Search

We examine the factors affecting livestock production by using a two-part fixed effects model and assess the contribution of livestock production in reducing income inequality by using the Gini decomposition method. We use panel household data from four rural surveys in three provinces of Vietnam. Our results show that (1) livestock production can bring either positive or negative income; (2) positive livestock income contributes about 11% to annual household income, but this figure is only 7% if negative livestock income is included; (3) positive livestock income reduces rural income inequality by about 3.3%, but this figure becomes 1.2% if negative livestock income is included. We suggest that enhancing access to credits, promoting rural education and road conditions, and empowering rural households to better cope with demographic shocks reduce negative livestock income and consequently improve income equality. In addition, priorities should be given to the development of large livestock.

PurposeThe purposes of this paper are to analyze the path and speed of rural transformation (RT) and explore the relationship between farmer's income and RT as well as structural transformation (ST) and typology of RT in the past four decades in China.Design/methodology/approachBased on the major indicators of RT and ST, graphic illustration is used to analyze the relationships between these indicators and farmer's income using the time-series and cross-provincial data in 1978–2017.FindingsWhile China has experienced significant RT and ST, the levels and speeds of these transformations differed largely among provinces. Higher and faster RT and ST are often positively associated with the higher and faster growth of rural income. Based on this study, a general typology of rural and structural transformations and rural income is developed. The likely impacts of institutions, policies and investments (IPIs) on RT are discussed.Originality/valueThe authors believe that the findings of this study provide the insights on regional RT and ST and policy implications to increase farmer's income through facilitating and speeding up RT and ST with appropriate IPIs during the rural transformation.

This study aims to reveal how e‐commerce affects the income gap between urban and rural areas in the context of developing world. An empirical examination was carried out by using the panel data of 11 cities in Zhejiang Province, China, from 2011 to 2018. The results show that there is an inverted‐U relationship between e‐commerce development and urban–rural income gap. Zhejiang is still on the left side of the inverted‐U curve, where e‐commerce development increases the urban–rural income gap. The government should create more favorable conditions for the popularization of rural e‐commerce and advance the turning point. Este estudio tiene por objeto mostrar la forma en que el comercio electronico afecta a la brecha salarial entre las zonas urbanas y rurales en el contexto del mundo en desarrollo. Se realizo un examen empirico utilizando datos de panel de 11 ciudades de la provincia de Zhejiang (China), de 2011 a 2018. Los resultados muestran que existe una relacion de U invertida entre el desarrollo del comercio electronico y la brecha salarial entre las zonas urbanas y rurales. Zhejiang sigue en el lado izquierdo de la curva U invertida, donde el desarrollo del comercio electronico aumenta la brecha salarial entre las zonas urbanas y rurales. El gobierno deberia crear condiciones mas favorables para la popularizacion del comercio electronico rural y hacer que se llegue antes al punto de inflexion. 本稿の目的は、eコマースが、開発途上国の状況における都市部と農村部の所得格差にどのように影響するかを明らかにすることである。2011~2018年までの中国浙江省の11都市のパネルデータを用いて実証分析を行った。結果から、eコマースの発達と、都市部と農村部との所得格差に逆U字型の関連があることが示された。浙江省は今なお逆U字型カーブの左側にあり、eコマースの発達によって都市部と農村部との所得格差が拡大している。政府は、農村部におけるeコマースの普及に有利な状況を作り、早期に転換期を迎えるべきである。

This study examines the influence of industrial structure upgrading in China on urban-rural income disparity. Using panel data from 30 provinces with the empirical analysis methodology, we find tha...

We use data from the 2016 China Labor-force Dynamics Survey (CLDS) to examine the relationship between happiness and consumption expenditure of rural farmers in China. A two-stage residual inclusion approach is applied to tackle the potential endogeneity issue of happiness. The empirical results show that a higher level of happiness is associated with an increase in consumption expenditure in general. Further analysis reveals that higher levels of happiness are positively and significantly associated with higher expenditures on basic living goods, education and gifts. We also find that both household income and access to the Internet boost happiness and increase consumption expenditure. Happiness plays a larger role in improving the consumption expenditure of rural households compared with their urban counterparts. Our findings may suggest that improving rural income via income diversification strategies and investing in rural information and communication technology infrastructures would encourage rural farmers’ happiness, promote the upgrading of rural consumption and boost sustainable economic growth.

Um dos traços fundamentais que definem a agricultura familiar é a centralidade do trabalho doméstico nos processos produtivos. Todavia, claras são as evidências de que as mutações demográficas, sobretudo o processo de envelhecimento da força de trabalho rural, trazem consigo uma série de desdobramentos sobre o modo como operam hoje tais explorações, ameaçando sua continuidade. Esse fenômeno impacta fortemente os estados meridionais do Brasil, especialmente o Rio Grande do Sul. É no extremo sul gaúcho que a cultura do pêssego foi implantada no século XIX por imigrantes europeus, a qual é majoritariamente conduzida em explorações familiares. A produção tanto pode ser destinada para fabricação de compotas como para o consumo in natura. Trata-se de cultivo que ocupa um grande número de trabalhadores externos (safristas) nas operações de poda, raleio e especialmente colheita. Não obstante, nos últimos anos há um flagrante descenso na disponibilidade dessa mão de obra rural por conta das transformações gerais que incidem sobre o campo. O objetivo central desse artigo é analisar as relações de trabalho tecidas entre produtores familiares e os trabalhadores empregados durante o ciclo do pêssego. A investigação envolveu a realização de vinte entrevistas em profundidade e de outras técnicas de pesquisa. O estudo trouxe à luz a invisibilidade das relações tecidas entre produtores e a força de trabalho empregada durante o ciclo produtivo, as regras que regem o seu funcionamento, as formas de contratação, condições oferecidas aos trabalhadores e a importância da agricultura familiar como empregadora e geradora de renda rural. Palavras-chave: Agricultura familiar. Força de trabalho rural. Persicultura. Pluriatividade.

This poverty assessment aims to strengthen the analytical foundation for poverty-reduction policies and interventions in Mali. In recent years, important gains have been made across multiple dimensions of household welfare, but poverty in Mali remains widespread and extreme. The COVID-19 induced crisis has reversed much of the progress in poverty reduction achieved in Mali over the last decade. Rural poverty in Mali is strongly associated with employment in low-productivity agricultural activities, large family sizes, and high dependency ratios. Income inequality has increased in recent years, and geographical disparities in wellbeing have widened.

Attracted by the urban–rural income gap (URIG), a massive agricultural transfer population has flooded into cities and became a peri-urbanized population due to the restrictions of the household registration system. This trend eventually leads to the rising population peri-urbanization rate (PPUR), which is equal to the proportion of urban resident population with rural household registration in the total residents, and seriously affects the development of new-type people-oriented urbanization. The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of URIG on PPUR at the national and regional levels using the spatial exploration analysis and spatial Durbin model from the perspective of comparative economic interests. Empirical results revealed that PPUR had high spatial agglomeration, as indicated by high values in Eastern China and low values in Central and Western China. Moreover, the PPUR of most provinces in China was rising, dominated by intermediate values. At the national level, URIG promoted the increase of PPUR in the province, but inhibited the increase of PPUR in nearby provinces. Except for household registration, other control variables, such as industrial structure, fixed asset formation rate, infrastructure, medical resources and land-centered urbanization, also contributed to the PPUR in the province. At the regional level, the URIG of Central and Western China contributed to the increase of PPUR, whereas in Eastern China it inhibited the increase of PPUR. The strong correlation of URIG and PPUR calls for relevant policies for narrowing URIG and reducing PPUR.

This poverty assessment aims to inform poverty-focused policymaking in Chad. The report examines recent trends in poverty, inequality, and other social indicators and identifies key constraints on poverty reduction. Although agriculture, pastoralism, and related activities provide livelihoods for about 80 percent of the population, the capital-intensive oil sector drives macroeconomic growth, exports, and fiscal revenues. Eliminating poverty and boosting shared prosperity in Chad will require robust and sustained interventions along three strategic axes: (i) economic diversification, with a focus on the rural sector; (ii) building resilience to multidimensional shocks; and (iii) accelerating human capital formation. Chad faces enormous challenges, and the effectiveness of its poverty reduction efforts will hinge on factors that extend beyond economic policy, including the reestablishment of peace and security through improved governance, as well as a comprehensive effort to address the country’s profound gender disparities.

The article estimates the contribution of total income from each sector to the overall rural income. It tests if the poor, who are concentrated in the lower-income quintiles, gain most from farm or non-farm sources of income growth. Also, within the farm or non-farm income, what are the relative contributions of its different sources. The dominance of agriculture is still there for the lowest quintile of rural households, farming still being the dominant sub-category. Over 1991–2010, a 13 per cent decrease in per capita real income from agricultural wages for all rural households and a 41 per cent decrease in that for Quintile 1 rural households contradict the earlier finding that increases in real wages were one of the main contributors to poverty reduction. Quintile-wise decomposition suggests that a substantial income enhancement was realised at upper quintiles of rural households. It also appears from the quintile-wise decomposition that the efficiency enhancement was realised more at upper quintiles leaving a relatively smaller effect on poverty reduction.

The challenging concern regarding how the benefits of inbound tourism can be evenly distributed, especially among urban and rural individuals, has received considerable attention in China. To address this concern, a spatial econometrics approach is used to estimate the spillover effects of inbound tourism on urban–rural income disparity (URID). An empirical analysis using the spatial Durbin model was conducted for 31 Chinese provinces covering the period from 2003 to 2017. Our findings suggest that at the national level, local inbound tourism significantly reduces the local URID, while neighboring inbound tourism significantly increases the local URID. At the regional level, the role of inbound tourism in reducing the local URID is only detected in the western region. The spillover effects of inbound tourism are positive and significant in the eastern/northeastern region but negative in the western region. In general, these findings provide insights into the importance of interregional tourism policies and strategies for inbound tourism development in China.

Considering the prevalence of income distribution between urban and rural areas especially in autonomous regions with specific ethnic features and relatively inferior economic conditions, and the p...

Income inequality is undoubtedly a potential economic and social risk for any country in the world. For China, the improvement in agricultural production capacity and the steady progress of urbanization are fundamental guarantees to mitigate unbalanced urban-rural development and alleviate urban-rural conflict. However, previous studies have paid little attention to the effects of agricultural inputs such as chemical fertilizers on urban-rural income disparity. Based on a data set of 30 provincial-level regions in China over 1997–2015, we use the system generalized method of moments to investigate the impacts of agricultural production inputs and urbanization on urban-rural income disparity. The results show that increasing urbanization has a significant effect on mitigating urban-rural income disparity. The intensity of chemical fertilizer application also has a significant impact on the disparity, but the impact depends on the level of urbanization. For the provinces with relatively low levels of urbanization, an increase in the intensity of chemical fertilizer application can moderate the disparity, while a decline in the intensity of chemical fertilizer application can narrow the disparity in more urbanized provinces. The threshold levels of urbanization present a time-varying characteristic; however, the threshold effects are significant over the entire sample period. Therefore, during the process of further urbanization in China, it is necessary and urgent to appropriately adjust the pattern of chemical fertilizer application and thus reduce the over-dependence on chemical fertilizers in agricultural production.

Confronted with a sluggish growth and very high rates of rural unemployment, South Africa has put local beneficiation at the core of its strategy for employment-intensive re-industrialisation. Its industrial policy action plan identified agro-processing as one of the priority areas for this strategy because of its potential employment multiplier in rural areas. Despite the appeal of its industrialisation potential, beneficiation strategy is often contested and its effectiveness as a viable engine of industrialisation in African countries is recurrently questioned. This paper presents an empirical evaluation of the income and employment effects of an agro-processing beneficiation programme launched by the Department of Science and Technology for the processing of abundant mango harvest in the area of Tzaneen in Limpopo province. Using inverse probability weighting estimation on a sample of 385 households residing in and around the beneficiation target area, we find clear positive income effects of the agro-processing project for the beneficiary households. The success of this project in the domestic and international agro-processing markets suggests that local beneficiation strategy can provide a sound basis for rural industrialisation if adequately prepared.

This article analyzes the possible impacts of the climate change (CC) and its adaptation measures on the maize trade surplus/deficit, on the production, and on the real income of households established in rural Mexico. The analysis is based on an Applied and Microeconomic General Equilibrium Model and on the estimates of the direct effects of CC on maize yields obtained from the related literature. The results show that climate change will reduce the real rural income by 6.23% and will affect corn production to the extent that the area will change from being a surplus to a deficit. In addition, it is found that while the adaptation measures analyzed in the paper will help to reduce the negative effects of the phenomenon, they will not completely eliminate them. Adaptacion al cambio climatico y sus efectos en la economia de los hogares rurales mexicanos productores de alimentos ABSTRACT En este articulo, se analizan los posibles impactos del Cambio Climatico (CC) y de sus medidas de adaptacion en el superavit/deficit comercial del maiz, en la produccion y los ingresos reales de los hogares establecidos en la zona rural de Mexico, a partir de un Modelo de Equilibrio General Aplicado y Microeconomico, y de estimaciones directas de los efectos del CC en los rendimientos del maiz obtenidas de la literatura relacionada. Los resultados encontrados muestran que el cambio climatico reducira el ingreso real rural en 6.23% y que afectara, en mayor medida, a la produccion de maiz, al grado que la zona pasara de ser superavitaria a deficitaria. Ademas, se obtuvo que, si bien las medidas de adaptacion analizadas ayudaran a reducir los efectos negativos del fenomeno, estas no los eliminaran totalmente.

The latest fiscal reforms in China have been on the county level and bundled both fiscal decentralization and fiscal spending. The present study investigates whether such bundled fiscal ref...

Although much of the recent research has explored the relationship between domestic tourism and income inequality among regions, provinces, and cities, few studies have examined the impact of domestic tourism on income inequality between urban and rural areas within a region. This paper uses a panel dataset covering China’s 31 provinces for 21 years to investigate the spatial spillover effect of domestic tourism on urban-rural income inequality. An increase in domestic tourism revenue in neighboring provinces leads to a reduction in the local province’s urban-rural income inequality. Innovatively, we decompose domestic tourism revenue and consider the circumstances in different provinces. An increase in the number of neighboring provinces’ domestic tourists’ arrival decreases the local province’s urban-rural income inequality in western provinces but increases the inequality in eastern provinces, the effect is insignificant in central provinces. In order to improve urban-rural income inequality by attracting domestic tourists, this study suggests a collaborative strategy for the western region, a low-priority strategy for the central region, and a mitigation strategy for the eastern region.

The dual economic structure and a series of economic measures after the reform and innovation have made the income difference both Guangdong's city and rural areas widening. This has been an issue that must be paid attention to of Guangdong's economic grow. Empirical analysis shows that Guangdong's city-rural income gap has a long-term and stable inverted U-shaped impact on economic growth. So when the urban-rural income gap is at a low level, widening the income gap will help promote economic growth, but when the city-rural income difference reaches a certain level. Further widening the income gap will inhibit economic growth. It is recommended that the Guangdong Provincial Government establish a rural security system while ensuring the rational transfer of labor, and increase public financial investment in rural education.

The city-countryside income gap is the most well-known manifestation of China's city-countryside growth imbalance, which is highly correlated with the city-countryside dual structure in China. The supply of basic public services is strongly linked to the income gap between city and village areas. Based on the province-level pariel data of all 31 provinces and cities in China from 2010 to 2018, this paper studies the level of financial expenditure on fundamental communal services, the purveyance of four fundamental communal service items and the city-countryside income gap respectively from the national and urban agglomeration levels, and propose some measures to lessen the urban-rural income gap.

This paper empirically analyzes the relationship between digital inclusive finance and rural income, and demonstrates that digital inclusive finance plays a significant role in promoting rural income, based on the 2012-2018 panel data of 17 cities in Henan Province of China. Further dimensional research unveils that all of its breadth of coverage, depth of use and degree of digitization present significant positive correlation with rural income, and a robustness test was conducted through the sub-sample method. In addition, according to regression analysis on the influencing factors of digital inclusive finance through the Tobit model, the level of economic development, the Internet popularity rate and the urbanization rate have a positive effect on the development of digital inclusive finance in Henan, while the income gap between urban and rural areas and the degree of opening up have a negative effect. Finally, predicated on the analysis of the restrictive factors of Henan’s digital inclusive finance in increasing rural income, the paper puts forward specific policy proposals based on the native state quo.

In the paper, based on the 2012-2018 panel data of 17 cities in Henan Province of China, a panel regression model was constructed to empirically analyze the relationship between digital inclusive finance and rural income, and the empirical results demonstrate that digital inclusive finance plays a significant role in promoting rural income. Further dimensional research unveils that all of its breadth of coverage, depth of use and degree of digitization present significant positive correlation with rural income, and a robustness test was conducted through the sub-sample method. In addition, according to regression analysis on the influencing factors of digital inclusive finance through the Tobit model, the level of economic development, the Internet popularity rate and the urbanization rate have a positive effect on the development of digital inclusive finance in Henan, while the income gap between urban and rural areas and the degree of opening up have a negative effect. Finally, predicated on the analysis of the restrictive factors of Henan’s digital inclusive finance in increasing rural income, the paper puts forward specific policy proposals based on the native state quo.

The study used primary data from a survey of 408 rural household heads to answer the question of whether or not Non-Timber Forest Products can contribute to reducing rural income inequality in Cameroon's South-West region. A structured questionnaire was used to collect the data. To achieve identical results, we used three alternative methodologies: the Gini Coefficient, the Lorenz curve, and the Income Decomposition by Income Sources. The findings demonstrated that income from non-timber forest products greatly reduces rural income disparity in the region's rural areas, and that they play an essential role among the many income sources evaluated. As a result, we advocate processing to increase the value of non-timber forest products. Improved benefits to the community as a whole will result from better management of the forest in general and forest resources in particular, particularly in terms of total income and income inequality.

With the improvement of computer technology and the widespread popularization of the Internet in China, e-commerce has greatly changed people's way of life, become a major promoting industry for China's economic development, and also increased the income of rural and urban residents in China to a certain extent. Since 2013, China's e-commerce development has reached a certain scale, so this article based on the system of literature, using data from 2013–2019, analyzes the electronic commerce to the influence of the Chinese people's income, found that in general the development of e-commerce of our country resident income and great role in promoting, and the impact on rural income is greater than the effect on the income in cities and towns. Finally, combined with the results of empirical analysis, put forward the corresponding countermeasures and suggestions.

Sericulture has been seen in Rwanda as an opportunity for increasing raw materials for the textile industry. Therefore, it has provided a new source of income, reduced unemployment and most likely to improve the livelihood status of poor sericulture smallholder producers by increasing their income earnings. The high yield in silk production has been pleasing due to the favourable climatic conditions for mulberry cultivation, sericulture has been seen as a potential tool to reduce poverty and also to generate foreign exchanges from exportation. The broad objective of this paper focuses on the impact of the livelihood status of smallholder producers in Rwanda. Purposive and simple random sampling techniques were employed in selecting 286 sericulture households’ farmers in Gatsibo district. Data for this study were analysed using descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, paired-samples t-test, cross-tabulation and chi-square test of independence. The results of this study showed clearly a significant improvement in the livelihood of the farmers. It was gathered that 82% asserted there are organized markets available for silk exportation. 77% affirmed an improvement in their income status. The average level of income per year from cocoon production among the farmers was estimated to be $227.59. It is of topmost priority for this program to continue because its effect has a very positive impact on the livelihood status of the beneficiaries. Farmers should be provided with continuous training, access to credits. If sustained properly it will resolve future challenges and springs more opportunities for farmers and likewise to the country through exports.

This paper empirically studies the impact of digital inclusive finance on the income structure of urban and rural residents in eastern, central, and western China. The results show that, first, digital inclusive finance is beneficial to narrowing the urban–rural per capita disposable income gap that has a disequilibrium effect among regions. Second, narrowing the wage income, property income, and transfer income gaps is beneficial but has little effect on the net operating income gap between urban and rural residents. Third, narrowing the wage income, property income, and transfer income gaps reduces the total income gap, and the wage income gap has the strongest intermediary force. In the end, the paper puts forward corresponding countermeasures for the development of digital inclusive finance to narrow each of these income gaps in different regions of China.

Rhododendron arboreum locally known as ‘Burans', that bears magnificent flowers is one of the valuable non timber forest produces (NTFPs) in Garhwal Himalaya. These flowers are good source of income for local populace and help them to their subsistence up to some extent. R. arboreum flower can help local population to improve their livelihoods if potential harvesting is carried out sustainably. An attempt has been made to estimate the flower yield, examine extraction techniques, marketing trends and various uses of flowers. Stratified random sampling method was carried out in eight sites varying in altitudes and geographic locations. Flower yield kg/ha for each site was calculated as standard process. Questionnaire based survey was carried out in selected villages for flower extraction and marketing trends. Projections of potential (probable/-could generate) income were made and cost–benefit analysis was also estimated. Tree density of R. arboreum ranked first and Q. leucotrichophora had second rank while 16–25 cm cbh class tree density for R. arboreum was found highest across the sites. Flower yield was significantly (p Rhododendron flower extraction and marketing business. The total monetary benefit was significantly higher than the inputs for all value added items on a per day basis. R. arboreum plays important role in ecological and economic sustainability of poor rural people and unemployed youths in Himalayan region. This can reduce unemployment through development of small cottage industry and entrepreneurship at village level by making different food products i.e. juice, squash, sauce and pickle etc.

This research uses satellite remote sensing data to measure the urban spatial form and analyzes the impact of changes to urban spatial structure on the income gap between urban and rural residents. The results indicate that the compactness of the urban spatial form is positively correlated with the income gap between urban and rural residents. However, there is no statistically significant relationship between the urban spatial extension rate and the urban–rural income gap. A subsequent analysis of the control variables shows that fiscal policy is positively correlated while urbanization is negatively correlated with the income gap between urban and rural residents. These conclusions provide the basis for formulating policies to narrow the urban–rural income gap. Appropriately reducing the spatial compactness of cities can narrow the income gap. In addition, changing excessive preferences for urban fiscal policy and increasing the level of urbanization can also promote a reduction in the income gap between urban and rural residents.

To provide better policy suggestion, and clarify the impact of economic growth on urban-rural income gap in the five provinces of northwest China, unit root test and Co-integration test were conducted on the data, which are from relevant contents of the National Bureau of Statistics of Gansu, Shaanxi, Qinghai, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region and Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region, and a corrected error model was built to explore the impact of economic growth on urban-rural income gap. Results show that the absolute gap in the five north-western provinces is widening, but the relative gap is narrowing. Thus we know that economic growth is negatively correlated with the gap between the rich and the poor in the five northwest provinces. The economic growth of the five northwest provinces is already in the third stage of the “inverted U” model, of which economic growth is conducive to help the northwest region out of poverty, promote social fairness, and accelerate the pace of build a well-off society in an all-round way.

Poultry is a rapidly growing sector of agriculture that produces meat and egg. Chicken meat and egg are the inexpensive sources of proteins and minerals. In addition to supplying food, poultry industry also offers employment to millions of people. It is a source of rural income and alleviates poverty. Poultry industry strives to produce high-quality meat and egg to meet the food security of the ever-expanding population. The conventional feed is supplemented with antibiotics and inorganic minerals. Antibiotics are used as prophylaxis to prevent birds from avian infectious diseases and contamination by foodborne pathogens. The emergence of multi-drug resistant pathogens and the presence of antibiotics in poultry and meat products restrict their use. Nano-materials has shown its potential to be an alternative of antibiotics and also is being exploited to improve the growth of birds and enrichment of meat and egg. Nano-materials as a feed additive at a very low concentration, aid in the efficient conversion of feed to biomass and products. The positive effect of nano-materials on the growth and performance of broilers and layers are determined by their physico-chemical properties. Further, the use of nano-sensors can also help in detecting avian pathogens at the early stage. Here, we review the potential of nanomaterials in the poultry industry to sustain good level of animal yield, low mortality rate, while preserving the environment and consumer health.

This study examines the impact of cooperative membership on rural income generation. It also analyzes the factors influencing participation in cooperatives among rural households in Southwest, Nigeria. The study was designed to account for selection bias into cooperative organizations. Rural household survey data were used and the estimates were based on both the Probit model and non-parametric propensity score matching method. The findings show that income generated through cooperative membership is approximately 10% higher than those generated by noncooperative members. Empirical estimates of determinants of cooperative membership indicate that years of education, age and land size have significant influences on the decision to join cooperatives. Este estudio examina el impacto de la membresía cooperativa en la generación de ingresos rurales. También analiza los factores que influyen en la participación en cooperativas entre los hogares rurales en el suroeste de Nigeria. El estudio fue diseñado para tener en cuenta el sesgo de selección en las organizaciones cooperativas. Se utilizaron datos de encuestas de hogares rurales y las estimaciones se basaron tanto en el modelo Probit como en el método de emparejamiento de puntaje de propensión no paramétrico. Los hallazgos muestran que los ingresos generados a través de la membresía cooperativa son aproximadamente un 10% más altos que los generados por los miembros no cooperativos. Las estimaciones empíricas de los determinantes de la membresía cooperativa indican que los años de educación, la edad y el tamaño de la tierra tienen una influencia significativa en la decisión de unirse a las cooperativas.

This study applies wavelet analysis to examine the relationship between the urbanization and the urban&ndash, rural income gap in 31 provinces in China over the period 1978&ndash, 2019. We find three patterns of causality between urbanization and the urban&ndash, rural income gap. Empirical results show that urbanization does Granger-cause an urban&ndash, rural income gap, the urban&ndash, rural income gap does Granger-cause urbanization, and there exists a two-way causality between the urban&ndash, rural income gap and urbanization. Furthermore, these relationships mainly exist at high frequencies (short term). The results obtained by considering the resident population are more significant than those by the registered population. These results could help local governments develop fair policies for urban and rural income distribution in the process of urbanization of different provinces, promoting the coordinated development between urban and rural areas.

This paper provides an overview of research on out-of-pocket health expenditures by reviewing the various summary measures and the results of multi-country studies using these measures. The paper presents estimates for 146 countries from all World Bank income groups for all summary measures, along with correlations between the summary measures and macroeconomic and health system indicators. Large differences emerge across countries in per capita out-of-pocket expenditures in 2011 international dollars, driven in large part by differences in per capita income and the share of GDP spent on health. The two measures of dispersion or risk—the coefficient of variation and Q90/Q50—are only weakly correlated across countries and not explained by our macroeconomic and health system indicators. Considerable variation emerges in the out-of-pocket health expenditure budget share, which is highly correlated with the incidence of “catastrophic expenditures”. Out-of-pocket expenditures tend to be regressive and catastrophic expenditures tend to be concentrated among the poor when expenditures are assessed relative to income, while expenditures tend to be progressive and catastrophic expenditures tend to be concentrated among the rich when expenditures are assessed relative to consumption. At the extreme poverty line of $1.90-a-day, most impoverishment due to out-of-pocket expenditures occurs among low-income countries.

This paper investigates the causal relationship between financial development and the urban–rural income gap in China. Using a bootstrap Granger panel causality analysis, the result indicates that financial development influences urban–rural income gap mainly in Eastern China. The high level of financial development in this region enables rural areas to increase its income. Our results also confirm the existence of the financial Kuznets curve in Eastern China where urban–rural income gap would be first increased and afterwards decreased by financial development. The financial development itself is not dependent on urban–rural income gap as it largely depends on government policies and economic growth. Este articulo investiga la relacion causal entre el desarrollo financiero y la brecha salarial entre las zonas urbanas y rurales de China. El estudio empleo un analisis de causalidad de Granger con bootstrap sobre datos de panel y el resultado indica que el desarrollo financiero influye en la brecha salarial entre las zonas urbanas y rurales, principalmente en el este de China. El alto nivel de desarrollo financiero de esta region permite a las zonas rurales aumentar sus ingresos. Nuestros resultados confirman tambien la existencia de la curva financiera de Kuznets en el este de China, donde la brecha salarial entre las zonas urbanas y rurales aumentaria primero con el desarrollo financiero, para disminuir a continuacion. El desarrollo financiero en si mismo no depende de la brecha salarial entre las zonas urbanas y rurales, ya que depende en gran medida de las politicas gubernamentales y del crecimiento economico. 本稿では、中国における、金融発展と都市部と農村部の収入格差との因果関係について検討する。ブートストラップ法によるGranger パネル因果性検定により解析したところ、結果から、主に中国東部において、金融発展が都市部と農村部の収入格差に影響を与えていることが示された。中国東部における高度な金融発展により農村部の収入が増加している。また、この結果から、中国東部の金融発展では、はじめは都市部と農村部の収入の格差が拡大し、その後に格差が縮小することを示すクズネッツ曲線の存在が確認された。金融発展そのものは、政府の政策と経済成長に大きく依存しており、都市部と農村部の収入格差に依存するものではない。

Homestay program is one of key strategies for enhancing rural income and biodiversity conservation. In this study, we assessed the socio-economic and environmental outcomes of a community managed homestay program in Amaltari village of Nawalparasi, Nepal by collecting household level data from the 21 households. We interviewed visitors (n=60) to assess their satisfaction level with the services they are offered. Homestay income was found to have contributed more to the poor households than to the richer ones. Social contributions included increase in community pride, women empowerment and improved community relationship. The contribution in environmental sector was mainly the increase in environmental education and plantation activities. Visitors (n=60) were more satisfied with the hospitality and culture and least satisfied with the available means of communication. Linear regression models did not show any significant effect of age, sex and prior experience of visitors with homestay program on their overall satisfaction score which ranged from –10 to +10 (βage= -0.003±0.02; βsex.male= 0.003 ±0.02; βfirst.time=- 0.003 ±0.02). Linking the home stay village with markets (e.g., travel agencies) and capacity building training for the homestay owners on management and marketing could be crucial to increase socio-economic and environmental outcomes of the homestay.

Using Chinese provincial data over the period 1985–2013 and conducting the panel cointegration methods, we find that financial inclusion narrows the urban–rural income inequality in the long run, b...

Based on provincial panel data of China ranging from 2004 to 2015, this paper has empirically examined the effect of basic public service on the urban–rural income inequality with a system generalised method of moments (sys-GMM). We arrive at the following conclusions: 1) the improvement of public service provision is conducive to narrowing the urban–rural income gap; 2) compared with the ‘hard’ public services (including infrastructure, environmental protection and cultural facilities), the ‘soft’ public services (including education, medical care and social security) play a more significant role in reducing the disparity; 3) the household registration system impairs the welfare brought by the ‘soft’ public services and exacerbates the passive effect of ‘hard’ public services on the income gap; 4) the interactive impact of household registration regulation and public service provision on the income gap is more significant in developed areas. These findings suggest the government should give priority to the improvement of ‘soft’ public services, reevaluate the way of spending on ‘hard’ public services in rural areas and deepen the household registration system reform.

Neste traballo respondese a seguinte pregunta Por que no periodo: 2004-2014, reduciuse a pobreza rural en Colombia, se a concentracion do ingreso rural non baixou? Para respondela, faise unha analise das taxas de crecemento das series de crecemento do ingreso rural, distribucion do ingreso rural, pobreza rural, o coeficiente de Gini do ingreso e poboacion rural. Logo de responder a anterior pregunta, faise unha descricion do impacto da diminucion da pobreza rural no periodo estudado, sobre algunhas das variables de calidade de vida da poboacion rural, para concluir que estas foron febles. Analizase ademais a influencia do desenvolvemento economico sobre a diminucion da pobreza. Abstract. In this paper, the following question is answered: Why in the study period 2004-2014, Colombian rural poverty decreased, even if rural income shares did not change? In order to do so, an analysis of growth rates of some economic series is done, such as: rural income growth, rural income shares, rural poverty, Gini coefficient of income and rural population. After, possible impacts of the decreasing rural poverty on some quality of life variables of Colombian rural population are described, finally concluding them to be feeble. Besides, the influence of economic development on poverty reduction is analyzed.