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One of the valuable offerings of librarians in the digital age is the human intermediation of information needs. In physical libraries, these reference questions are answered, and few artifacts remain from the transaction; therefore, the knowledge created through the work of the librarian leaves with the patron. Due to the medium of communication, digital reference transactions capture the knowledge of information professionals. There are hundreds of digital reference services generating knowledge every day; however, the lack of a schema for archiving reference transactions from multiple services makes it difficult to create a fielded, searchable knowledge base. The development of such a schema would allow researchers to develop tools that practitioners can employ. In turn, this would create a collaborative environment for digital reference evaluation. The goal of this work is to outline the steps needed to develop this schema, present the results of a survey of digital reference services, explore some of the pitfalls in the process, and envision the future uses of this Digital Reference Electronic Warehouse.

Archaeologists have used material artifacts found in a physical space to gain an understanding about the people who occupied that space. Likewise, as users wander through a digital library, they leave behind data‐based artifacts of their activity in the virtual space. Digital library archaeologists can gather these artifacts and employ inductive techniques, such as bibliomining, to create generalizations. These generalizations are the basis for hypotheses, which are tested to gain understanding about library services and users. In this article, the development of traditional archaeological methods is presented and used to create a conceptual framework for the artifact‐based evaluation in digital libraries.

While a growing number of the digital reference services in libraries have become part of collaborative reference networks, other entities that serve similar information-seeking needs such as special collections and museums have not joined these networks, even though they are answering an increasing number of questions from off-site patrons via the Internet. This article examines the differences between questions asked electronically of traditional reference services and those asked of special collections services; it further explores how a better understanding of digital reference in special collections will facilitate the development of the tools and models needed to create a bridge between digital human intermediation at general academic libraries, special collections, and museums.

This article describes a Delphi study conducted to determine factors that affect the process of routing and assigning reference questions received electronically by digital reference services, both to experts within the service and between services. Fifteen factors were determined, by expert consensus, to be important at the conclusion of this study. These fifteen factors are divided into three groups: (1) general factors, (2) factors when routing the question to an individual, and (3) factors when routing the question to another service. These factors were ranked in order of importance and grouped according to the recipient of the question. These fifteen factors need to be taken into account when automating the triage process. This article has laid out a methodology for investigating other digital reference processes so that those processes amenable to automation may be automated, and experts' talents and time may be best used.

BackgroundClostridium difficile infection (CDI) is still a major challenge to healthcare facilities. The detection of multiple C. difficile strains has been reported in some patient samples during initial and recurrent CDI episodes. However, the behaviour of individual strains and their contribution to symptomatic disease is unclear.MethodsAn in vitro human gut model was used to investigate the germination and proliferation of two distinct C. difficile strains during initial and recurrent simulated CDI, as well as their response to vancomycin treatment. The gut model was inoculated with a pooled human faecal emulsion and indigenous gut microbiota, C. difficile populations (vegetative and spore forms), cytotoxin levels and antimicrobial activity were monitored throughout the experiment.ResultsBoth C. difficile strains germinated and proliferated in response to ceftriaxone instillation, with cytotoxin detected during the peak vegetative growth. Vancomycin instillation resulted in a rapid decline in the vegetative forms of both strains, with only spores remaining 2 days after the start of dosing. A recrudescence of both strains occurred following the cessation of vancomycin installation, although this was observed more quickly, and to a greater extent, in one strain than the other.ConclusionsWithin a human gut model, multiple C. difficile strains are able to germinate and proliferate concurrently in response to antibiotic challenge (the onset of simulated CDI). Similarly, more than one strain can proliferate during simulated recurrent CDI, although with differences in germination and growth rate and timing. It appears probable that multiple strains can contribute to CDI within an individual patient, with possible implications for management and bacterial transmission.

Meaningful gamification is the use of gameful and playful layers to help a user find personal connections that motivate engagement with a specific context for long-term change. While reward-based gamification can be useful for short-term goals and situations where the participants have no personal connections or intrinsic motivation to engage in a context, rewards can reduce intrinsic motivation and the long-term desire to engage with the real world context. If the goal is long-term change, then rewards should be avoided and other game-based elements used to create a system based on concepts of meaningful gamification. This article introduces six concepts—Reflection, Exposition, Choice, Information, Play, and Engagement—to guide designers of gamification systems that rely on non-reward-based game elements to help people find personal connections and meaning in a real world context.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated the efficacy of the cyclic lipopeptide surotomycin in treating clindamycin-induced Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) using an in vitro gut model. METHODS: Two three-stage chemostat gut models were inoculated with human faeces, spiked with C. difficile spores (∼10(7) cfu/mL, PCR ribotype 027 or 001). Clindamycin (33.9 mg/L, four times daily for 7 days) was dosed to induce CDI. Following high-level toxin production, surotomycin (250 mg/L, twice daily for 7 days) was instilled. Microflora populations, C. difficile vegetative cells and spores, cytotoxin titres and antimicrobial levels (LC-MS/MS and bioassay) were determined. The emergence of C. difficile and enterococci with reduced susceptibility to surotomycin was monitored on breakpoint agar (4 × MIC). RESULTS: Counts of viable C. difficile were reduced to near the limit of detection on Days 1 and 3 of surotomycin instillation, and cytotoxin was undetectable on Days 3 and 4 of surotomycin instillation in the 027 and 001 models, respectively. Recurrence of vegetative growth and toxin production occurred 11 days (001 model) and 15 days (027 model) after surotomycin instillation had ceased, and remained for the duration of the experiment. Surotomycin instillation decreased populations of bifidobacteria, clostridia, enterococci and lactobacilli, but was sparing of Bacteroides fragilis group populations. All enumerated organisms had recovered to steady-state levels by 3 weeks post-surotomycin instillation. No evidence of the emergence of reduced susceptibility to surotomycin was observed. CONCLUSIONS: Surotomycin successfully reduced C. difficile vegetative cell counts and toxin levels in the gut model and was sparing of B. fragilis group populations. There was no evidence of decreased susceptibility to surotomycin during exposure or post-exposure.

The human gastrointestinal tract harbours a complex microbial community which exist in planktonic and sessile form. The degree to which composition and function of faecal and mucosal microbiota differ remains unclear. We describe the development and characterisation of an in vitro human gut model, which can be used to facilitate the formation and longitudinal analysis of mature mixed species biofilms. This enables the investigation of the role of biofilms in Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). A well established and validated human gut model of simulated CDI was adapted to incorporate glass rods that create a solid-gaseous-liquid interface for biofilm formation. The continuous chemostat model was inoculated with a pooled human faecal emulsion and controlled to mimic colonic conditions in vivo. Planktonic and sessile bacterial populations were enumerated for up to 46 days. Biofilm consistently formed macroscopic structures on all glass rods over extended periods of time, providing a framework to sample and analyse biofilm structures independently. Whilst variation in biofilm biomass is evident between rods, populations of sessile bacterial groups (log10 cfu/g of biofilm) remain relatively consistent between rods at each sampling point. All bacterial groups enumerated within the planktonic communities were also present within biofilm structures. The planktonic mode of growth of C. difficile and gut microbiota closely reflected observations within the original gut model. However, distinct differences were observed in the behaviour of sessile and planktonic C. difficile populations, with C. difficile spores preferentially persisting within biofilm structures. The redesigned biofilm chemostat model has been validated for reproducible and consistent formation of mixed species intestinal biofilms. This model can be utilised for the analysis of sessile mixed species communities longitudinally, potentially providing information of the role of biofilms in CDI.

SUMMARY Ambiguities in Web search tool (more commonly known as “search engine”) terminology are problematic when conducting precise, replicable research or when teaching others to use search tools. Standardized terminology would enable Web searchers to be aware of subtle differences between Web search tools and the implications of these for searching. A categorization and nomenclature for standardized classifications of different aspects of Web search tools is proposed, and advantages and disadvantages of using tools in each category are discussed.

OBJECTIVES: Fidaxomicin reduces the risk of recurrent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) compared with vancomycin. We investigated fidaxomicin primary or secondary treatment efficacy using a gut model. METHODS: Four triple-stage chemostat gut models were inoculated with faeces. After clindamycin induction of CDI, fidaxomicin (200 mg/L twice daily), vancomycin (125 mg/L four times daily) or metronidazole (9.3 mg/L three times daily) was administered for 7 days. Following failure/CDI recurrence, fidaxomicin (200 mg/L twice daily, 7 days) was instilled. C. difficile (CD) total viable counts (TVC), spore counts (SP), toxin titres (CYT), gut bacteria counts and antimicrobial concentrations were measured throughout. RESULTS: Fidaxomicin instillation reduced CD TVC/SP and CYT below the limit of detection (LOD) after 2 and 4 days, respectively, with no CDI recurrence. Metronidazole instillation failed to decrease CD TVC or CYT. Vancomycin instillation reduced CD TVC and CYT to LOD by day 4, but SP persisted. Recurrence occurred 13 days after vancomycin instillation; subsequent fidaxomicin instillation reduced CD TVC/SP/CYT below the LOD from day 2. CD was isolated sporadically, with no evidence of spore recrudescence or toxin production. Fidaxomicin had a minimal effect on the microflora, except for bifidobacteria. Fidaxomicin was detected for at least 21 days post-instillation, whereas other antimicrobials were undetectable beyond ∼4 days. CONCLUSIONS: Fidaxomicin successfully treated simulated primary and recurrent CDI. Fidaxomicin was superior to metronidazole in reducing CD TVC and SP, and superior to vancomycin in reducing SP without recurrence of vegetative cell growth. Fidaxomicin, but not vancomycin or metronidazole, persisted in the gut model for >20 days after instillation.

Objectives Co-amoxiclav is widely prescribed in hospitals. Although reports have suggested it may be linked to onset of Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), data on the risk of CDI associated with specific antibiotics is difficult to obtain, due to confounding clinical factors. We have examined the propensity of co-amoxiclav to induce CDI using a human gut model. Methods We used a triple-stage chemostat human gut model to study the effects of co-amoxiclav on indigenous gut microorganisms and C. difficile PCR ribotype 027. C. difficile viable counts and spores were evaluated, and cytotoxin titres were assayed. Co-amoxiclav concentrations were measured using a large plate bioassay. Results Co-amoxiclav induced rapid C. difficile germination and high toxin production in the gut model, from 5 days after commencement of instillation. Cell proliferation and toxin production were prolonged and continued throughout the duration of the experiment. Only very low levels of co-amoxiclav antimicrobial activity could be detected within the gut model, despite having a marked effect on gut flora microorganisms. Conclusions Co-amoxiclav induced CDI within the gut model, supporting clinical observations linking co-amoxiclav treatment with CDI onset. This reinforces the value of the gut model as a clinically relevant means of studying CDI. Caution should be exercised in the prescription of co-amoxiclav to patients in high CDI risk settings.

Library and information services in corporations, schools, universities and communities capture information about their users, circulation history, resources in the collection and search patterns (Koenig, 1985). Unfortunately, few libraries have taken advantage of these data as a way to improve customer service, manage acquisition budgets or influence strategic decision making about uses of information in their organizations. In this chapter, we present a global view of the data generated in libraries, and the variety of decisions that those data can inform. We describe ways in which library and information managers can use data mining in their libraries, i.e., bibliomining, to understand patterns of behavior among library users and staff members and patterns of information resource use throughout the institution. The chapter examines data sources and possible applications of data mining techniques in the library.

A significant performance and cost improvement was achieved with the application of hybrid Coiled Tubing (CT) drilling equipment and techniques on the Chittim Ranch in Maverick county Texas. During this drilling program, 233 wells were grass-root drilled using the hybrid CT unit. Coiled tubing drilling equipment and techniques reduced the average time to complete a well by 60% when compared to conventional rotary rig drilling. This increase in drilling performance coupled with a turnkey contract resulted in a 14% (33% adjusted for inflation) cost reduction per well when compared to the most recent conventional drilling data from this area. This paper will review the process used in choosing a CT solution, the hurdles overcome, the problems encountered, and the lessons learned in managing and operating this CT Drilling (CTD) campaign. The paper will also provide an overview of CT coring performed in one of the wells during the CTD campaign. The drilling performance increase was realized using a top-set rig to set surface casing and a hybrid "Big Wheel" CT rig to drill the production hole. Finalized project data demonstrated that field performance using CTD met and in some areas exceeded project goals.

Library and information services in corporations, schools, universities and communities capture information about their users, circulation history, resources in the collection and search patterns (Koenig, 1985). Unfortunately, few libraries have taken advantage of these data as a way to improve customer service, manage acquisition budgets or influence strategic decision making about uses of information in their organizations. In this chapter, we present a global view of the data generated in libraries, and the variety of decisions that those data can inform. We describe ways in which library and information managers can use data mining in their libraries, i.e., bibliomining, to understand patterns of behavior among library users and staff members and patterns of information resource use throughout the institution. The chapter examines data sources and possible applications of data mining techniques in the library.

This paper exploits a natural experiment in which choice fatigue is isolated as an explanation for the usage of heuristics in decision-making. The em- pirical application provides evidence that voters who see a given contest relatively further down the ballot are more likely to vote "no" and to abstain. Within-election exogenous variation in ballot position is primarily due to differences in the set of overlaying local political jurisdictions. My central finding is that lowering a proposi- tion 10 positions on the ballot increases precinct-level "no" votes and undervotes by 1.3 and 0.7 percentage points, respectively. Interestingly, 8 of 124 statewide propo- sitions in the dataset have winning margins within the range of the "no" estimate. The empirical analysis employs a unique precinct-level panel dataset of votes cast for the entire menu of federal, state & local ballot choices in primary and general elections between 1992 and 2006 in San Diego County, California. Implications of the results range from the dissemination of information by firms and policy makers to the design of electoral institutions and the strategic use of ballot propositions.

While libraries have employed policies to protect the data about use of their services, these policies are rarely specific or standardized. Since 1996 the U.S. healthcare system has been grappling with the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), which is designed to provide those handling personal health information with standardized, definitive instructions as to the protection of data. In this work, the authors briefly discuss the present situation of privacy policies about library use data, outline the HIPAA guidelines to understand parallels between the two, and finally propose methods to create a de-identified library data warehouse based on HIPAA for the protection of user privacy.

The Digital Reference Electronic Warehouse (DREW) project is a collection of digital reference transactions from different services and different communication channels that live in a single space. Reference services work with DREW to submit transactions using the DREW schema, which is conceptually similar to the MARC record format for bibliographic materials. Researchers can then receive records from DREW to improve our knowledge of digital reference. These researchers then use the results of their research to create tools, reports, and models based on the DREW schema, and place those items into a management information system (MIS). The services can then access the MIS and apply those tools to their own archives. The result is that services can benefit directly and rapidly from research, and are then more likely to continue their involvement with the project. This infrastructure creates a collaborative space where researchers and practitioners can benefit from the work of each other and aid us in advancing the field of digital reference.

Most people think of a library as the little brick building in the heart of their community or the big brick building in the center of a campus. These notions greatly oversimplify the world of libraries, however. Most large commercial organizations have dedicated in-house library operations, as do schools, non-gov-ernmental organizations, as well as local, state, and federal governments. With the increasing use of the Internet and the World Wide Web, digital libraries have burgeoned, and these serve a huge variety of different user audiences. With this ex-panded view of libraries, two key insights arise. First, libraries are typically embedded within larger institutions. Corporate libraries serve their corporations, academic libraries serve their universities, and public libraries serve taxpaying communities who elect overseeing representatives. Second, libraries play a pivotal role within their institutions as repositories and pro-viders of information resources. In the provider role, libraries represent in microcosm the intellectual and learning activities of the people who comprise the institution. This fact provides the basis for the strategic importance of library data mining: By ascertaining what users are seeking, bibliomining can reveal insights that have meaning in the context of the library’s host institution.Use of data mining to examine library data might be aptly termed

Most people think of a library as the little brick building in the heart of their community or the big brick building in the center of a campus. These notions greatly oversimplify the world of libraries, however. Most large commercial organizations have dedicated in-house library operations, as do schools, non-governmental organizations, as well as local, state, and federal governments. With the increasing use of the Internet and the World Wide Web, digital libraries have burgeoned, and these serve a huge variety of different user audiences. With this expanded view of libraries, two key insights arise. First, libraries are typically embedded within larger institutions. Corporate libraries serve their corporations, academic libraries serve their universities, and public libraries serve taxpaying communities who elect overseeing representatives. Second, libraries play a pivotal role within their institutions as repositories and providers of information resources. In the provider role, libraries represent in microcosm the intellectual and learning activities of the people who comprise the institution. This fact provides the basis for the strategic importance of library data mining: By ascertaining what users are seeking, bibliomining can reveal insights that have meaning in the context of the library’s host institution. Use of data mining to examine library data might be aptly termed bibliomining. With widespread adoption of computerized catalogs and search facilities over the past quarter century, library and information scientists have often used bibliometric methods (e.g., the discovery of patterns in authorship and citation within a field) to explore patterns in bibliographic information. During the same period, various researchers have developed and tested data mining techniques—advanced statistical and visualization methods to locate non-trivial patterns in large data sets. Bibliomining refers to the use of these bibliometric and data mining techniques to explore the enormous quantities of data generated by the typical automated library.

The final published version of this article is available at: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-4573(02)00085-7, This paper describes a study conducted to determine the paths digital reference services take through a general process model of asynchronous digital reference. A survey based on the general process model was conducted; each decision point in this model provided the basis for at least one question. Common, uncommon, and wished-for practices are identified, as well as correlations between characteristics of services and the practices employed by those services. Identification of such trends has implications for the development of software tools for digital reference. This study presents a snapshot of the state of the art in digital reference as of late 2001 – early 2002, and validates the general process model of asynchronous digital reference.

Bibliomining is the combination of data mining, bibliometrics, statistics, and reporting tools used to extract patterns of behavior-based artifacts and item-based metadata from library systems. The bibliomining process involves the identification of problem areas, the collecting and anonymizing of data into a data warehouse, the exploration of the data with data mining tools, and the analysis, validation, and implementation of the results. This panel will introduce the topic of bibliomining and present ways in which data warehousing and data mining are currently being used in library settings.

Librarianship, as a profession, relies upon a strong network of colleagues outside the institution for collaboration. The seeds for this collaborative culture are planted in library school; however, in an online environment the challenges are greater when creating that sense of community. By supporting more ways to allow students, faculty, staff, and alumni to communicate in a distance education environment, the sense of community of the school can be raised. This community building can be done either within the confines of a course (internal) or outside the course structure (external). In both cases, the concept is the same - develop more pathways through a communication scaffold that allow individuals who are part of the community of the school to connect. There are three dimensions to consider in developing this scaffold: Synchronous vs. Asynchronous; Facilitated vs. Non-Facilitated; and 1-way vs. 2-way. By being conscious of these choices, those working to improve interaction can try to incorporate different types of experiences in order to encourage a larger group of people to participate.