numbers were killed on medium traffic volume roads (eg. major secondary roads, minor highways) than on low volume local traffic roads or major highways. Roads with verges that were slashed had more deaths than stretches that had vegetated verges. Overall, more deaths were recorded on roads with a physical barrier (eg. fence, cutting) on one side of the road than in areas were there was no such barrier. More deaths were observed in rural areas than in peri-urban areas. Our results confirm that there is no one ‘quick fix’ that will overcome the generic problem of roadkills. Regional solutions that identify and address the main species adversely affected by collision mortality are required.

Differences may occur in the carnivore–omnivore–herbivore spectrum over the lifespan of a reptilian species, but it seldom occurs between adult males and females. Information regarding the dietary habits of Australian eastern bearded dragon (Pogona barbata) is also limited. We dissected museum specimens and road kills of the Australian eastern bearded dragon to compare ontogenetic shift in diet. Juveniles were insectivorous. They typically consumed larger, more active, arthropod prey than mature individuals – they are active predators. Adults were omnivorous and typically consumed small arthropod prey, and tended to be sit-and-wait predators. Mature males, particularly larger males, were primarily herbivorous. Such divergence in adult reptilian diet has rarely been reported. We suggest that the dietary switches observed are consistent with the Optimum Foraging Model. Juveniles require a high protein diet to maximise growth from juvenile to maturity. Beyond maturity females continue to require higher levels of protein for reproduction than males. At least in part, this is because males rely on sham aggression to defend territory during the reproductive season rather than resorting to aggressive behaviour. This results in a lesser requirement for protein for adult males than is required for juveniles and adult females. Males have the advantage of not being as dependent on protein, and thus are able to rely more heavily on vegetation.