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International audience; Within a context of known and alarming deterioration of water bodies and under pressure from the European Water Framework Directive, in 2009 the French government designated slightly more than 500 priority catchments. In so doing, it declared its objective of concentrating its efforts on these areas, trying out a methodology for action, and proving to the European Union that it was taking action. The present study has documented the on-going situations and actions on these Grenelle catchment areas and identified the broad types of actions and situations as part of a critical analysis of the approach retained by the government. After constructing an analytical framework of these areas, we assembled together a large collection of data to be analyzed with multivariate statistical analysis.These data were either gathered from surveys based on a questionnaire encompassing biophysical, agricultural, social, and economic aspects or based on spatialized statistical data sources. This work demonstrates key factors characterizing the catchment areas: the hydrological entry point for the definition of a field of action involves great variability of territorial size and therefore of the players involved (municipalities, farmers, cooperatives, users). Little attention is given to this aspect in the relatively rigid single legal procedure presently in force. On these catchment areas, we emphasize two main lines of structuring parameters: on the one hand, the relative diversity of land use and forms of agriculture, and on the other, the relative strength of the administrative structure. These results could be useful for those managing these issues in the different government agencies, those implementing the approaches, or local authorities responsible for resource management, as they provide a better understanding of how to adapt these experiments to other areas concerned by water resource issues.

Objective: The objective of this study was to provide an overview about the existence and types of discounts and rebates granted to public payers by the pharmaceutical industry in European countries. Methods: Data were collected via a questionnaire in spring 2011. Officials from public authorities for pharmaceutical pricing and reimbursement represented in the PPRI (Pharmaceutical Pricing and Reimbursement Information) network provided the information and reviewed the compilation. Results: Information is available from 31 European countries. Discounts and rebates granted to public payers by pharmaceutical industry were reported for 25 European countries. Such discounts exist both in the in- and out-patient sectors in 21 countries and in the in-patient sector only in four countries. Six countries reported not having any regulations or agreements regarding the discounts and rebates granted by industry. The most common discounts and rebates are price reductions and refunds linked to sales volume but types such as in-kind support, price-volume and risk-sharing agreements are also in place. A mix of various types of discounts and rebates is common. Many of these arrangements are confidential. Differences regarding types, the organizational and legal framework, validity and frequency of updates and the amount of the discounts and rebates granted exist among the surveyed countries. Conclusions: In Europe, discounts and rebates on medicines granted by pharmaceutical industry to public payers are common tools to contain public pharmaceutical expenditure. They appear to be used as a complimentary measure when price regulation does not achieve the desired results and in the few European countries with no or limited price regulation. The confidential character of many of these arrangements impedes transparency and may lead to a distortion of medicines prices. An analysis of the impact on these measures is recommended.

Efektyvus darbo panaudojimas poindustrinėje visuomenėje lemia ekonomikos konkurencingumą ir skatina socialinį vystymąsi. Šiame kontekste jaunimo nedarbas yra ypač nepageidaujamas reiškinys, mažinantis jaunimo darbo jėgos efektyvumą bendroje darbo apimtyje, didinantis socialinius kaštus ir stabdantis socialinį vystymąsi. Jaunų žmonių vieta darbo rinkoje priklauso nuo visos eilės socialinių ekonominių ir demografinių veiksnių, o tai leidžia daryti išvadą, kad jaunimo nedarbas – socialinis-ekonominis reiškinys, susidaręs kaip ypatingai neigiamas šių veiksnių sąveikos rezultatas. Straipsnio tikslas yra išanalizuoti jaunimo integracijos į darbo rinką teorines prielaidas ir aptarti jo nedarbo pasekmes. Kita straipsnio užduotis yra pasiūlyti politines priemones, kaip padidinti jaunimo ekonominį aktyvumą. Autorių nuomone, pirmenybė turėtų būti suteikiama efektyviai lavinimo politikai ir profesiniam mokymui, kuris turėtų būti susietas su pagalbinėmis programomis ir atitinkama makroekonomine politika, skatinančia jaunos darbo jėgos paklausą. Reikia tinkamai akcentuoti jaunimo paklausos ir pasiūlos (profesinės, teritorinės ir kt.) struktūrą ir pasiskirstymą darbo rinkoje. Reikia sukurti kompleksą kryptingų priemonių, nes jaunimo nedarbo problema pati ar dėl demografinių pasikeitimų neišnyks. Daugiau dėmesio reikia skirti tam tikroms tikslinėms jaunimo grupėms, kurios susiduria su ypatingais sunkumais darbo rinkoje, įskaitant tuos, kurie nebaigė mokyklos, asmenis be kvalifikacijos, etnines mažumas, neįgaliuosius. The efficient use of the labour force in post-industrial society predetermines the competitiveness of the economy and encourages social development. In this context, youth unemployment is a particularly undesirable phenomenon, reducing the efficiency of youth labour force within the level of general labour, raising social costs, and restricting social development. The position of young people on the labour market depends on a number of social, economic and demographic factors, leading to the conclusion that youth unemployment as a socio-economic phenomenon is a particularly negative result of the interaction between these factors. The aim of the paper is to discuss the theoretical assumptions of the youth integration to the labour market and to discuss the subsequences of their unemployment. Another target of the paper is to propose the policy measures for rising economic activity of the youth. The authors of the article suggest that the youth integration to the labour market could be increased by integrated decisions based on qualified services of vocational training.