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The aim of this paper is to assess several pathways of a harmonised European policy framework for supporting renewable electricity (RES-E) in a 2030 horizon according to different criteria. The pathways combine two main dimensions: degrees of harmonisation and instruments and design elements. A quantitative model-based analysis with the Green-X model is provided. The results of the simulations show that there are small differences between the evaluated cases regarding effectiveness. All the policy pathways score similarly with respect to RES-E deployment, i.e., with different degrees of harmonisation and whether using a feed-in tariff, a feed-in premium, a quota system with banding or a quota without banding scheme. In contrast, the policy costs clearly differ across the pathways, but the differences can mostly be attributed to the instruments rather than to the degrees of harmonisation. This is also the case with other criteria (static and dynamic efficiency and the socioeconomic and environmental benefits in terms of CO2 emissions and fossil fuels avoided). Both the degree of harmonisation and the choice of instrument influence the distribution of support costs across countries. Finally, our findings suggest that keeping strengthened national support leads to similar results to other policy pathways.

Streptococcus tigurinus is responsible for severe invasive infections such as infective endocarditis, spondylodiscitis and meningitis. As described, S. tigurinus isolates AZ_3aT and AZ_14 were highly virulent (HV phenotype) in an experimental model of infective endocarditis and showed enhanced adherence and invasion of human endothelial cells when compared to low virulent S. tigurinus isolate AZ_8 (LV phenotype). Here, we sought whether genetic determinants could explain the higher virulence of AZ_3aT and AZ_14 isolates. Several genetic determinants specific to the HV strains were identified through extensive comparative genomics amongst which some were thought to be highly relevant for the observed HV phenotype. These included i) an iron uptake and metabolism operon, ii) an ascorbate assimilation operon, iii) a newly acquired PI-2-like pilus islets described for the first time in S. tigurinus, iv) a hyaluronate metabolism operon, v) an Entner-Doudoroff pathway of carbohydrates metabolism, and vi) an alternate pathways for indole biosynthesis. We believe that the identified genomic features could largely explain the phenotype of high infectivity of the two HV S. tigurinus strains. Indeed, these features include determinants that could be involved at different stages of the disease such as survival of S. tigurinus in blood (iron uptake and ascorbate metabolism operons), initial attachment of bacterial pathogen to the damaged cardiac tissue and/or vegetation that formed on site (PI-2-like pilus islets), tissue invasion (hyaluronate operon and Entner-Doudoroff pathway) and regulation of pathogenicity (indole biosynthesis pathway).

This study describes the models employed, the main scenario constraints and the energy and climate policy assumptions for a companion study on "European decarbonisation pathways under alternative technological and policy choices: A multi-model analysis." We describe the main characteristics, the coverage and applications of seven large-scale energy-economy EU models used in the aforementioned study (PRIMES, GEM-E3, TIMES-PanEu, NEMESIS, WorldScan, Green-X and GAINS). The alternative scenarios modelled and the underlying assumptions and constraints are also specified. The main European energy and climate policies assumed to be implemented in the Reference scenario are outlined. We explain the formula used for the decomposition of carbon emissions reduction achieved in the basic decarbonisation scenario relative to the reference. Detailed model results for the power generation mix and RES deployment in the basic decarbonisation scenario in the EU are also presented. We conclude the description of our modelling approach with a brief comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of the models used.

This paper explores in a systematic manner the required energy system transformations and the associated costs incurred for the EU in order to meet the decarbonisation targets as specified in the EU Roadmap 2050, i.e. the 80% GHG emissions reduction target and the equivalent carbon budget by 2050. Seven large-scale energy-economy models, namely PRIMES, TIMES-PanEu, GEM-E3, NEMESIS, WorldScan, Green-X and GAINS, which have been extensively used in EU climate and energy policy analysis are employed for the simulation and quantification of alternative EU decarbonisation pathways under technological limitations and climate policy delays. The multi-model perspective provides valuable insights for the formulation of robust policies. The model results show that the EU emissions reduction target is feasible with currently known technological options at low costs (lower than 1% of GDP in the period 2015-2050). Models confirm the EU Roadmap priorities for 2050 with regard to accelerated energy efficiency, transport electrification and supply-side restructuring with high RES, CCS and nuclear deployment. Decarbonisation targets are found feasible even in cases with technological limitations regarding CCS and nuclear technologies and delays in transport electrification albeit with higher costs. Delaying emission reduction action until 2030 has significant adverse effects on energy system costs and stresses the system capabilities for decarbonisation.

Europe requires a long term vision for Renewable Energy Sources (RES) in order to pave the way for a successful and in the mid-term stable RES deployment beyond 2020. This encompasses, on the one hand, an assessment of the mid-term potentials and diffusion constraints for the broad basket of RES options at technology and country level within the EU 27. On the other hand, expected future RES cost are subject of investigation. Consequently, a comprehensive analysis of technological change, in particular with regard to technological learning and corresponding uncertainties is required to support the long term vision of a future renewable energy sector. This report aims to provide the background information to form the long term vision beyond 2020 for the renewable energy sector.

This report investigated the impact of international transport on the total cost and greenhouse gas balance of solid woody biomass. For this purpose, a geospatial intermodal biomass transport model was developed in the ArcGIS 10.0 Network Analyst extension. This model has been complemented with data on the cost of shipment using road (truck), water (ocean ships and inland navigation ships) and rail and the cost of transhipment between these modalities. With respect to the methodology applied in this study, we conclude that the modelling tool developed for this study using the ArcGIS Network Analyst extension, provides useful insights in country-to-country cost of biomass distribution. The results will be used as input to the energy model GREEN-X to estimate future supply and demand of biomass without being limited to national biomass sources or distribution of international supply of biomass applied exogenously to the GREEN-X modelling framework. Furthermore, related GHG emissions of the total biomass supply chain provide insight in the GHG reduction performance and optimal use of biomass sources.

This report investigated the potential of future intra- and inter-European trade of solid biomass for bioenergy purposes taking country to country specific intermodal transport routes into account and matching supply and demand for energy crops, forestry products and residues and agricultural residues. For this purpose, a geospatial, intermodal biomass transport model was developed in the ArcGIS 10.0 Network Analyst extension. This model has been complemented with data on the cost of shipment using road (truck), water (ocean ships and inland navigation ships) and rail and the cost of transshipment between these modalities. The results of the ArcGIS model were integrated in the transport extended renewable energy model GREEN-X and combined with two scenarios on import potential scenarios of biomass from non-EU countries, a Low Import and High Import scenario. The approach applied provides useful insights in potential trade routes, key supply regions and key demand regions in Europe and potential cost implications for bioenergy production taking logistic implications of biomass from farm gate to supply destinations into account. Because biomass is becoming a major tradable energy commodity, representing bioenergy trade is of key importance to energy models that include renewable energy as no (European) country is limited to national resources.

Virtually all goods and services that characterize modern societies’ welfare depend on the provision of commercial energy. The core objective of this paper is to identify necessary changes in trends for achieving a transition towards more sustainable energy systems and development paths. The major conclusions of this analysis are (i) a rigorous rethinking process has to take place to identify which level of energy services per capita lead to enhancing human welfare and quality of life; (ii) a significant increase in energy conversion efficiency has to be triggered to finally provide energy services with far less input of energy than today; (iii) a continuous increase in the share of renewable energy sources and other low-emission options has to be brought about; (iv) however, as history has shown this process of technological learning has to be accompanied by proper energy price and regulatory policies. Otherwise, it is very likely that energy conservation gains due to technical efficiency improvements will be outweighed again by increases in energy service demand and, straightforward, energy consumption and CO2 emissions.