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Purpose: One academic medical center's efforts to move toward compliance with requirements of United States Pharmacopeia ( USP ) chapter 800 through a multidepartmental collaborative initiative are described., Summary: Requirements of USP general chapter 800 (enforceable as of December 2019) address the handling of hazardous drugs (HDs) throughout the entire operational and clinical cycle, from receiving to compounding, administration, and waste disposal. Due to the variety of pharmacy operational areas in which HDs are encountered at University of North Carolina Medical Center (UNCMC), multiple pharmacy managers oversee the safe handling of HDs. To determine baseline compliance with USP chapter 800 requirements, a common assessment tool was developed to ensure a standardized approach to compliance assessment in all areas. An interdepartmental workgroup was created to ensure institutionwide support for a collaborative compliance initiative, a uniform understanding of compliance risks, and robust action planning. UNCMC has taken a number of steps toward USP chapter compliance in areas such as engineering controls, environmental quality and controls, use of personal protective equipment, hazard communication programs, personnel training, spill control, and medical surveillance., Conclusion: Achieving USP chapter 800 compliance presented several operational, clinical, and financial challenges for the medical center, requiring months of preparation and diligence by the hospital leadership. The pharmacy department-led compliance collaborative allowed departments to proactively align while implementing practice and quality standards to foster safety for patients, workers, and the environment., (Copyright © 2018 by the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc. All rights reserved.)

As the development of new classes of antibiotics slows, bacterial resistance to existing antibiotics is becoming an increasing problem. A potential solution is to develop treatment strategies with an alternative mode of action. We consider one such strategy: anti-adhesion therapy. Whereas antibiotics act directly upon bacteria, either killing them or inhibiting their growth, anti-adhesion therapy impedes the binding of bacteria to host cells. This prevents bacteria from deploying their arsenal of virulence mechanisms, while simultaneously rendering them more susceptible to natural and artificial clearance. In this paper, we consider a particular form of anti-adhesion therapy, involving biomimetic multivalent adhesion molecule 7 coupled polystyrene microbeads, which competitively inhibit the binding of bacteria to host cells. We develop a mathematical model, formulated as a system of ordinary differential equations, to describe inhibitor treatment of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa burn wound infection in the rat. Benchmarking our model against in vivo data from an ongoing experimental programme, we use the model to explain bacteria population dynamics and to predict the efficacy of a range of treatment strategies, with the aim of improving treatment outcome. The model consists of two physical compartments: the host cells and the exudate. It is found that, when effective in reducing the bacterial burden, inhibitor treatment operates both by preventing bacteria from binding to the host cells and by reducing the flux of daughter cells from the host cells into the exudate. Our model predicts that inhibitor treatment cannot eliminate the bacterial burden when used in isolation; however, when combined with regular or continuous debridement of the exudate, elimination is theoretically possible. Lastly, we present ways to improve therapeutic efficacy, as predicted by our mathematical model.

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) is a warm-season legume with a genetically diverse gene-pool composed of wild and cultivated forms. Cowpea domestication involved considerable phenotypic changes from the wild progenitor, including reduction of pod shattering, increased organ size, and changes in flowering time. Little is known about the genetic basis underlying these changes. In this study, 215 recombinant inbred lines derived from a cross between a cultivated and a wild cowpea accession were used to evaluate nine domestication-related traits (pod shattering, peduncle length, flower color, days to flowering, 100-seed weight, pod length, leaf length, leaf width and seed number per pod). A high-density genetic map containing 17,739 single nucleotide polymorphisms was constructed and used to identify 16 quantitative trait loci (QTL) for these nine traits. Based on annotations of the cowpea reference genome, genes within these regions are reported. Four regions with clusters of QTL were identified, including one on chromosome 8 related to increased organ size. This study provides new knowledge of the genomic regions controlling domestication-related traits in cowpea as well as candidate genes underlying those QTL. This information can help to exploit wild relatives in cowpea breeding programs.

Aortic regurgitation (AR) increases the hemodynamic load on both the left ventricle (LV) and the aorta. Vasodilators and beta-blockers both reduce systemic blood pressure, but their relative effects on the LV and aortic function and aortic regurgitant fraction in chronic AR are uncertain. We aimed to compare short-term effects of losartan and metoprolol on LV and aortic function in asymptomatic patients with chronic moderate to severe AR, both at rest and during exercise, using cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging. 17 chronic AR patients were randomized to 4-6 weeks losartan followed by metoprolol, or vice versa, in a cross-over design. Aortic regurgitant fraction, aortic distensibility, pulse wave velocity and LV function were assessed at rest and after moderate exercise stress (29 ± 7 W, heart rate increase 25 ± 6 bpm) using CMR. Chronic AR patients on metoprolol had a significantly lower mean heart rate, cardiac power index and rate-pressure product, than on losartan (all p < 0.01). However, aortic regurgitant fraction was greater on metoprolol compared to losartan (by 7 ± 11%, p = 0.02). Metoprolol was also associated with a greater reduction in aortic distensibility during exercise than losartan (- 2.4 ± 1.5 × 10 -3  vs - 1.7 ± 2.1 × 10 -3  mmHg -1 respectively, p = 0.04). End-diastolic volume index was higher on metoprolol than losartan at exercise (difference 6.6 ± 7.8 ml/m 2 , p < 0.01), as was end-systolic volume index (difference 4.0 ± 5.2 ml/m 2 , p < 0.01). Losartan and metoprolol have significantly different short-term effects on aortic regurgitation and LV and aortic function in chronic AR. Further research is required to determine the long-term clinical significance of these changes.

Multi-parent advanced generation inter-cross (MAGIC) populations are an emerging type of resource for dissecting the genetic structure of traits and improving breeding populations. We developed a MAGIC population for cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) from eight founder parents. These founders were genetically diverse and carried many abiotic and biotic stress resistance, seed quality and agronomic traits relevant to cowpea improvement in the United States and sub-Saharan Africa, where cowpea is vitally important in the human diet and local economies. The eight parents were inter-crossed using structured matings to ensure that the population would have balanced representation from each parent, followed by single-seed descent, resulting in 305 F 8 recombinant inbred lines each carrying a mosaic of genome blocks contributed by all founders. This was confirmed by single nucleotide polymorphism genotyping with the Illumina Cowpea Consortium Array. These lines were on average 99.74% homozygous but also diverse in agronomic traits across environments. Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) were identified for several parental traits. Loci with major effects on photoperiod sensitivity and seed size were also verified by biparental genetic mapping. The recombination events were concentrated in telomeric regions. Due to its broad genetic base, this cowpea MAGIC population promises breakthroughs in genetic gain, QTL and gene discovery, enhancement of breeding populations and, for some lines, direct releases as new varieties., (© 2018 The Authors. The Plant Journal published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd and Society for Experimental Biology.)

Purpose: To determine whether the oxygen toxicity hypothesis can explain the distinctive spatio-temporal patterns of retinal degeneration associated with human retinitis pigmentosa (RP) and to predict the effects of antioxidant and trophic factor treatments under this hypothesis., Methods: Three mathematical models were derived to describe the evolution of the retinal oxygen concentration and photoreceptor density over time. The first model considers only hyperoxia-induced degeneration, while the second and third models include mutation-induced rod and cone loss respectively. The models were formulated as systems of partial differential equations, defined on a two-dimensional domain spanning the region between the foveal center and the ora serrata, and were solved numerically using the finite element method., Results: The mathematical models recapitulate patterns of retinal degeneration which involve preferential loss of photoreceptors in the parafoveal/perifoveal and far-peripheral retina, while those which involve a preferential loss of midperipheral photoreceptors cannot be reproduced. Treatment with antioxidants or trophic factors is predicted to delay, halt, or partially reverse retinal degeneration, depending upon the strength and timing of treatment and disease severity., Conclusions: The model simulations indicate that while the oxygen toxicity hypothesis is sufficient to explain some of the patterns of retinal degeneration observed in human RP, additional mechanisms are necessary to explain the full range of behaviors. The models further suggest that antioxidant and trophic factor treatments have the potential to reduce hyperoxia-induced disease severity and that, where possible, these treatments should be targeted at retinal regions with low photoreceptor density to maximize their efficacy.

Cowpea is one of the most important food and forage legumes in drier regions of the tropics and subtropics. However, cowpea yield worldwide is markedly below the known potential due to abiotic and biotic stresses, including parasitism by root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp., RKN). Two resistance genes with dominant effect, Rk and Rk2, have been reported to provide resistance against RKN in cowpea. Despite their description and use in breeding for resistance to RKN and particularly genetic mapping of the Rk locus, the exact genes conferring resistance to RKN remain unknown. In the present work, QTL mapping using recombinant inbred line (RIL) population 524B x IT84S-2049 segregating for a newly mapped locus and analysis of the transcriptome changes in two cowpea near-isogenic lines (NIL) were used to identify candidate genes for Rk and the newly mapped locus. A major QTL, designated QRk-vu9.1, associated with resistance to Meloidogyne javanica reproduction, was detected and mapped on linkage group LG9 at position 13.37 cM using egg production data. Transcriptome analysis on resistant and susceptible NILs 3 and 9 days after inoculation revealed up-regulation of 109 and 98 genes and down-regulation of 110 and 89 genes, respectively, out of 19,922 unique genes mapped to the common bean reference genome. Among the differentially expressed genes, four and nine genes were found within the QRk-vu9.1 and QRk-vu11.1 QTL intervals, respectively. Six of these genes belong to the TIR-NBS-LRR family of resistance genes and three were upregulated at one or more time-points. Quantitative RT-PCR validated gene expression to be positively correlated with RNA-seq expression pattern for eight genes. Future functional analysis of these cowpea genes will enhance our understanding of Rk-mediated resistance and identify the specific gene responsible for the resistance.

Cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) is an affordable source of protein and strategic legume crop for food security in Africa and other developing regions; however, damage from infection by root-knot nematodes (RKN) suppresses cowpea yield. The deployment through breeding of resistance gene Rk in cowpea cultivars has provided protection to cowpea growers worldwide for many years. However, occurrence of more aggressive nematode isolates threatens the effectiveness of this monogenic resistance. A cowpea germplasm collection of 48 genotypes representing the cowpea gene-pool from Eastern and Southern Africa (cowpea has two major pools of genetic resources - Western Africa and Eastern/Southern Africa) was screened in replicated experiments under field, greenhouse and controlled-growth conditions to identify resistance to RKN, to determine the spectrum of resistance to RKN, the relative virulence (VI) among RKN species and isolates, and the relationship between root-galling (RG) and egg-mass production (EM). Analysis of variance of data for RG and EM per root system identified seven genotypes with broad-based resistance to Meloidogyne javanica (Mj), avirulent (Avr-Mi), and virulent (Mi) M. incognita isolates. Two of the 48 genotypes exhibited specific resistance to both Mi isolates. Most of the genotypes were resistant to Avr-Mi indicating predominance of Rk gene in the collection. Based on RG data, both Mj (VI = 50%) and Mi (VI = 42%) were fourfold more virulent than Avr-Mi (VI = 12%). Resistant genotypes had more effective resistance than the Rk -based resistance in cowpea genotype CB46 against Mj and Mi. Root-galling was correlated across isolates (Avr-Mi/Mj: r = 0.72; Mi/Mj: r = 0.98), and RG was correlated with EM ( r = 0.60), indicating resistance to RG and EM is under control by the same genetic factors. These new sources of resistance identified in cowpea gene-pool two provide valuable target traits for breeders to improve cowpea production on RKN-infested fields., Cowpea ( Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) is an affordable source of protein and strategic legume crop for food security in Africa and other developing regions; however, damage from infection by root-knot nematodes (RKN) suppresses cowpea yield. The deployment through breeding of resistance gene Rk in cowpea cultivars has provided protection to cowpea growers worldwide for many years. However, occurrence of more aggressive nematode isolates threatens the effectiveness of this monogenic resistance. A cowpea germplasm collection of 48 genotypes representing the cowpea gene-pool from Eastern and Southern Africa (cowpea has two major pools of genetic resources – Western Africa and Eastern/Southern Africa) was screened in replicated experiments under field, greenhouse and controlled-growth conditions to identify resistance to RKN, to determine the spectrum of resistance to RKN, the relative virulence (VI) among RKN species and isolates, and the relationship between root-galling (RG) and egg-mass production (EM). Analysis of variance of data for RG and EM per root system identified seven genotypes with broad-based resistance to Meloidogyne javanica (Mj), avirulent (Avr-Mi), and virulent (Mi) M. incognita isolates. Two of the 48 genotypes exhibited specific resistance to both Mi isolates. Most of the genotypes were resistant to Avr-Mi indicating predominance of Rk gene in the collection. Based on RG data, both Mj (VI = 50%) and Mi (VI = 42%) were fourfold more virulent than Avr-Mi (VI = 12%). Resistant genotypes had more effective resistance than the Rk -based resistance in cowpea genotype CB46 against Mj and Mi. Root-galling was correlated across isolates (Avr-Mi/Mj: r = 0.72; Mi/Mj: r = 0.98), and RG was correlated with EM ( r = 0.60), indicating resistance to RG and EM is under control by the same genetic factors. These new sources of resistance identified in cowpea gene-pool two provide valuable target traits for breeders to improve cowpea production on RKN-infested fields.

Transgressive segregation in cotton ( Gossypium spp.) provides an important approach to enhance resistance to the major pest root-knot nematode (RKN) Meloidogyne incognita . Our previous studies reported transgressive RKN resistance in an intraspecific Gossypium hirsutum resistant NemX × susceptible SJ-2 recombinant inbred line (RIL) population and early generations of interspecific cross Gossypium barbadense (susceptible Pima S-7) × G. hirsutum (NemX). However, the underlying functional mechanisms for this phenomenon are not known. In this study, the region of RKN resistance gene rkn1 on chromosome (Chr) 11 and its homoeologous Chr 21 was fine mapped with G. raimondii D 5 genome reference sequence. Transgressive resistance was found in the later generation of a new RIL population F 2:7 (Pima S-7 × NemX) and one interspecific F 2 (susceptible Pima S-7 × susceptible SJ-2). QTL analysis revealed similar contributions to root-galling and egg-production resistance phenotypes associated with SSR marker CIR316 linked to resistance gene rkn1 in NemX on Chr 11 in all seven populations analyzed. In testcross NemX × F 1 (Pima S-7 × SJ-2) marker allele CIR069-271 from Pima S-7 linked to CIR316 contributed 63% of resistance to galling phenotype in the presence of rkn1 . Similarly, in RIL population F 2:8 (NemX × SJ-2), SJ-2 markers closely linked to CIR316 contributed up to 82% of resistance to root-galling. These results were confirmed in BC 1 F 1 SJ-2 × F 1 (NemX × SJ-2), F 2 (NemX × SJ-2), and F 2 (Pima S-7 × SJ-2) populations in which up to 44, 36, and 15% contribution in resistance to galling was found, respectively. Transgressive segregation for resistance was universal in all intra- and inter-specific populations, although stronger transgressive resistance occurred in later than in early generations in the intraspecific cross compared with the interspecific cross. Transgressive effects on progeny from susceptible parents are possibly provided in the rkn1 resistance region of chromosome 11 by tandemly arrayed allele (TAA) or gene (TAG) interactions contributing to transgressive resistance. Complex TAA and TAG recombination and interactions in the rkn1 resistance region provide three genes and a model to study disease and transgressive resistance in polyploid plants, and novel genotypes for plant breeding.

The group of genetically mediated diseases, known collectively as retinitis pigmentosa (RP), cause retinal degeneration and, hence, loss of vision. The most common inherited retinal degeneration, RP is currently untreatable. The retina detects light using cells known as photoreceptors, of which there are two types: rods and cones. In RP, genetic mutations cause patches of photoreceptors to degenerate and typically directly affect either rods or cones, but not both. During disease progression, degenerate patches spread and the unaffected photoreceptor type also begins to degenerate. The cause underlying these phenomena is currently unknown. The oxygen toxicity hypothesis proposes that secondary photoreceptor loss is due to hyperoxia (toxically high oxygen levels), which results from the decrease in oxygen uptake following the initial loss of photoreceptors. In this paper, we construct mathematical models, formulated as 1D systems of partial differential equations, to investigate this hypothesis. Using a combination of numerical simulations, asymptotic analysis and travelling wave analysis, we find that degeneration may spread due to hyperoxia, and generate spatio-temporal patterns of degeneration similar to those seen in vivo. We determine the conditions under which a degenerate patch will spread and show that the wave speed of degeneration is a monotone decreasing function of the local photoreceptor density. Lastly, the effects of treatment with antioxidants and trophic factors, and of capillary loss, upon the dynamics of photoreceptor loss and recovery are considered., (Crown Copyright © 2017. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Drug manufacturers change distribution models based on patient safety and product integrity needs. These model changes can limit health-system access to medications, and the financial impact on health systems can be significant. Objective: The primary aim of this study was to determine the health-system financial impact of a manufacturer's change from open to limited distribution for bevacizumab (Avastin), rituximab (Rituxan), and trastuzumab (Herceptin). The secondary aim was to identify opportunities to shift administration to outpatient settings to support formulary change. Methods: To assess the financial impact on the health system, the cost minus discount was applied to total drug expenditure during a 1-year period after the distribution model change. The opportunity analysis was conducted for three institutions within the health system through chart review of each inpatient administration. Opportunity cost was the sum of the inpatient administration cost and outpatient administration margin. Results: The total drug expenditure for the study period was $26 427 263. By applying the cost minus discount, the financial effect of the distribution model change was $1 393 606. A total of 387 administrations were determined to be opportunities to be shifted to the outpatient setting. During the study period, the total opportunity cost was $1 766 049. Conclusion: Drug expenditure increased for the health system due to the drug distribution model change and loss of cost minus discount. The opportunity cost of shifting inpatient administrations could offset the increase in expenditure. It is recommended to restrict bevacizumab, rituximab, and trastuzumab through Pharmacy & Therapeutics Committees to outpatient use where clinically appropriate., Competing Interests: Declaration of Conflicting Interests: The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Cowpea (V. unguiculata L. Walp) is a climate resilient legume crop important for food security. Cultivated cowpea (V. unguiculata L) generally comprises the bushy, short-podded grain cowpea dominant in Africa and the climbing, long-podded vegetable cowpea popular in Asia. How selection has contributed to the diversification of the two types of cowpea remains largely unknown. In the current study, a novel genotyping assay for over 50 000 SNPs was employed to delineate genomic regions governing pod length. Major, minor and epistatic QTLs were identified through QTL mapping. Seventy-two SNPs associated with pod length were detected by genome-wide association studies (GWAS). Population stratification analysis revealed subdivision among a cowpea germplasm collection consisting of 299 accessions, which is consistent with pod length groups. Genomic scan for selective signals suggested that domestication of vegetable cowpea was accompanied by selection of multiple traits including pod length, while the further improvement process was featured by selection of pod length primarily. Pod growth kinetics assay demonstrated that more durable cell proliferation rather than cell elongation or enlargement was the main reason for longer pods. Transcriptomic analysis suggested the involvement of sugar, gibberellin and nutritional signalling in regulation of pod length. This study establishes the basis for map-based cloning of pod length genes in cowpea and for marker-assisted selection of this trait in breeding programmes., (© 2016 The Authors. Plant Biotechnology Journal published by Society for Experimental Biology and The Association of Applied Biologists and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) is a legume crop that is resilient to hot and drought-prone climates, and a primary source of protein in sub-Saharan Africa and other parts of the developing world. However, genome resources for cowpea have lagged behind most other major crops. Here we describe foundational genome resources and their application to the analysis of germplasm currently in use in West African breeding programs. Resources developed from the African cultivar IT97K-499-35 include a whole-genome shotgun (WGS) assembly, a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) physical map, and assembled sequences from 4355 BACs. These resources and WGS sequences of an additional 36 diverse cowpea accessions supported the development of a genotyping assay for 51 128 SNPs, which was then applied to five bi-parental RIL populations to produce a consensus genetic map containing 37 372 SNPs. This genetic map enabled the anchoring of 100 Mb of WGS and 420 Mb of BAC sequences, an exploration of genetic diversity along each linkage group, and clarification of macrosynteny between cowpea and common bean. The SNP assay enabled a diversity analysis of materials from West African breeding programs. Two major subpopulations exist within those materials, one of which has significant parentage from South and East Africa and more diversity. There are genomic regions of high differentiation between subpopulations, one of which coincides with a cluster of nodulin genes. The new resources and knowledge help to define goals and accelerate the breeding of improved varieties to address food security issues related to limited-input small-holder farming and climate stress., (© 2016 The Authors. The Plant Journal published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd and Society for Experimental Biology.)

The aim of the present study is to develop a reliable and valid skin tear risk assessment tool. The six characteristics identified in a previous case control study as constituting the best risk model for skin tear development were used to construct a risk assessment tool. The ability of the tool to predict skin tear development was then tested in a prospective study. Between August 2012 and September 2013, 1466 tertiary hospital patients were assessed at admission and followed up for 10 days to see if they developed a skin tear. The predictive validity of the tool was assessed using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis. When the tool was found not to have performed as well as hoped, secondary analyses were performed to determine whether a potentially better performing risk model could be identified. The tool was found to have high sensitivity but low specificity and therefore have inadequate predictive validity. Secondary analysis of the combined data from this and the previous case control study identified an alternative better performing risk model. The tool developed and tested in this study was found to have inadequate predictive validity. The predictive validity of an alternative, more parsimonious model now needs to be tested., (© 2015 Medicalhelplines.com Inc and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Key Message: Genetic analysis of data produced by novel root phenotyping tools was used to establish relationships between cowpea root traits and performance indicators as well between root traits and Striga tolerance. Selection and breeding for better root phenotypes can improve acquisition of soil resources and hence crop production in marginal environments. We hypothesized that biologically relevant variation is measurable in cowpea root architecture. This study implemented manual phenotyping (shovelomics) and automated image phenotyping (DIRT) on a 189-entry diversity panel of cowpea to reveal biologically important variation and genome regions affecting root architecture phenes. Significant variation in root phenes was found and relatively high heritabilities were detected for root traits assessed manually (0.4 for nodulation and 0.8 for number of larger laterals) as well as repeatability traits phenotyped via DIRT (0.5 for a measure of root width and 0.3 for a measure of root tips). Genome-wide association study identified 11 significant quantitative trait loci (QTL) from manually scored root architecture traits and 21 QTL from root architecture traits phenotyped by DIRT image analysis. Subsequent comparisons of results from this root study with other field studies revealed QTL co-localizations between root traits and performance indicators including seed weight per plant, pod number, and Striga (Striga gesnerioides) tolerance. The data suggest selection for root phenotypes could be employed by breeding programs to improve production in multiple constraint environments.

Perceptions of first-semester BSN students (N = 220) who received education on patient moving and handling skills from either fourth-year physical therapy/physiotherapy student peer teachers (n = 8) or regular nurse educators were obtained via validated scales and focus groups. There was a significant increase in the mean scores of items concerning communication skills in both groups, with increased scores for all items in the peer-led group. The teaching skills of physical therapy/physiotherapy student peers were evaluated highly by the nursing students.

To identify the risk factors associated with the development of skin tears in older persons four hundred and fifty three patients (151 cases and 302 controls) were enrolled in a case-control study in a 500-bed metropolitan tertiary hospital in Western Australia between December 2008 and June 2009. Case eligibility was defined by a skin tear on admission, which had occurred in the last 5 days; or, a skin tear developed during hospitalisation. For each case, two controls who did not have a skin tear and had been admitted within 1 day of the case, were also enrolled. Data collected from the nursing staff and inpatient medical records included characteristics known, or hypothesised, to be associated with increased vulnerability to skin tears. Data analysis included a series of multivariate stepwise regressions to identify a number of different potential explanatory models. The most parsimonious model for predicting skin tear development comprised six variables: ecchymosis (bruising); senile purpura; haematoma; evidence of a previously healed skin tear; oedema; and inability to reposition oneself independently. The ability of these six characteristics to predict who among older patients could subsequently develop a skin tear now needs to be determined by a prospective study., (© 2015 Medicalhelplines.com Inc and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Muscle glycogen availability can limit endurance exercise performance. We previously demonstrated 5 days of creatine (Cr) and carbohydrate (CHO) ingestion augmented post-exercise muscle glycogen storage compared to CHO feeding alone in healthy volunteers. Here, we aimed to characterise the time-course of this Cr-induced response under more stringent and controlled experimental conditions and identify potential mechanisms underpinning this phenomenon. Fourteen healthy, male volunteers cycled to exhaustion at 70 % VO2peak. Muscle biopsies were obtained at rest immediately post-exercise and after 1, 3 and 6 days of recovery, during which Cr or placebo supplements (20 g day(-1)) were ingested along with a prescribed high CHO diet (37.5 kcal kg body mass(-1) day(-1), >80 % calories CHO). Oral-glucose tolerance tests (oral-GTT) were performed pre-exercise and after 1, 3 and 6 days of Cr and placebo supplementation. Exercise depleted muscle glycogen content to the same extent in both treatment groups. Creatine supplementation increased muscle total-Cr, free-Cr and phosphocreatine (PCr) content above placebo following 1, 3 and 6 days of supplementation (all P < 0.05). Creatine supplementation also increased muscle glycogen content noticeably above placebo after 1 day of supplementation (P < 0.05), which was sustained thereafter. This study confirmed dietary Cr augments post-exercise muscle glycogen super-compensation, and demonstrates this occurred during the initial 24 h of post-exercise recovery (when muscle total-Cr had increased by <10 %). This marked response ensued without apparent treatment differences in muscle insulin sensitivity (oral-GTT, muscle GLUT4 mRNA), osmotic stress (muscle c-fos and HSP72 mRNA) or muscle cell volume (muscle water content) responses, such that another mechanism must be causative.

The retina confers upon us the gift of vision, enabling us to perceive the world in a manner unparalleled by any other tissue. Experimental and clinical studies have provided great insight into the physiology and biochemistry of the retina; however, there are questions which cannot be answered using these methods alone. Mathematical and computational techniques can provide complementary insight into this inherently complex and nonlinear system. They allow us to characterise and predict the behaviour of the retina, as well as to test hypotheses which are experimentally intractable. In this review, we survey some of the key theoretical models of the retina in the healthy, developmental and diseased states. The main insights derived from each of these modelling studies are highlighted, as are model predictions which have yet to be tested, and data which need to be gathered to inform future modelling work. Possible directions for future research are also discussed. Whilst the present modelling studies have achieved great success in unravelling the workings of the retina, they have yet to achieve their full potential. For this to happen, greater involvement with the modelling community is required, and stronger collaborations forged between experimentalists, clinicians and theoreticians. It is hoped that, in addition to bringing the fruits of current modelling studies to the attention of the ophthalmological community, this review will encourage many such future collaborations., (Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The retina is the tissue layer at the back of the eye that is responsible for light detection. Whilst equipped with a rich supply of oxygen, it has one of the highest oxygen demands of any tissue in the body and, as such, supply and demand are finely balanced. It has been suggested that the protein neuroglobin (Ngb), which is found in high concentrations within the retina, may help to maintain an adequate supply of oxygen via the processes of transport and storage. We construct mathematical models, formulated as systems of reaction-diffusion equations in one-dimension, to test this hypothesis. Numerical simulations show that Ngb may play an important role in oxygen transport, but not in storage. Our models predict that the retina is most susceptible to hypoxia in the regions of the photoreceptor inner segment and inner plexiform layers, where Ngb has the potential to prevent hypoxia and increase oxygen uptake by 30-40 %. Analysis of a simplified model confirms the utility of Ngb in transport and shows that its oxygen affinity ([Formula: see text] value) is near optimal for this process. Lastly, asymptotic analysis enables us to identify conditions under which the piecewise linear and quadratic approximations to the retinal oxygen profile, used in the literature, are valid.

Cowpea is one of the most important grain legumes in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It provides strong support to the livelihood of small-scale farmers through its contributions to their nutritional security, income generation and soil fertility enhancement. Worldwide about 6.5 million metric tons of cowpea are produced annually on about 14.5 million hectares. The low productivity of cowpea is attributable to numerous abiotic and biotic constraints. The abiotic stress factors comprise drought, low soil fertility, and heat while biotic constraints include insects, diseases, parasitic weeds, and nematodes. Cowpea farmers also have limited access to quality seeds of improved varieties for planting. Some progress has been made through conventional breeding at international and national research institutions in the last three decades. Cowpea improvement could also benefit from modern breeding methods based on molecular genetic tools. A number of advances in cowpea genetic linkage maps, and quantitative trait loci associated with some desirable traits such as resistance to Striga, Macrophomina, Fusarium wilt, bacterial blight, root-knot nematodes, aphids, and foliar thrips have been reported. An improved consensus genetic linkage map has been developed and used to identify QTLs of additional traits. In order to take advantage of these developments single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping is being streamlined to establish an efficient workflow supported by genotyping support service (GSS)-client interactions. About 1100 SNPs mapped on the cowpea genome were converted by LGC Genomics to KASP assays. Several cowpea breeding programs have been exploiting these resources to implement molecular breeding, especially for MARS and MABC, to accelerate cowpea variety improvement. The combination of conventional breeding and molecular breeding strategies, with workflow managed through the CGIAR breeding management system (BMS), promises an increase in the number of improved varieties available to farmers, thereby boosting cowpea production and productivity in SSA.

Background: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating mental health disorder that may develop after exposure to traumatic events. Substance use disorder (SUD) is a behavioural disorder in which the use of one or more substances is associated with heightened levels of distress, clinically significant impairment of functioning, or both. PTSD and SUD frequently occur together. The comorbidity is widely recognised as being difficult to treat and is associated with poorer treatment completion and poorer outcomes than for either condition alone. Several psychological therapies have been developed to treat the comorbidity, however there is no consensus about which therapies are most effective., Objectives: To determine the efficacy of psychological therapies aimed at treating traumatic stress symptoms, substance misuse symptoms, or both in people with comorbid PTSD and SUD in comparison with control conditions (usual care, waiting-list conditions, and no treatment) and other psychological therapies., Search Methods: We searched the Cochrane Depression, Anxiety and Neurosis Group's Specialised Register (CCDANCTR) all years to 11 March 2015. This register contains relevant randomised controlled trials from the Cochrane Library (all years), MEDLINE (1950 to date), EMBASE (1974 to date), and PsycINFO (1967 to date). We also searched the World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform and ClinicalTrials.gov, contacted experts, searched bibliographies of included studies, and performed citation searches of identified articles., Selection Criteria: Randomised controlled trials of individual or group psychological therapies delivered to individuals with PTSD and comorbid substance use, compared with waiting-list conditions, usual care, or minimal intervention or to other psychological therapies., Data Collection and Analysis: We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane., Main Results: We included 14 studies with 1506 participants, of which 13 studies were included in the quantitative synthesis. Most studies involved adult populations. Studies were conducted in a variety of settings. We performed four comparisons investigating the effects of psychological therapies with a trauma-focused component and non-trauma-focused interventions against treatment as usual/minimal intervention and other active psychological therapies. Comparisons were stratified for individual- or group-based therapies. All active interventions were based on cognitive behavioural therapy. Our main findings were as follows.Individual-based psychological therapies with a trauma-focused component plus adjunctive SUD intervention was more effective than treatment as usual (TAU)/minimal intervention for PTSD severity post-treatment (standardised mean difference (SMD) -0.41; 95% confidence interval (CI) -0.72 to -0.10; 4 studies; n = 405; very low-quality evidence) and at 3 to 4 and 5 to 7 months' follow-up. There was no evidence of an effect for level of drug/alcohol use post-treatment (SMD -0.13; 95% CI -0.41 to 0.15; 3 studies; n = 388; very low-quality evidence), but there was a small effect in favour of individual psychological therapy at 5 to 7 months (SMD -0.28; 95% CI -0.48 to -0.07; 3 studies; n = 388) when compared against TAU. Fewer participants completed trauma-focused therapy than TAU (risk ratio (RR) 0.78; 95% CI 0.64 to 0.96; 3 studies; n = 316; low-quality evidence).Individual-based psychological therapy with a trauma-focused component did not perform better than psychological therapy for SUD only for PTSD severity (mean difference (MD) -3.91; 95% CI -19.16 to 11.34; 1 study; n = 46; low-quality evidence) or drug/alcohol use (MD -1.27; 95% CI -5.76 to 3.22; 1 study; n = 46; low-quality evidence). Findings were based on one small study. No effects were observed for rates of therapy completion (RR 1.00; 95% CI 0.74 to 1.36; 1 study; n = 62; low-quality evidence).Non-trauma-focused psychological therapies did not perform better than TAU/minimal intervention for PTSD severity when delivered on an individual (SMD -0.22; 95% CI -0.83 to 0.39; 1 study; n = 44; low-quality evidence) or group basis (SMD -0.02; 95% CI -0.19 to 0.16; 4 studies; n = 513; low-quality evidence). There were no data on the effects on drug/alcohol use for individual therapy. There was no evidence of an effect on the level of drug/alcohol use for group-based therapy (SMD -0.03; 95% CI -0.37 to 0.31; 4 studies; n = 414; very low-quality evidence). A post-hoc analysis for full dose of a widely established group therapy called Seeking Safety showed reduced drug/alcohol use post-treatment (SMD -0.67; 95% CI -1.14 to -0.19; 2 studies; n = 111), but not at subsequent follow-ups. Data on the number of participants completing therapy were not for individual-based therapy. No effects were observed for rates of therapy completion for group-based therapy (RR 1.13; 95% CI 0.88 to 1.45; 2 studies; n = 217; low-quality evidence).Non-trauma-focused psychological therapy did not perform better than psychological therapy for SUD only for PTSD severity (SMD -0.26; 95% CI -1.29 to 0.77; 2 studies; n = 128; very low-quality evidence) or drug/alcohol use (SMD 0.22; 95% CI -0.13 to 0.57; 2 studies; n = 128; low-quality evidence). No effects were observed for rates of therapy completion (RR 0.91; 95% CI 0.68 to 1.20; 2 studies; n = 128; very low-quality evidence).Several studies reported on adverse events. There were no differences between rates of such events in any comparison. We rated several studies as being at 'high' or 'unclear' risk of bias in multiple domains, including for detection bias and attrition bias., Authors' Conclusions: We assessed the evidence in this review as mostly low to very low quality. Evidence showed that individual trauma-focused psychological therapy delivered alongside SUD therapy did better than TAU/minimal intervention in reducing PTSD severity post-treatment and at long-term follow-up, but only reduced SUD at long-term follow-up. All effects were small, and follow-up periods were generally quite short. There was evidence that fewer participants receiving trauma-focused therapy completed treatment. There was very little evidence to support use of non-trauma-focused individual- or group-based integrated therapies. Individuals with more severe and complex presentations (e.g. serious mental illness, individuals with cognitive impairment, and suicidal individuals) were excluded from most studies in this review, and so the findings from this review are not generalisable to such individuals. Some studies suffered from significant methodological problems and some were underpowered, limiting the conclusions that can be drawn. Further research is needed in this area.

Chromosome substitution (CS) lines in plants are a powerful genetic resource for analyzing the contribution of chromosome segments to phenotypic variance. In this study, a series of interspecific cotton (Gossypium spp.) CS lines were used to identify a new germplasm resource, and to validate chromosomal regions and favorable alleles associated with nematode or fungal disease resistance traits. The CS lines were developed in the G. hirsutum L. TM-1 background with chromosome or chromosome segment substitutions from G. barbadense L. Pima 3-79 or G. tomentosum. Root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) and fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum) (races 1 and 4) resistance alleles and quantitative trait loci (QTL) previously placed on cotton chromosomes using SSR markers in two interspecific recombinant inbred line populations were chosen for testing. Phenotypic responses of increased resistance or susceptibility in controlled inoculation and infested field assays confirmed the resistance QTLs, based on substitution with the positive or negative allele for resistance. Lines CS-B22Lo, CS-B04, and CS-B18 showed high resistance to nematode root-galling, confirming QTLs on chromosomes 4 and 22 (long arm) with resistance alleles from Pima 3-79. Line CS-B16 had less fusarium race 1-induced vascular root staining and higher percent survival than the TM-1 parent, confirming a major resistance QTL on chromosome 16. Lines CS-B(17-11) and CS-B17 had high fusarium race 4 vascular symptoms and low survival due to susceptible alleles introgressed from Pima 3-79, confirming the localization on chromosome 17 of an identified QTL with resistance alleles from TM1 and other resistant lines. Analyses validated regions on chromosomes 11, 16, and 17 harboring nematode and fusarium wilt resistance genes and demonstrated the value of CS lines as both a germplasm resource for breeding programs and as a powerful genetic analysis tool for determining QTL effects for disease resistance. CS lines carrying small alien chromosome segments with favorable QTL alleles could be used for effective introgression of biotic stress resistance or many other desirable traits by targeting gene interactions and reducing linkage drag effects.

Key Message: Genome resolution of a major QTL associated with the Rk locus in cowpea for resistance to root-knot nematodes has significance for plant breeding programs and R gene characterization. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.) is a susceptible host of root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) (RKN), major plant-parasitic pests in global agriculture. To date, breeding for host resistance in cowpea has relied on phenotypic selection which requires time-consuming and expensive controlled infection assays. To facilitate marker-based selection, we aimed to identify and map quantitative trait loci (QTL) conferring the resistance trait. One recombinant inbred line (RIL) and two F2:3 populations, each derived from a cross between a susceptible and a resistant parent, were genotyped with genome-wide single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. The populations were screened in the field for root-galling symptoms and/or under growth-chamber conditions for nematode reproduction levels using M. incognita and M. javanica biotypes. One major QTL was mapped consistently on linkage group VuLG11 of each population. By genotyping additional cowpea lines and near-isogenic lines derived from conventional backcrossing, we confirmed that the detected QTL co-localized with the genome region associated with the Rk locus for RKN resistance that has been used in conventional breeding for many decades. This chromosomal location defined with flanking markers will be a valuable target in marker-assisted breeding and for positional cloning of genes controlling RKN resistance.

Root-knot nematodes (RKN; Meloidogyne sp.) are a major threat to crops in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. The use of resistant crop varieties is the preferred method of control because nematicides are expensive, and hazardous to humans and the environment. Peanut (Arachis hypogaea) is infected by four species of RKN, the most damaging being M. arenaria, and commercial cultivars rely on a single source of resistance. In this study, we genetically characterize RKN resistance of the wild Arachis species A. stenosperma using a population of 93 recombinant inbred lines developed from a cross between A. duranensis and A. stenosperma. Four quantitative trait loci (QTL) located on linkage groups 02, 04, and 09 strongly influenced nematode root galling and egg production. Drought-related, domestication and agronomically relevant traits were also evaluated, revealing several QTL. Using the newly available Arachis genome sequence, easy-to-use KASP (kompetitive allele specific PCR) markers linked to the newly identified RKN resistance loci were developed and validated in a tetraploid context. Therefore, we consider that A. stenosperma has high potential as a new source of RKN resistance in peanut breeding programs., (Copyright © 2016 Leal-Bertioli et al.)

Background: Pulse wave velocity (PWV), a measure of arterial stiffness, has been demonstrated to be an independent predictor of adverse cardiovascular outcomes. This can be derived non-invasively using cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR). Changes in PWV during exercise may reveal further information on vascular pathology. However, most known CMR methods for quantifying PWV are currently unsuitable for exercise stress testing., Methods: A velocity-sensitive real-time acquisition and evaluation (RACE) pulse sequence was adapted to provide interleaved acquisition of two locations in the descending aorta (at the level of the pulmonary artery bifurcation and above the renal arteries) at 7.8 ms temporal resolution. An automated method was used to calculate the foot-to-foot transit time of the velocity pulse wave. The RACE method was validated against a standard gated phase contrast (STD) method in flexible tube phantoms using a pulsatile flow pump. The method was applied in 50 healthy volunteers (28 males) aged 22-75 years using a MR-compatible cycle ergometer to achieve moderate work rate (38 ± 22 W, with a 31 ± 12 bpm increase in heart rate) in the supine position. Central pulse pressures were estimated using a MR-compatible brachial device. Scan-rescan reproducibility was evaluated in nine volunteers., Results: Phantom PWV was 22 m/s (STD) vs. 26 ± 5 m/s (RACE) for a butyl rubber tube, and 5.5 vs. 6.1 ± 0.3 m/s for a latex rubber tube. In healthy volunteers PWV increased with age at both rest (R(2) = 0.31 p < 0.001) and exercise (R(2) = 0.40, p < 0.001). PWV was significantly increased at exercise relative to rest (0.71 ± 2.2 m/s, p = 0.04). Scan-rescan reproducibility at rest was -0.21 ± 0.68 m/s (n = 9)., Conclusions: This study demonstrates the validity of CMR in the evaluation of PWV during exercise in healthy subjects. The results support the feasibility of using this method in evaluating of patients with systemic aortic disease.

Genetic and physical framework mapping in cotton (Gossypium spp.) were used to discover putative gene sequences involved in resistance to common soil-borne pathogens. Chromosome (Chr) 11 and its homoeologous Chr 21 of Upland cotton (G. hirsutum) are foci for discovery of resistance (R) or pathogen-induced R (PR) genes underlying QTLs involved in response to root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita), reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis), Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum), Verticillium wilt (Verticillium dahliae), and black root rot (Thielaviopsis basicola). Simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers and bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones from a BAC library developed from the Upland cotton Acala Maxxa were mapped on Chr 11 and Chr 21. DNA sequence through Gene Ontology (GO) of 99 of 256 Chr 11 and 109 of 239 Chr 21 previously mapped SSRs revealed response elements to internal and external stimulus, stress, signaling process, and cell death. The reconciliation between genetic and physical mapping of gene annotations from new DNA sequences of 20 BAC clones revealed 467 (Chr 11) and 285 (Chr 21) G. hirsutum putative coding sequences, plus 146 (Chr 11) and 98 (Chr 21) predicted genes. GO functional profiling of Unigenes uncovered genes involved in different metabolic functions and stress response elements (SRE). Our results revealed that Chrs 11 and 21 harbor resistance gene rich genomic regions. Sequence comparisons with the ancestral diploid D5 (G. raimondii), A2 (G. arboreum) and domesticated tetraploid TM-1 AD1 (G. hirsutum) genomes revealed abundance of transposable elements and confirmed the richness of resistance gene motifs in these chromosomes. The sequence information of SSR markers and BAC clones and the genetic mapping of BAC clones provide enhanced genetic and physical frameworks of resistance gene-rich regions of the cotton genome, thereby aiding discovery of R and PR genes and breeding for resistance to cotton diseases.

The consequences of carnitine depletion upon metabolic and contractile characteristics of skeletal muscle remain largely unexplored. Therefore, we investigated the effect of N-trimethyl-hydrazine-3-propionate (THP) administration, a carnitine analog inhibiting carnitine biosynthesis and renal reabsorption of carnitine, on skeletal muscle function and energy metabolism. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were fed a standard rat chow in the absence (CON; n = 8) or presence of THP (n = 8) for 3 wk. Following treatment, rats were fasted for 24 h prior to excision of their soleus and EDL muscles for biochemical characterization at rest and following 5 min of contraction in vitro. THP treatment reduced the carnitine pool by ∼80% in both soleus and EDL muscles compared with CON. Carnitine depletion was associated with a 30% decrease soleus muscle weight, whereas contractile function (expressed per gram of muscle), free coenzyme A, and water content remained unaltered from CON. Muscle fiber distribution and fiber area remained unaffected, whereas markers of apoptosis were increased in soleus muscle of THP-treated rats. In EDL muscle, carnitine depletion was associated with reduced free coenzyme A availability (-25%, P < 0.05), impaired peak tension development (-44%, P < 0.05), and increased glycogen hydrolysis (52%, P < 0.05) during muscle contraction, whereas PDC activation, muscle weight, and water content remained unaltered from CON. In conclusion, myopathy associated with carnitine deficiency can have different causes. Although muscle atrophy, most likely due to increased apoptosis, is predominant in muscle composed predominantly of type I fibers (soleus), disturbance of energy metabolism appears to be the major cause in muscle composed of type II fibers (EDL)., (Copyright © 2015 the American Physiological Society.)

Co-morbid post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and substance use disorder (SUD) are common, difficult to treat, and associated with poor prognosis. This review aimed to determine the efficacy of individual and group psychological interventions aimed at treating comorbid PTSD and SUD, based on evidence from randomised controlled trials. Our pre-specified primary outcomes were PTSD severity, drug/alcohol use, and treatment completion. We undertook a comprehensive search strategy. Included studies were rated for methodological quality. Available evidence was judged through GRADE. Fourteen studies were included. We found that individual trauma-focused cognitive-behavioural intervention, delivered alongside SUD intervention, was more effective than treatment as usual (TAU)/minimal intervention for PTSD severity post-treatment, and at subsequent follow-up. There was no evidence of an effect for level of drug/alcohol use post-treatment but there was an effect at 5-7 months. Fewer participants completed trauma-focused intervention than TAU. We found little evidence to support the use of individual or group-based non-trauma-focused interventions. All findings were judged as being of low/very low quality. We concluded that there is evidence that individual trauma-focused psychological intervention delivered alongside SUD intervention can reduce PTSD severity, and drug/alcohol use. There is very little evidence to support use of non-trauma-focused individual or group-based interventions., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Seed size distinguishes most crops from their wild relatives and is an important quality trait for the grain legume cowpea. In order to breed cowpea varieties with larger seeds we introgressed a rare haplotype associated with large seeds at the Css-1 locus from an African buff seed type cultivar, IT82E-18 (18.5 g/100 seeds), into a blackeye seed type cultivar, CB27 (22 g/100 seed). Four recombinant inbred lines derived from these two parents were chosen for marker-assisted breeding based on SNP genotyping with a goal of stacking large seed haplotypes into a CB27 background. Foreground and background selection were performed during two cycles of backcrossing based on genome-wide SNP markers. The average seed size of introgression lines homozygous for haplotypes associated with large seeds was 28.7g/100 seed and 24.8 g/100 seed for cycles 1 and 2, respectively. One cycle 1 introgression line with desirable seed quality was selfed for two generations to make families with very large seeds (28-35 g/100 seeds). Field-based performance trials helped identify breeding lines that not only have large seeds but are also desirable in terms of yield, maturity, and plant architecture when compared to industry standards. A principal component analysis was used to explore the relationships between the parents relative to a core set of landraces and improved varieties based on high-density SNP data. The geographic distribution of haplotypes at the Css-1 locus suggest the haplotype associated with large seeds is unique to accessions collected from Southeastern Africa. Therefore this quantitative trait locus has a strong potential to develop larger seeded varieties for other growing regions which is demonstrated in this work using a California pedigree.

The cowpea aphid Aphis craccivora Koch (CPA) is a destructive insect pest of cowpea, a staple legume crop in Sub-Saharan Africa and other semiarid warm tropics and subtropics. In California, CPA causes damage on all local cultivars from early vegetative to pod development growth stages. Sources of CPA resistance are available in African cowpea germplasm. However, their utilization in breeding is limited by the lack of information on inheritance, genomic location and marker linkage associations of the resistance determinants. In the research reported here, a recombinant inbred line (RIL) population derived from a cross between a susceptible California blackeye cultivar (CB27) and a resistant African breeding line (IT97K-556-6) was genotyped with 1,536 SNP markers. The RILs and parents were phenotyped for CPA resistance using field-based screenings during two main crop seasons in a 'hotspot' location for this pest within the primary growing region of the Central Valley of California. One minor and one major quantitative trait locus (QTL) were consistently mapped on linkage groups 1 and 7, respectively, both with favorable alleles contributed from IT97K-556-6. The major QTL appeared dominant based on a validation test in a related F2 population. SNP markers flanking each QTL were positioned in physical contigs carrying genes involved in plant defense based on synteny with related legumes. These markers could be used to introgress resistance alleles from IT97K-556-6 into susceptible local blackeye varieties by backcrossing.

Background: Heat-induced browning (Hbs) of seed coats is caused by high temperatures which discolors the seed coats of many legumes, affecting the visual appearance and quality of seeds. The genetic determinants underlying Hbs in cowpea are unknown., Results: We identified three QTL associated with the heat-induced browning of seed coats trait, Hbs-1, Hbs-2 and Hbs-3, using cowpea RIL populations IT93K-503-1 (Hbs positive) x CB46 (hbs negative) and IT84S-2246 (Hbs positive) x TVu14676 (hbs negative). Hbs-1 was identified in both populations, accounting for 28.3% -77.3% of the phenotypic variation. SNP markers 1&#95;0032 and 1&#95;1128 co-segregated with the trait. Within the syntenic regions of Hbs-1 in soybean, Medicago and common bean, several ethylene forming enzymes, ethylene responsive element binding factors and an ACC oxidase 2 were observed. Hbs-1 was identified in a BAC clone in contig 217 of the cowpea physical map, where ethylene forming enzymes were present. Hbs-2 was identified in the IT93K-503-1 x CB46 population and accounted for of 9.5 to 12.3% of the phenotypic variance. Hbs-3 was identified in the IT84S-2246 x TVu14676 population and accounted for 6.2 to 6.8% of the phenotypic variance. SNP marker 1&#95;0640 co-segregated with the heat-induced browning phenotype. Hbs-3 was positioned on BAC clones in contig512 of the cowpea physical map, where several ACC synthase 1 genes were present., Conclusion: The identification of loci determining heat-induced browning of seed coats and co-segregating molecular markers will enable transfer of hbs alleles into cowpea varieties, contributing to higher quality seeds.

Root-knot nematodes limit carrot production around the world by inducing taproot forking and galling deformities that render carrots unmarketable. In warmer climates, Meloidogyne javanica and Meloidogyne incognita are most prevalent. In F2 and F3 progeny from the cross between an Asian carrot resistant to M. javanica, PI 652188, and a susceptible carrot, resistance response was incompletely dominant with a relatively high heritability (H (2) = 0.78) and provided evidence for a single gene, designated Mj-2, contributing to resistance. Molecular markers linked to the previously described root-knot nematode resistance gene, Mj-1 on chromosome 8 derived from "Brasilia," demonstrated that Mj-2 does not map to that same locus but is on the same chromosome.

Fusarium wilt is a vascular disease caused by the fungus Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. tracheiphilum (Fot) in cowpea [ Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp]. In this study, we mapped loci conferring resistance to Fot race 4 in three cowpea RIL populations: IT93K-503-1 × CB46, CB27 × 24-125B-1, and CB27 × IT82E-18/Big Buff. Two independent loci which confer resistance to Fot race 4 were identified, Fot4 - 1 and Fot4 - 2 . Fot4 - 1 was identified in the IT93K-503-1 (resistant) × CB46 (susceptible) population and was positioned on the cowpea consensus genetic map, spanning 21.57-29.40 cM on linkage group 5. The Fot4 - 2 locus was validated by identifying it in both the CB27 (resistant) × 24-125B-1 (susceptible) and CB27 (resistant) × IT82E-18/Big Buff (susceptible) populations. Fot4 - 2 was positioned on the cowpea consensus genetic map on linkage group 3; the minimum distance spanned 71.52-71.75 cM whereas the maximum distance spanned 64.44-80.23 cM. These genomic locations of Fot4 - 1 and Fot4 - 2 on the cowpea consensus genetic map, relative to Fot3 - 1 which was previously identified as the locus conferring resistance to Fot race 3, established that all three loci were independent. The Fot4 - 1 and Fot4 - 2 syntenic loci were examined in Glycine max , where several disease-resistance candidate genes were identified for both loci. In addition, Fot4 - 1 and Fot4 - 2 were coarsely positioned on the cowpea physical map. Fot4 - 1 and Fot4 - 2 will contribute to molecular marker development for future use in marker-assisted selection, thereby expediting introgression of Fot race 4 resistance into future cowpea cultivars.

Root-knot nematodes constitute a constraint for important crops, including peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Resistance to Meloidogyne arenaria has been identified in the peanut wild relative Arachis stenosperma Krapov. & W. C. Greg., in which the induction of feeding sites by the nematode was inhibited by an early hypersensitive response (HR). Here, the transcription expression profiles of 19 genes selected from Arachis species were analysed using quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR), during the early phases of an A. stenosperma-M. arenaria interaction. Sixteen genes were significantly differentially expressed in infected and non-infected roots, in at least one of the time points analysed: 3, 6, and 9 days after inoculation. These genes are involved in the HR and production of secondary metabolites related to pathogen defence. Seven genes encoding a resistance protein MG13, a helix-loop helix protein, an ubiquitin protein ligase, a patatin-like protein, a catalase, a DUF538 protein, and a resveratrol synthase, were differentially expressed in all time points analysed. Transcripts of two genes had their spatial and temporal distributions analysed by in situ hybridisation that validated qRT-PCR data. The identification of candidate resistance genes involved in wild peanut resistance to Meloidogyne can provide additional resources for peanut breeding and transgenic approaches.

The stay-green phenomenon is a key plant trait with wide usage in managing crop production under limited water conditions. This trait enhances delayed senescence, biomass, and grain yield under drought stress. In this study we sought to identify QTLs in cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) consistent across experiments conducted in Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Senegal, and the United States of America under limited water conditions. A panel of 383 diverse cowpea accessions and a recombinant inbred line population (RIL) were SNP genotyped using an Illumina 1536 GoldenGate assay. Phenotypic data from thirteen experiments conducted across the four countries were used to identify SNP-trait associations based on linkage disequilibrium association mapping, with bi-parental QTL mapping as a complementary strategy. We identified seven loci, five of which exhibited evidence suggesting pleiotropic effects (stay-green) between delayed senescence, biomass, and grain yield. Further, we provide evidence suggesting the existence of positive pleiotropy in cowpea based on positively correlated mean phenotypic values (0.34< r <0.87) and allele effects (0.07< r <0.86) for delayed senescence and grain yield across three African environments. Three of the five putative stay-green QTLs, Dro-1, 3, and 7 were identified in both RILs and diverse germplasm with resolutions of 3.2 cM or less for each of the three loci, suggesting that these may be valuable targets for marker-assisted breeding in cowpea. Also, the co-location of early vegetative delayed senescence with biomass and grain yield QTLs suggests the possibility of using delayed senescence at the seedling stage as a rapid screening tool for post-flowering drought tolerance in cowpea breeding. BLAST analysis using EST sequences harboring SNPs with the highest associations provided a genomic context for loci identified in this study in closely related common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and soybean (Glycine max) reference genomes.

Diseases such as Fusarium wilt [Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum (FOV) Atk. Sny & Hans] represent expanding threats to cotton production. Integrating disease resistance into high-yielding, high-fiber quality cotton (Gossypium spp.) cultivars is one of the most important objectives in cotton breeding programs worldwide. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive analysis of gene action in cotton governing FOV race 4 resistance by combining conventional inheritance and quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping with molecular markers. A set of diverse cotton populations was generated from crosses encompassing multiple genetic backgrounds. FOV race 4 resistance was investigated using seven parents and their derived populations: three intraspecific (G. hirsutum × G. hirsutum L. and G. barbadense × G. barbadense L.) F1 and F2; five interspecific (G. hirsutum × G. barbadense) F1 and F2; and one RIL. Parents and populations were evaluated for disease severity index (DSI) of leaves, and vascular stem and root staining (VRS) in four greenhouse and two field experiments. Initially, a single resistance gene (Fov4) model was observed in F2 populations based on inheritance of phenotypes. This single Fov4 gene had a major dominant gene action and conferred resistance to FOV race 4 in Pima-S6. The Fov4 gene appears to be located near a genome region on chromosome 14 marked with a QTL Fov4-C14 1 , which made the biggest contribution to the FOV race 4 resistance of the generated F2 progeny. Additional genetic and QTL analyses also identified a set of 11 SSR markers that indicated the involvement of more than one gene and gene interactions across six linkage groups/chromosomes (3, 6, 8, 14, 17, and 25) in the inheritance of FOV race 4 resistance. QTLs detected with minor effects in these populations explained 5-19 % of the DSI or VRS variation. Identified SSR markers for the resistance QTLs with major and minor effects will facilitate for the first time marker-assisted selection for the introgression of FOV race 4 resistance into elite cultivars during the breeding process.

Highly specific seed market classes for cowpea and other grain legumes exist because grain is most commonly cooked and consumed whole. Size, shape, color, and texture are critical features of these market classes and breeders target development of cultivars for market acceptance. Resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses that are absent from elite breeding material are often introgressed through crosses to landraces or wild relatives. When crosses are made between parents with different grain quality characteristics, recovery of progeny with acceptable or enhanced grain quality is problematic. Thus genetic markers for grain quality traits can help in pyramiding genes needed for specific market classes. Allelic variation dictating the inheritance of seed size can be tagged and used to assist the selection of large seeded lines. In this work we applied 1,536-plex SNP genotyping and knowledge of legume synteny to characterize regions of the cowpea genome associated with seed size. These marker-trait associations will enable breeders to use marker-based selection approaches to increase the frequency of progeny with large seed. For 804 individuals derived from eight bi-parental populations, QTL analysis was used to identify markers linked to 10 trait determinants. In addition, the population structure of 171 samples from the USDA core collection was identified and incorporated into a genome-wide association study which supported more than half of the trait-associated regions important in the bi-parental populations. Seven of the total 10 QTLs were supported based on synteny to seed size associated regions identified in the related legume soybean. In addition to delivering markers linked to major trait determinants in the context of modern breeding, we provide an analysis of the diversity of the USDA core collection of cowpea to identify genepools, migrants, admixture, and duplicates.

Association mapping of important traits of crop plants relies on first understanding the extent and patterns of linkage disequilibrium (LD) in the particular germplasm being investigated. We characterize here the genetic diversity, population structure and genome wide LD patterns in a set of asparagus bean (Vigna. unguiculata ssp. sesquipedialis) germplasm from China. A diverse collection of 99 asparagus bean and normal cowpea accessions were genotyped with 1127 expressed sequence tag-derived single nucleotide polymorphism markers (SNPs). The proportion of polymorphic SNPs across the collection was relatively low (39%), with an average number of SNPs per locus of 1.33. Bayesian population structure analysis indicated two subdivisions within the collection sampled that generally represented the 'standard vegetable' type (subgroup SV) and the 'non-standard vegetable' type (subgroup NSV), respectively. Level of LD (r(2)) was higher and extent of LD persisted longer in subgroup SV than in subgroup NSV, whereas LD decayed rapidly (0-2 cM) in both subgroups. LD decay distance varied among chromosomes, with the longest (≈ 5 cM) five times longer than the shortest (≈ 1 cM). Partitioning of LD variance into within- and between-subgroup components coupled with comparative LD decay analysis suggested that linkage group 5, 7 and 10 may have undergone the most intensive epistatic selection toward traits favorable for vegetable use. This work provides a first population genetic insight into domestication history of asparagus bean and demonstrates the feasibility of mapping complex traits by genome wide association study in asparagus bean using a currently available cowpea SNPs marker platform.

Background: Cowpea [Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp] exhibits a considerable variation in leaf shape. Although cowpea is mostly utilized as a dry grain and animal fodder crop, cowpea leaves are also used as a high-protein pot herb in many countries of Africa., Results: Leaf morphology was studied in the cowpea RIL population, Sanzi (sub-globose leaf shape) x Vita 7 (hastate leaf shape). A QTL for leaf shape, Hls (hastate leaf shape), was identified on the Sanzi x Vita 7 genetic map spanning from 56.54 cM to 67.54 cM distance on linkage group 15. SNP marker 1&#95;0910 was the most significant over the two experiments, accounting for 74.7% phenotypic variance (LOD 33.82) in a greenhouse experiment and 71.5% phenotypic variance (LOD 30.89) in a field experiment. The corresponding Hls locus was positioned on the cowpea consensus genetic map on linkage group 4, spanning from 25.57 to 35.96 cM. A marker-trait association of the Hls region identified SNP marker 1&#95;0349 alleles co-segregating with either the hastate or sub-globose leaf phenotype. High co-linearity was observed for the syntenic Hls region in Medicago truncatula and Glycine max. One syntenic locus for Hls was identified on Medicago chromosome 7 while syntenic regions for Hls were identified on two soybean chromosomes, 3 and 19. In all three syntenic loci, an ortholog for the EZA1/SWINGER (AT4G02020.1) gene was observed and is the candidate gene for the Hls locus. The Hls locus was identified on the cowpea physical map via SNP markers 1&#95;0910, 1&#95;1013 and 1&#95;0992 which were identified in three BAC contigs; contig926, contig821 and contig25., Conclusions: This study has demonstrated how integrated genomic resources can be utilized for a candidate gene approach. Identification of genes which control leaf morphology may be utilized to improve the quality of cowpea leaves for vegetable and or forage markets as well as contribute to more fundamental research understanding the control of leaf shape in legumes.

Root-knot nematodes (genus Meloidogyne) are obligate plant parasites. They are extremely polyphagous and considered one of the most economically important plant parasitic nematodes. The microscopic second-stage juvenile (J2), molted once in the egg, is the infective stage. The J2s hatch from the eggs, move freely in the soil within a film of water, and locate root tips of suitable plant species. After penetrating the plant root, they migrate towards the vascular cylinder where they establish a feeding site and initiate feeding using their stylets. The multicellular feeding site is comprised of several enlarged multinuclear cells called 'giant cells' which are formed from cells that underwent karyokinesis (repeated mitosis) without cytokinesis. Neighboring pericycle cells divide and enlarge in size giving rise to a typical gall or root knot, the characteristic symptom of root-knot nematode infection. Once feeding is initiated, J2s become sedentary and undergo three additional molts to become adults. The adult female lays 150-250 eggs in a gelatinous matrix on or below the surface of the root. From the eggs new infective J2s hatch and start a new cycle. The root-knot nematode life cycle is completed in 4-6 weeks at 26-28°C. Here we present the traditional protocol to infect plants, grown in pots, with root-knot nematodes and two methods for high-throughput assays. The first high-throughput method is used for plants with small seeds such as tomato while the second is for plants with large seeds such as cowpea and common bean. Large seeds support extended seedling growth with minimal nutrient supplement. The first high throughput assay utilizes seedlings grown in sand in trays while in the second assay plants are grown in pouches in the absence of soil. The seedling growth pouch is made of a 15.5 x 12.5cm paper wick, folded at the top to form a 2-cm-deep trough in which the seed or seedling is placed. The paper wick is contained inside a transparent plastic pouch. These growth pouches allow direct observation of nematode infection symptoms, galling of roots and egg mass production, under the surface of a transparent pouch. Both methods allow the use of the screened plants, after phenotyping, for crossing or seed production. An additional advantage of the use of growth pouches is the small space requirement because pouches are stored in plastic hanging folders arranged in racks.

Background: Accurate genetic maps are the cornerstones of genetic discovery, but their construction can be hampered by missing parental genotype information. Inference of parental haplotypes and correction of phase errors can be done manually on a one by one basis with the aide of current software tools, but this is tedious and time consuming for the high marker density datasets currently being generated for many crop species. Tools that help automate the process of inferring parental genotypes can greatly speed the process of map building. We developed a software tool that infers and outputs missing parental genotype information based on observed patterns of segregation in mapping populations. When phases are correctly inferred, they can be fed back to the mapping software to quickly improve marker order and placement on genetic maps., Results: ParentChecker is a user-friendly tool that uses the segregation patterns of progeny to infer missing genotype information of parental lines that have been used to construct a mapping population. It can also be used to automate correction of linkage phase errors in genotypic data that are in ABH format., Conclusion: ParentChecker efficiently improves genetic mapping datasets for cases where parental information is incomplete by automating the process of inferring missing genotypes of inbred mapping populations and can also be used to correct linkage phase errors in ABH formatted datasets.

Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. tracheiphilum (Fot) is a soil-borne fungal pathogen that causes vascular wilt disease in cowpea. Fot race 3 is one of the major pathogens affecting cowpea production in California. Identification of Fot race 3 resistance determinants will expedite delivery of improved cultivars by replacing time-consuming phenotypic screening with selection based on perfect markers, thereby generating successful cultivars in a shorter time period. Resistance to Fot race 3 was studied in the RIL population California Blackeye 27 (resistant) x 24-125B-1 (susceptible). Biparental mapping identified a Fot race 3 resistance locus, Fot3-1, which spanned 3.56 cM on linkage group one of the CB27 x 24-125B-1 genetic map. A marker-trait association narrowed the resistance locus to a 1.2 cM region and identified SNP marker 1&#95;1107 as co-segregating with Fot3-1 resistance. Macro and microsynteny was observed for the Fot3-1 locus region in Glycine max where six disease resistance genes were observed in the two syntenic regions of soybean chromosomes 9 and 15. Fot3-1 was identified on the cowpea physical map on BAC clone CH093L18, spanning approximately 208,868 bp on BAC contig250. The Fot3-1 locus was narrowed to 0.5 cM distance on the cowpea genetic map linkage group 6, flanked by SNP markers 1&#95;0860 and 1&#95;1107. BAC clone CH093L18 was sequenced and four cowpea sequences with similarity to leucine-rich repeat serine/threonine protein kinases were identified and are cowpea candidate genes for the Fot3-1 locus. This study has shown how readily candidate genes can be identified for simply inherited agronomic traits when appropriate genetic stocks and integrated genomic resources are available. High co-linearity between cowpea and soybean genomes illustrated that utilizing synteny can transfer knowledge from a reference legume to legumes with less complete genomic resources. Identification of Fot race 3 resistance genes will enable transfer into high yielding cowpea varieties using marker-assisted selection (MAS).

The southern root-knot nematode (RKN, Meloidogyne incognita) is a major soil-inhabiting plant parasite that causes significant yield losses in cotton (Gossypium spp.). Progeny from crosses between cotton genotypes susceptible to RKN produced segregants in subsequent populations which were highly resistant to this parasite. A recombinant inbred line (RIL) population of 138 lines developed from a cross between Upland cotton TM-1 (G. hirsutum L.) and Pima 3-79 (G. barbadense L.), both susceptible to RKN, was used to identify quantitative trait loci (QTLs) determining responses to RKN in greenhouse infection assays with simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Compared to both parents, 53.6% and 52.1% of RILs showed less (P<0.05) root-galling index (GI) and had lower (P<0.05) nematode egg production (eggs per gram root, EGR). Highly resistant lines (transgressive segregants) were identified in this RIL population for GI and/or EGR in two greenhouse experiments. QTLs were identified using the single-marker analysis nonparametric mapping Kruskal-Wallis test. Four major QTLs located on chromosomes 3, 4, 11, and 17 were identified to account for 8.0 to 12.3% of the phenotypic variance (R(2)) in root-galling. Two major QTLs accounting for 9.7% and 10.6% of EGR variance were identified on chromosomes 14 and 23 (P<0.005), respectively. In addition, 19 putative QTLs (P<0.05) accounted for 4.5-7.7% of phenotypic variance (R(2)) in GI, and 15 QTLs accounted for 4.2-7.3% of phenotypic variance in EGR. In lines with alleles positive for resistance contributed by both parents in combinations of two to four QTLs, dramatic reductions of >50% in both GI and EGR were observed. The transgressive segregants with epistatic effects derived from susceptible parents indicate that high levels of nematode resistance in cotton may be attained by pyramiding positive alleles using a QTL mapping approach.

Background: Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is an important crop in arid and semi-arid regions and is a good model for studying drought tolerance. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are known to play critical roles in plant stress responses, but drought-associated miRNAs have not been identified in cowpea. In addition, it is not understood how miRNAs might contribute to different capacities of drought tolerance in different cowpea genotypes., Results: We generated deep sequencing small RNA reads from two cowpea genotypes (CB46, drought-sensitive, and IT93K503-1, drought-tolerant) that grew under well-watered and drought stress conditions. We mapped small RNA reads to cowpea genomic sequences and identified 157 miRNA genes that belong to 89 families. Among 44 drought-associated miRNAs, 30 were upregulated in drought condition and 14 were downregulated. Although miRNA expression was in general consistent in two genotypes, we found that nine miRNAs were predominantly or exclusively expressed in one of the two genotypes and that 11 miRNAs were drought-regulated in only one genotype, but not the other., Conclusions: These results suggest that miRNAs may play important roles in drought tolerance in cowpea and may be a key factor in determining the level of drought tolerance in different cowpea genotypes.

Objectives: This study sought to describe the first human series of percutaneous tricuspid valve replacements in patients with congenital or acquired tricuspid valve (TV) disease., Background: Percutaneous transcatheter heart valve replacement of the ventriculoarterial (aortic, pulmonary) valves is established. Although there are isolated reports of transcatheter atrioventricular heart valve replacement (hybrid and percutaneous), this procedure has been less frequently described; we are aware of no series describing this procedure for TV disease., Methods: We approached institutions with significant experience with the Melody percutaneous pulmonary valve (Medtronic, Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota) to collect data where this valve had been implanted in the tricuspid position. Clinical and procedural data were gathered for 15 patients. Indications for intervention included severe hemodynamic compromise and perceived high surgical risk; all had prior TV surgery and significant stenosis and/or regurgitation of a bioprosthetic TV or a right atrium-to-right ventricle conduit., Results: Procedural success was achieved in all 15 patients. In patients with predominantly stenosis, mean tricuspid gradient was reduced from 12.9 to 3.9 mm Hg (p < 0.01). In all patients, tricuspid regurgitation was reduced to mild or none. New York Heart Association functional class improved in 12 patients. The only major procedural complication was of third-degree heart block requiring pacemaker insertion in 1 patient. One patient developed endocarditis 2 months after implant, and 1 patient with pre-procedural multiorgan failure did not improve and died 20 days after the procedure. The remaining patients have well-functioning Melody valves in the TV position a median of 4 months after implantation., Conclusions: In selected cases, patients with prior TV surgery may be candidates for percutaneous TV replacement., (Copyright © 2011 American College of Cardiology Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Knowledge of the inheritance of disease resistance and genomic regions housing resistance (R) genes is essential to prevent expanding pathogen threats such as Fusarium wilt [Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. vasinfectum (FOV) Atk. Sny & Hans] in cotton (Gossypium spp.). We conducted a comprehensive study combining conventional inheritance, genetic and quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping, QTL marker-sequence composition, and genome sequencing to examine the distribution, structure and organization of disease R genes to race 1 of FOV in the cotton genome. Molecular markers were applied to F(2) and recombinant inbred line (RIL) interspecific mapping populations from the crosses Pima-S7 (G. barbadense L.) × 'Acala NemX' (G. hirsutum L.) and Upland TM-1 (G. hirsutum) × Pima 3-79 (G. barbadense), respectively. Three greenhouse tests and one field test were used to obtain sequential estimates of severity index (DSI) of leaves, and vascular stem and root staining (VRS). A single resistance gene model was observed for the F(2) population based on inheritance of phenotypes. However, additional inheritance analyses and QTL mapping indicated gene interactions and inheritance from nine cotton chromosomes, with major QTLs detected on five chromosomes [Fov1-C06, Fov1-C08, (Fov1-C11 ( 1 ) and Fov1-C11 ( 2)) , Fov1-C16 and Fov1-C19 loci], explaining 8-31% of the DSI or VRS variation. The Fov1-C16 QTL locus identified in the F(2) and in the RIL populations had a significant role in conferring FOV race 1 resistance in different cotton backgrounds. Identified molecular markers may have important potential for breeding effective FOV race 1 resistance into elite cultivars by marker-assisted selection. Reconciliation between genetic and physical mapping of gene annotations from marker-DNA and new DNA sequences of BAC clones tagged with the resistance-associated QTLs revealed defenses genes induced upon pathogen infection and gene regions rich in disease-response elements, respectively. These offer candidate gene targets for Fusarium wilt resistance response in cotton and other host plants.

Asparagus bean (Vigna. unguiculata ssp. sesquipedialis) is a distinctive subspecies of cowpea [Vigna. unguiculata (L.) Walp.] that apparently originated in East Asia and is characterized by extremely long and thin pods and an aggressive climbing growth habit. The crop is widely cultivated throughout Asia for the production of immature pods known as 'long beans' or 'asparagus beans'. While the genome of cowpea ssp. unguiculata has been characterized recently by high-density genetic mapping and partial sequencing, little is known about the genome of asparagus bean. We report here the first genetic map of asparagus bean based on SNP and SSR markers. The current map consists of 375 loci mapped onto 11 linkage groups (LGs), with 191 loci detected by SNP markers and 184 loci by SSR markers. The overall map length is 745 cM, with an average marker distance of 1.98 cM. There are four high marker-density blocks distributed on three LGs and three regions of segregation distortion (SDRs) identified on two other LGs, two of which co-locate in chromosomal regions syntenic to SDRs in soybean. Synteny between asparagus bean and the model legume Lotus. japonica was also established. This work provides the basis for mapping and functional analysis of genes/QTLs of particular interest in asparagus bean, as well as for comparative genomics study of cowpea at the subspecies level.