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Marine actinobacteria are potential producers of various secondary metabolites with diverse bioactivities. Among various bioactive compounds, anti-complement agents have received great interest for drug discovery to treat numerous diseases caused by inappropriate activation of the human complement system. However, marine streptomycetes producing anti-complement agents are still poorly explored. In this study, a marine-derived strain Streptomyces sp. DUT11 showing superior anti-complement activity was focused, and its genome sequence was analyzed. Gene clusters showing high similarities to that of tunicamycin and nonactin were identified, and their corresponding metabolites were also detected. Subsequently, tunicamycin I, V, and VII were isolated from Streptomyces sp. DUT11. Anti-complement assay showed that tunicamycin I, V, VII inhibited complement activation through the classic pathway, whereas no anti-complement activity of nonactin was detected. This is the first time that tunicamycins are reported to have such activity. In addition, genome analysis indicates that Streptomyces sp. DUT11 has the potential to produce novel lassopeptides and lantibiotics. These results suggest that marine Streptomyces are rich sources of anti-complement agents for drug discovery.

Many factors regulate the expression of specialised secondary metabolite biosynthetic gene clusters, which have been recognised as important for the discovery of novel microbial natural products. A cosmid library based on genomic DNA of the marine-derived Streptomyces puniceus Act1085 was constructed and screened to identify a short gene cluster similar to the nonactin biosynthetic cluster. The ORFs of the gene cluster isolated had high amino acid sequence identity, from 82% to 96%, with corresponding ORFs of the nonactin biosynthetic gene cluster from S. griseus subsp. griseus ETH A7796. Despite the expectation that nonactin or its derivatives would be made from heterologous expression of the gene cluster found in S. albus J1074, nocardamine was isolated. The heterologous expression data indicate that the production of nocardamine in S. albus J1074 is due to an ortholog of nonG, a TetR family transcriptional regulator, from S. puniceus Act1085.

Le développement de composés permettant le passage de molécules à travers la membrane cellulaire constitue un domaine de grand intérêt de la chimie et de la biochimie. Certaines maladies, comme la fibrose kystique, sont le résultat d'un dysfonctionnement du transport d'ions chlorure et bicarbonate à travers la bicouche lipidique. Ces dernières années, de nouvelles familles de transporteurs synthétiques ont fait leur apparition comme solution de remplacement aux transporteurs naturels. Cependant, la synthèse de systèmes supramoléculaires permettant le transport de larges molécules de part et d’autre de la bicouche lipidique reste, quant à elle, un défi. Ainsi nous présentons dans cette thèse deux systèmes différents: l’un permettant le transport d’ions chlorures et le second capable de combiner transport anionique et transport de macrocycles biologiquement actifs. Dans un premier temps, nous avons étudié le potentiel ionophore d’un dérivé benzimidazole. Des études mécanistiques ont été menées sur le 2,4,7-triphénylbenzimidazole afin de déterminer son mode d’assemblage dans la membrane phospholipidique, responsable de son efficacité à transporter les anions. Basé sur ces résultats, des analogues de cette molécule possédant des sites de complexation métallique ont été synthétisés afin d’augmenter l’efficacité de ces transporteurs benzimidazole et de contrôler leur auto-assemblage. Ces complexes ont été testés dans des membranes bactériennes afin d’étudier leur capacité à inhiber la croissance des bactéries et à diminuer la tolérance d’une souche bactérienne résistante envers les antibiotiques. Dans le second volet de cette thèse, nous avons étudié l’utilisation de dérivés parapluies capables de changer de conformation dépendamment de la polarité du solvant, pour le transport d’anions et de macrocycles. La synthèse et la caractérisation d’un nouvel axe et son dimère parapluie sont rapportées dans cette partie. Leur capacité à transporter les anions à travers la membrane des liposomes ou leur insertion dans des membranes bactériennes ont été étudiées. Les premiers essais de synthèses de rotaxanes à partir de ces dérivés parapluies pour le transport de macrocycle biologiquement actif sont rapportés., The development of compounds able to transport molecules through cellular membranes is an emerging area of chemistry and biochemistry. Several diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, are the result of a dysfunction of chloride and bicarbonate transport across cellular membranes. In the last few years, new families of synthetic transmembrane transporters were developed in order to restore chloride transport. However, the synthesis of supramolecular systems for the transport of large molecules from one side to the other one of the lipid bilayer remains a challenge. Herein we present two different systems: one for chloride transport and a second one that combines the transport of ions and biologically active macrocycles through cellular membranes. We first present the anionophoric potential of benzimidazole derivatives. Mechanistic studies were conducted on 2,4,7-triphenylbenzimidazole to determine its self-assembly in a phospholipid membrane and its capacity to transport anions. Two analogues possessing metal coordination sites were also developed and studied for their anion transport properties, as well for the formation of metal-organic assemblies. These complexes were studied in bacterial membranes for their ability to inhibit bacterial growth and to reduce the tolerance of a resistant strain to antibiotics. In the second part of this thesis, we present the use of umbrella compounds that are able to change their conformation depending on the polarity of the environment. The synthesis and characterization of a new umbrella thread and its dimer are reported in this section. Their ability to transport anions through liposomal membranes or their insertion into more complex bacterial membranes are studied. The first attempts to assemble rotaxanes with the umbrella compounds and an active macrocycle are presented.

Roxadustat (FG-4592), an analog of 2-oxoglutarate, is an orally-administered, heterocyclic small molecule known to be an inhibitor of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF) prolyl hydroxylase. However, none of the studies have thus far thoroughly investigated its possible perturbations on membrane ion currents in endocrine or heart cells. In our studies, the whole-cell current recordings of the patch-clamp technique showed that the presence of roxadustat effectively and differentially suppressed the peak and late components of IK(DR) amplitude in response to membrane depolarization in pituitary tumor (GH3) cells with an IC50 value of 5.71 and 1.32 &mu, M, respectively. The current inactivation of IK(DR) elicited by 10-sec membrane depolarization became raised in the presence of roxadustatt. When cells were exposed to either CoCl2 or deferoxamine (DFO), the IK(DR) elicited by membrane depolarization was not modified, however, nonactin, a K+-selective ionophore, in continued presence of roxadustat, attenuated roxadustat-mediated inhibition of the amplitude. The steady-state inactivation of IK(DR) could be constructed in the presence of roxadustat. Recovery of IK(DR) block by roxadustat (3 and 10 &mu, M) could be fitted by a single exponential with 382 and 523 msec, respectively. The roxadustat addition slightly suppressed erg-mediated K+ or hyperpolarization-activated cation currents. This drug also decreased the peak amplitude of voltage-gated Na+ current with a slowing in inactivation rate of the current. Likewise, in H9c2 heart-derived cells, the addition of roxadustat suppressed IK(DR) amplitude in combination with the shortening in inactivation time course of the current. In high glucose-treated H9c2 cells, roxadustat-mediated inhibition of IK(DR) remained unchanged. Collectively, despite its suppression of HIF prolyl hydroxylase, inhibitory actions of roxadustat on different types of ionic currents possibly in a non-genomic fashion might provide another yet unidentified mechanism through which cellular functions are seriously perturbed, if similar findings occur in vivo.

Nonactin and its analogs constitute a central class of macrocycles with an antibiotic activity closely related to their selective ionophoric behavior. In this study, we apply experimental and computational methods to revisit the specificity of cation binding and transport by three nactin variants differing in structural properties, such as the position of the ester linkages, the nature of the side groups, or the flexibility of the backbone. On the one hand, electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and infrared spectroscopy are employed to expose the selectivity of the liquid-liquid (water-chloroform) extraction of alkali cations by nonactin and to demonstrate that the cation complexes are partially hydrated in the organic phase. Furthermore, laser desorption mass spectrometry is employed to determine the intrinsic cation affinities of nonactin under solvent-free conditions. On the other hand, density functional theory calculations are performed to characterize the conformations of the alkali cation complexes of the three nactins, and to assess the role of intermolecular and solvent interactions in determining their relative stability. Depending on the structure of the macrocycle, the cation complexes adopt either a cage-like conformation or a tweezer-like conformation. The computations show that the partial hydration of those different conformations in the organic phase, determine the distinct cation extraction selectivities that are observed experimentally., We would like to acknowledge financial support from the government of Spain (Projects CSD2009-00038 and CTQ2015-63997-C2-2-P), and from the regional Research Programmes of Junta de Andalucía FEDER (Project P12-FQM-2310) and of Comunidad Autonoma de Madrid (S2013/MIT-2841, Fotocarbon).

In this communication we discuss the development of ionophore based nanosensors for the detection and monitoring of histamine levels in vivo. This approach is based on the use of an amine-reactive, broad spectrum ionophore which is capable of recognizing and binding to histamine. We pair this ionophore with our already established nanosensor platform, and demonstrate in vitro and in vivo monitoring of histamine levels. This approach enables capturing rapid kinetics of histamine after injection, which are more difficult to measure with standard approaches such as blood sampling, especially on small research models. The coupling together of in vivo nanosensors with ionophores such as nonactin provide a way to generate nanosensors for novel targets without the difficult process of designing and synthesizing novel ionophores.

Ionophore-based quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) ammonium ion sensors with a detection limit for ammonium ion concentrations as low as 2.2 microM were fabricated. Ionophores are molecules, which selectively bind a particular ion. In this study, one of the known ionophores for ammonium, nonactin, was used to detect ammonium ions for environmental in-situ monitoring of aquarium water for the first time. To fabricate the sensing films, poly(vinyl chloride) was used as the matrix for the immobilization of nonactin. Furthermore, the anionic additive, tetrakis (4-chlorophenyl) borate potassium salt and the plasticizer dioctyl sebacate were used to enhance the sensor properties. The sensor allowed detecting ammonium ions not only in static solution, but also in flowing water. The sensor showed a nearly linear response with the increase of the ammonium ion concentration. The QCM resonance frequency increased with the increase of ammonium ion concentration, suggesting a decreasing weight of the sensing film. The detailed response mechanism could not be verified yet. However, from the results obtained when using a different plasticizer, nitrophenyl octyl ether, it is considered that this effect is caused by the release of water molecules. Consequently, the newly fabricated sensor detects ammonium ions by discharge of water. It shows high selectivity over potassium and sodium ions. We conclude that the newly fabricated sensor can be applied for detecting ammonium ions in aquarium water, since it allows measuring low ammonium ion concentrations. This sensor will be usable for water quality monitoring and controlling.

A plasmophore sensitized optode was developed for imaging ammonia (NH(3)) concentrations in muscle tissues. The developed ammonia sensor and an equivalent non plasmophore version of the sensor were tested side by side to compare their limit of detection, dynamic range, reversibility and overall imaging quality. Bio-degradation patterns of ammonia release from lean porcine skeletal muscle were studied over a period of 11 days. We demonstrate that ammonia concentrations ranging from 10nM can be quantified reversibly with an optical resolution of 127 μm in a sample area of 25 mm × 35 mm. The plasmophore ammonia optode showed improved reversibility, less false pixels and a 2 nM ammonia detection limit compared to 200 nM for the non-plasmophore sensor. Main principles of the sensing mechanism include ammonia transfer over a gas permeable film, ammonia protonation, nonactin facilitated merocyanine-ammonium coextraction and plasmophore enhancement. The vast signal improvement is suggested to rely on solvatochroism, nanoparticle scattering and plasmonic interactions that are utilized constructively in a fluorescence ratio. In addition to fundamental medicinal and biological research applications in tissue physiology, reversible ammonia quantification will be possible for a majority of demanding imaging and non imaging applications such as monitoring of low ammonia background concentrations in air and non-invasive medicinal diagnosis through medical breath or saliva analysis. The nanoparticle doped sensor constitutes a highly competitive technique for ammonia sensing in complex matrixes and the general sensing scheme offers new possibilities for the development of artificial optical noses and tongues.

We have been interested in the application of readily available, fermentation-derived natural products as key building blocks for the preparation of natural product-like libraries rich in structural and stereochemical diversity. In this manuscript we describe the conversion of methyl nonactate, derived from nonactin, to a diversable scaffold characteristic of macrolide natural products. The synthesis features a key ring-closing metathesis reaction to form the macrocycle.

The naturally occurring macrotetrolide antibiotic nonactin is used in ammonium ion selective electrodes. To increase the lifetime of nonactin in the semipermeable membrane of these sensors we have developed methods for the introduction of hydrophobic side-chains. Simple model compounds for nonactic acid such as 5 and 7 were synthesised. Maintaining the cis arrangement of the substituents in the 2,5-disubstituted tetrahydrofurans proved to be difficult. Three different routes were studied. The enolates obtained by treatment with NaHMDS or KHMDS could be alkylated with benzyl or allyl iodide as electrophiles. Under these conditions a cis/trans isomerisation of the substituents on the tetrahydrofuran ring occurred. A multistep methodology was developed as a synthetic alternative. The sequence consisted of a selective retro-Michael reaction, a 5-exo-tet iodocyclisation and a radical substitution. The products obtained by the two methodologies could be correlated, and thereby a tentative assignment of the relative configurations could be achieved. In the third route the thione ester 18 was deprotonated with tBuOK. At temperatures below -78 °C, the enolate maintained the cis configuration of the substituents at the tetrahydrofuran ring. The alkylated product 12 could be isolated with a satisfactory cis/trans ratio of 85:15. The model compound 12 could be successfully transformed into more hydrophobic derivatives by using either the Heck coupling or the cross-coupling metathesis transformation.

The ion transport facilitated by neutral carrier compounds (valinomycin, nonactin) has been investigated by cyclic voltammetry in the several electrolyte solutions (KF, KCl, KBr, KNO3, KSCN, KClO4), and we demonstrated the effect of the counter anions on the facilitated transport of K+ from the viewpoint of electroneutrality. Voltammograms for the ion transport were generated at steady state and the current density between W1 and W2, jW1–W2, increased with the absolute value of the applied membrane potential, EW1–W2. Then, the magnitude of jW1–W2 at a certain EW1–W2 increased with the hydrophobicity of the counter anion. It was proved that the logarithm of |jW1–W2|at a certain EW1–W2 is almost proportional to the hydration energy of the counter anion. This indicates that not only K+ but also the counter anion distributes into the BLM. Therefore, the magnitude of jW1–W2 at a certain EW1–W2 increased with an increase of pH, because the hydroxide ion was served as a counter anion. Based on the variation of the zero-current potential in case of various asymmetrical ionic compositions, it is found that the amount of cation transport is much larger than that of anion transport.

The interaction of all-trans-retinal (hereinafter referred to as retinal) with planar bilayer lipid membranes has been studied. Addition of retinal into aqueous solutions on both sides of the membrane formed from diphytanoilphosphatidylcholine (DPhPC) or its mixture with diphytanoilphosphatidylethanolamine (DPhPC/DPhPE in w/w proportion of 3: 5) led to a change of conductance induced by ionophores nonactin (increase of conductance) or pentachlorophenol (decrease). Increase of nonactin-induced conductance was dependent on the membrane lipid composition and was two times higher in the case of DPhPC/DPhPE mixture. The change of conductance caused by ionophores of different signs (plus or minus) had different direction suggesting the influence of the retinal on the dipole potential upon its incorporation into BLM. The boundary potentials difference measured by the intramembrane field compensation method (IFC) after the retinal addition on one side of the membrane did not exceed 2.5 mV suggesting that its distribution in the bilayer is almost symmetrical. The illumination of the retinal-containing BLM caused a decrease in its lifetime when the membranes were formed from unsaturated lipids. Retinal incorporated into BLM led also to photoinactivation of the gramicidin channels. The process was completely inhibited by a singlet oxygen quencher (sodium azide). These results indicate that retinal accumulated in the membrane can affect both membrane proteins and the unsaturated lipids by their oxidation by the singlet oxygen.

This work presents a differential solid-state urea biosensor based on an ion-selective membrane. The solid-state urea biosensor comprises three parts—a tin oxide (SnO 2 ) pH electrode, a nonactin-based ammonium ion-selective electrode (ISE) and an ammonium ion-selective membrane-based urea electrode. The enzyme was immobilized by the entrapment method onto an ion-selective membrane. For simplicity of fabrication, a SnO 2 /indium tin oxide (ITO) glass device was adopted as a basic substrate. Solid-state urea biosensors based on ammonium ion-selective membrane respond rapidly, stably and linearly in the range of urea concentrations between 0.013 mM and 10 mM. Additionally, the voltage response, selectivity, reproducibility and stability are considered. Experimental results indicate that the effect of the interference ions of a solid-state urea biosensor can be improved using the proposed differential urea sensing structure. Additionally, the biosensors exhibit good operational and storage stability.

The optimization of the biosynthetic pathways is highly attractive for the large-scale preparation of macrotetrolides, because overall yields in the chemical synthesis of compounds like nonactin have been very low. A key success factor determining the outcome of such optimizations is the adequate process analysis for the envisioned product. The analytical methods for process control involved in the past spectrophotometric and chromatographic measurements. LC-MS offers a modern approach to obtain more detailed data than the spectrophotometric and chromatographic measurements used in the past. In this work, a fast and versatile analytical LC-MS method has been set up, which has proven of much value for the in-process analysis of macrotetrolides during fermentation and which has allowed rapid large-scale bioprocess development.

The release of zoospores from sporangia and motility of the released zoospores are critical in the disease cycle of the Peronosporomycetes that cause devastating diseases in plants, fishes, animals and humans. Disruption of any of these asexual life stages eliminates the possibility of pathogenesis. In the course of screening novel bioactive secondary metabolites, we found that extracts of some strains of marine Streptomyces spp. rapidly impaired motility and caused subsequent lysis of zoospores of the grapevine downy mildew pathogen Plasmopara viticola at 10 μg/ml. We tested a number of secondary metabolites previously isolated from these strains and found that macrotetrolide antibiotics such as nonactin, monactin, dinactin and trinactin, and nactic acids such as (+)-nonactic acid, (+)-homonactic acid, nonactic acid methyl ester, homonactic acid methyl ester, bonactin and feigrisolide C impaired motility and caused subsequent lysis of P. viticola zoospores in a dose- and time-dependent manners with dinactin being the most active compound (MIC 0.3 μg/ml). A cation channel-forming compound, gramicidin, and a carrier of monovalent cations, nigericin also showed similar biological activities. Among all 12 compounds tested, gramicidin most potently arrested the motility of zoospores at concentrations starting from 0.1 μg/ml. All macrotetrolide antibiotics also displayed similar motility impairing activities against P. viticola, Phytophthora capsici, and Aphanomyces cochlioides zoospores indicating non-specific biological effects of these compounds toward peronosporomyctes. Furthermore, macrotetrolide antibiotics and gramicidin also markedly suppressed the release of zoospores from sporangia of P. viticola in a dose-dependent manner. As macrotetrolide antibiotics and gramicidin are known as enhancers of mitochondrial ATPase activity, inhibition of zoosporogenesis and motility of zoospores by these compounds are likely linked with hydrolysis of ATP through enhanced ATPase activity in mitochondria. This is the first report on motility inhibitory and lytic activities of macrotetrolide antibiotics and nactic acids against the zoospores of peronosporomycete phytopathogens. peerReviewed

Biophysical journal 110(3), 78a(2016). doi:10.1016/j.bpj.2015.11.484, Published by Cell Press, Cambridge, Mass.

Chemically modified Field Effect Transistor (ChemFET) sensor for ammonium (NF 4+ ) ions was developed from AlGaN/GaN High Electron Mobility Transistor (HEMT) structures (NH + 4 -ChemHEMT). The sensor consists of a HEMT device with non-metallized gate, which was coated with a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) membrane enriched with ammonium ionophore (Nonactin). The AlGaN/GaN -CNH + 4 -ChemHEMT with gate width of 100 μm and gate length of 100 μm exhibited a constant sensitivity of 55.5 mV/pNH + 4 for NH + 4 concentration in the range from 10 -5 M to 10 -2 M. The NH + 4 concentration detection limit was 5.4 x 10 -6 M, which is approximately one order of magnitude lower compared to Si based insulator gate ChemFETs. The sensor exhibited also sufficiently long storage lifetime, indicating the strong adhesion of the PVC membrane to the GaN(0001) surface.

The piperidine nitroxide tempamine (TMN) is a cell-permeable, stable radical having antioxidant, anticancer, and proapoptotic and/or pronecrotic activities, as was demonstrated by us in cell cultures. We also demonstrated synergism between TMN and doxorubicin in doxorubicin-sensitive and doxorubicin-resistant cell lines. Treatment of the C26 mouse colon carcinoma model in vivo also demonstrated synergism between TMN and doxorubicin in sterically stabilized liposomes (SSLs) containing TMN (SSL-TMN) and those containing doxorubicin. The above effects of TMN and SSL-TMN motivated us to develop and optimize the SSL-TMN formulation so that it will be able to reach the disease site with a sufficiently high TMN level and a release rate needed to achieve a therapeutic effect. Because TMN is an amphipathic weak base, it was remote loaded by an intraliposome high/extraliposome low transmembrane ammonium sulfate gradient. The kinetics and level of TMN loading were monitored by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR); the latter also indicates TMN precipitation in the intraliposomal aqueous phase. The regeneration of the original CV and EPR signals by the ionophore nigericin indicates that TMN remained fully intact during loading and release. The cardinal role of the transmembrane ammonium ion gradient in the loading process was proven by the use of the selective ionophores nonactin (for NH4+) and nigericin (for H+). The anion of the ammonium salts affects loading stability and the rate of TMN release, both mediated through the TMN state of aggregation in the intraliposomal aqueous phase. The greater the TMN salt precipitation, the slower the TMN release rate. This was supported by measurement of osmolality, which is inversely related to TMN salt precipitate. Precipitation is in the order SO4(-2)>Cl-1>glucuronate-1. Liposome lipid composition, magnitude of the transmembrane ammonium ion gradient, and type of anion of the ammonium salt determine the amount of TMN loaded and its release rate.

The facilitated ion transport from one aqueous phase (W1) to another (W2) across a bilayer lipid membrane (BLM) in the presence of nonactin (Non) as an ion carrier in a BLM was elucidated. A cation-Non complex is distributed into the BLM with an anion as a counter ion to hold the electroneutrality within the BLM phase. It was found that the anion transferred between W1 and W2 across the BLM in the opposite direction from that of the objective cation upon applying the membrane potential. These phenomena can be interpreted based on the relation between the distribution coefficient and the hydration energy and on the dependence of the ion transport facilitated by Non through a BLM on the concentration of Non in the BLM, the stability constant of Non with cations and the hydrophobicity of both cations and anions.

The effects of Tl+ ions on isolated rat liver mitochondria were studied in the presence of nonactin, a cyclic ionophore. Nonenergized rat liver mitochondria were increasingly swollen at an elevated concentration of Tl+ in the 160 mOsm medium containing 0–150 mM sucrose and 0–75 mM TlNO3 or 0–50 mM Tl acetate. On the contrary, mitochondria in experiments with nonactin were contracted in the medium with 5–25 mM Tl+ and were swollen only in the medium with 50–75 mM TlNO3 or 50 mM Tl acetate. State 4 respiration along with swelling of succinate-energized mitochondria followed contraction after their deenergization was further enhanced at increasing concentration of Tl acetate in a medium containing nonactin. Regardless of the presence of nonactin, State 3 and 2,4-dinitrophenol (DNP)-stimulated respiration and the monoamine oxidase (MAO) activity were not affected in the medium with 0–25 mM Tl acetate and sucrose. DNP-stimulated respiration decreased and the MAO activity somewhat increased in the medium containing 50 mM Tl acetate and nonactin. Uptake of 86Rb+ by energized mitochondria in the presence of valinomycin was considerably decreased when Tl+ and nonactin were simultaneously present in the medium. An increase of the toxic effect of Tl+ on rat liver mitochondria in the presence of nonactin is accounted for by disruption of mitochondria due to their more extensive swelling and uncoupling of mitochondria, resulting in the stimulation of State 4 and depletion of their energy store. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biochem Mol Toxicol 21:81–91, 2007; Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI 10.1002/jbt.20163

The amyloid hypothesis of Alzheimer's toxicity has undergone a resurgence with increasing evidence that it is not amyloid fibrils but a smaller oligomeric species that produces the deleterious results. In this paper we address the mechanism of this toxicity. Only oligomers increase the conductance of lipid bilayers and patch-clamped mammalian cells, producing almost identical current–voltage curves in both preparations. Oligomers increase the conductance of the bare bilayer, the cation conductance induced by nonactin, and the anion conductance induced by tetraphenyl borate. Negative charge reduces the sensitivity of the membrane to amyloid, but cholesterol has little effect. In contrast, the area compressibility of the lipid has a very large effect. Membranes with a large area compressibility modulus are almost insensitive to amyloid oligomers, but membranes formed from soft, highly compressible lipids are highly susceptible to amyloid oligomer-induced conductance changes. Furthermore, membranes formed using the solvent decane (instead of squalane) are completely insensitive to the presence of oligomers. One simple explanation for these effects on bilayer conductance is that amyloid oligomers increase the area per molecule of the membrane-forming lipids, thus thinning the membrane, lowering the dielectric barrier, and increasing the conductance of any mechanism sensitive to the dielectric barrier.

An Escherichia coli-Streptomyces shuttle vector (pJN100) was constructed, by inserting an origin of transfer (oriT), derived from the E coli broad host range plasmid RK2, into pANT1202, a high-copy-number vector for gene expression in Streptomyces. The resulting conjugably transferable vector contains the pANT1202-derived SnpR (LysR-like protein) activated snpA promoter that drives strong heterologous expression of proteins. We initially demonstrated that plasmid pJN 100 was transferred with high frequency (10(-5-7) exconjugants per recipient) into several Streptomyces strains that were refractory to transformation by other means. Plasmid pJN100 was also shown to be stable in E. coli and Streptomyces. We confirmed functional protein expression by using a pJN100 derivative to complement a mutant of Streptomyces griseus with a disrupted chromosomal copy of the gene nonM, a gene encoding an essential reductase in the nonactin biosynthesis gene cluster. High levels of protein expression were confirmed using Western blotting to assess the production of the serine esterase NonR, an enzyme responsible for nonactin resistance in the nonactin producer S. griseus. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

A potentiometric urea biosensor is prepared by the immobilization of urease directly onto the surface of a solid-state ammonium ion-selective electrode. The enzyme is immobilized by entrapment method onto a nonactin membrane that incorporated carboxylated polyvinylchloride. The same method of immobilization method is adopted to compare the characteristics of urea biosensors based on ammonium ion-selective electrodes with those based on pH-sensitive electrodes, using the same tin-oxide (SnO/sub 2/)/indium tin-oxide glass substrate. Urea biosensors based on ammonium ion-selective electrodes respond quickly and stably to changes in urea concentrations between 0.026 and 10 mM. The slope in the linear range is around 55.56/spl plusmn/3.15 mV/decade and the detection limit is around 5 /spl mu/M. The effect of urea biosensors with different pH values is considered, and the characteristics of urea biosensors based on ammonium ion-selective electrodes are described. Additionally, the experimental results from the determination of the urea using biosensors based on pH-sensitive electrodes and ammonium ion-selective electrodes are compared and discussed.

This work reports the results of the determination of mean activity coefficients for NH4Cl in ternary (NH4Cl(m1) + LiCl(m2) + H2O) electrolyte system by potentiometric method at 25 °C. The experimental potentiometric data were obtained by combining a solvent polymeric (PVC) ammonium-selective membrane electrode ( NH 4 + ISE), containing a mixture of nonactin/monactin as ionophore, and an Ag|AgCl electrode. The measurements were performed, at constant ionic strength, in different series of mixed salt solutions characterized by a fixed salt mole ratio r (where r = m1/m2 = 25, 50, 75, 100). The non-ideal behavior of the system was described on the base of the Pitzer ion-interaction model for mixed salts, over the molality ranging from 0.01 to 3 mol/kg.

Ammonium ion selective electrodes have been prepared using nonactin as an ionophore and poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) or polyurethane(PU) as a polymer matrix with or without a plasticizer, bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate, and their performances have been evaluated. The reults indicate that PU-based electrodes can be designed to perform better although PVC-based electrodes generally show better performances. In efforts to explain the obervation, we also carried out atomic force microscopy as well as impedance studies, and the results suggests that islands of ion-ophores are formed in the PVC membranes through which ion transfers appear to be more facile than through the PU membranes. The PU membranes appear to have ionophores better dispersed throughout the film and are more resistive to ion mobilities in comparison to PVC films.

Solid-state ammonium ion sensors based on photocured poly( n -butyl acrylate) membrane with immobilised nonactin is successfully used for the determination of ammonium ion. The sensor membrane does not require any plasticiser and gives Nernstian response (57–58 mV per decade) throughout the ammonium ion concentration range of 10 −1 to 10 −5 M with detection limits approaching 10 −6 M ammonium ion. The sensor also demonstrates good reproducibility (R.S.D. 2–4%, n =15) and satisfactory selectivity with improved selectivity coefficients for sodium, lithium, calcium and magnesium over other ammonium sensors fabricated by similar photocuring technique. The ammonium ion sensor has potential application in the analysis of ammonium and ammonia in sewage samples.

The ammonium ion-selective electrodes (NH 4 +-ISEs) based on the tetrahydrofuran(THF)-containing-16-crown-4 derivatives, 1,4,6,9,11,14,16,19-tetraoxocycloeicosane (L 1 ) and 5,10,15,20,-tetramethyl-1,4,6,9,11, 14,16,19-tetraoxocycloeicosane (L 2 ), were prepared and the electrode characteristics were tested. The conditioned NH 4 +-ISES (E1) based on L 1 with TEHP as a plasticising solvent mediator gave best results with near-Nernstian slope of 53.9 mV/decade of activity, detection limit of 10 - 4 . 9 M, and enhanced selectivity coefficients for the NH 4 + ion with respect to an interfering K + ion (log K p o t NH 4 + , K + = -1.84). This result was compared to other ammonium ionophores reported previously, for example, that of nonactin (log K p o t NH 4 + , K + = -0.92). The proposed electrode showed no significant potential changes in the range of 3.0 < pH < 9.0.

Activity coefficients of NH4Cl in methanol–water mixtures containing respectively 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 weight percent MeOH 25°C were determined using the Pitzer ion-interaction model and the electromotive force (emf) data of the following galvanic cell without a liquid junction: . The experimental emf data were obtained using a solvent polymeric PVC ammonium selective membrane electrode containing a mixture of nonactin/monactin as ionophore and an Ag/AgCl electrode. Activity coefficients were determined over the molality range from dilute solution to near salt saturation (i.e. about 5.15 mol/kg in pure water or 2.44 mol/kg in 50% mixed MeOH–water solvent).

A simple and rapid method was developed for the K + ions determination employing a flow injection system using a flow-through electrode based on the naturally-occurring antibiotic ionophore nonactin occluded in a polymeric membrane. The nonactin ionophore was trapped in poly(ethylene- co -vinyl acetate) (EVA) matrix (40% w/w in vinyl acetate) and dispersed on the surface of a graphite-epoxy tubular electrode. The plasticizer-free all-solid-state potassium-selective electrode showed a linear response for K + concentrations between 5.0×10 −5 and 5.0×10 −2 M ( r =0.9995) with a near-Nernstian slope of 51.5 mV per decade, when Tris–HCl buffer (pH 7.0;0,1 M) was employed as a carrier. The potentiometric-FIA system allows an analytical frequency of 120 samples per hour with a precision of 3.6%. The relative standard deviations (R.S.D.) for K + determination in pharmaceuticals samples, without any previous treatment, were lower than 4.0%, comparable to those obtained by flame photometry. Ammonium is the main analytical interference and the electrode response time was 5 s at 25 °C. The useful lifetime of the tubular sensor is longer than 3 months in continuous use.

The synthesis, spectroscopic characterization, and potentiometricmeasurements of new 1,3,5-trisphenoxy-2,4,6-triethylbenzenesare described. The cation binding abilities oftrisphenoxy-2,4,6-triethylbenzenes were strongly dependenton the substituents introduced on the phenoxy units: thereceptors with electron-donating alkoxy groups (–OCH3and –OCH2C6H5) provided similar potentiometricperformance to that of nonactin in PVC-based, ion-selectivemembrane electrodes. The trisphenoxy-2,4,6-triethylbenzenereceptors with ether groups on ortho and meta positions ofphenoxy units exhibit almost identical cation recognitionproperties in the PVC membranes. It is postulated that theelectron-donating nature of the alkoxy substituents increases theelectron density in the phenoxy units, resulting in increasedcation-π interactions.

A series of ionophores for ammonium ion-selective electrodes was designed and synthesized, and their characteristics were examined. The design of the ionophores is based on two different strategies: (1) introduction of bulky blocking subunits (decalino groups) in 20- or 21-membered crown ethers (TD20C6 and TD21C6), the ring size of which is expected to be suitable for selective NH4+ recognition, as compared to the slightly smaller K+; and (2) preorganized tripodal ionophores based on a 6-fold substituted benzene ring in order to complementarily recognize the tetrahedral NH4+, in contrast to the spherical K+. Compared to nonactin, a natural product that is used as a representative NH4+ ionophore, the newly developed TD20C6 showed higher NH4+ selectivity over K+ while retaining the selectivity over Na+ (log = −1.5 and log = −2.5). On the other hand, a tripodal ionophore with pyrazole nitrogen atoms as NH4+ binding sites showed high NH4+/K+ selectivity but suffered from increased Ca2+ interference (log = −2...

Plasticised poly(vinyl chloride) optode membrane incorporated with nonactin as ionophore, ETH 5294 as H+-selective chromoionophore and potassium tetrakis(4-chlorophenyl)borate as anionic site, was used as a reversible sensing device for indirect determination of nicotine. Nicotine was extracted from cigarette samples and converted to its bromoethane derivative (ND+Br−) by reacting with a solution of bromoethane in ethanol. ND+Br−, in a solution of Tris (hydroxymethyl)aminomethane–HCl buffer, was extracted into the bulk of the optode membrane and subsequently caused changes in optical absorption of the sensing layer. The pH effect, response mechanisms, response behaviour, response time, dynamic working range, detection limit, sensitivity and selectivity were discussed in detail.

Nonactin is a macrotetrolide antibiotic produced by Streptomyces griseus subsp. griseus ETH A7796 that has shown activity against the P170-glycoprotein efflux pump associated with multiple drug resistant cancer cells. Nonactin is a polyketide, albeit a highly atypical one. The structure is composed of two units of each of the enantiomers of nonactic acid, arranged in a macrocycle, so that the molecule has S4 symmetry and is achiral. The monomer units, (+)- and (-)-nonactic acid, are derived from acetate, succinate, and propionate, although the exact details of the assembly process are quite unclear. We have used feeding experiments with a series of multiple stable isotope labeled precursors to elucidate the details of the first committed step of nonactic acid biosynthesis. We have found that the (13)C label from 3-ketoadipate is incorporated specifically into both nonactic acid and its homologue, homononactic acid. The data conclusively show that the first committed step of nonactin biosynthesis is the coupling of a succinate derivative with either acetate or malonate. The differentiation into either nonactate or homononactate occurs after the initial condensation; the homologues are not derived from use of a different "starter unit" by the nonactate polyketide synthase. The first step of nonactin biosynthesis involves achiral intermediates; differentiation between the known enantiocomplementary biosynthesis pathways to form each enantiomer of the precursor monomer units likely occurs after the initial condensation reaction.

The development of potentiometric biosensors for creatinine based on creatinine iminohydrolase (E.C. 3.5.4.21) immobilized on chitosan membranes coupled to a nonactin based ammonium ion selective electrode is described. The response characteristics of three types of biosensors with the enzyme immobilized by three different procedures were evaluated. The biosensors with better response characteristics were obtained by coupling the ammonium ion selective electrodes to chitosan membranes with the enzyme immobilized by adsorption. The linear response range of these biosensors to creatinine was 10(-4) to 10(-2) M, the response time was between 30 and 60 s, they showed an operational lifetime of 44 days and the slope of the response to creatinine in the first day varied between 50 and 52 mV decade-1. An array of six potentiometric sensors, constituted by two creatinine biosensors and four ion selective electrodes for potassium, sodium, ammonium and calcium was calibrated and a multivariate model based on PLS1 for the response to creatinine was obtained and validated. The array was used for the analysis of creatinine in urine samples and the results were compared with the results of a clinical analysis laboratory, based on the Jaffé reaction.

Plastoquinol oxidation and proton transfer by the cytochrome b(6) f complex on the lumen side of the chloroplast thylakoid membrane are mediated by high and low potential electron transport chains. The rate constant for reduction, k(bred), of cytochrome b(6) in the low potential chain at ambient pH 7.5-8 was twice that, k(fred), of cytochrome f in the high potential chain, as previously reported. k(bred) and k(fred) have a similar pH dependence in the presence of nigericin/nonactin, decreasing by factors of 2.5 and 4, respectively, from pH 8 to an ambient pH = 6, close to the lumen pH under conditions of steady-state photosynthesis. A substantial kinetic isotope effect, k(H2O)/k(D2O), was found over the pH range 6-8 for the reduction of cytochromes b(6) and f, and for the electrochromic band shift associated with charge transfer across the b(6)f complex, showing that isotope exchange affects the pK values linked to rate-limiting steps of proton transfer. The kinetic isotope effect, k(bred)(H2O)/k(bred) (D2O) approximately 3, for reduction of cytochrome b in the low potential chain was approximately constant from pH 6-8. However, the isotope effect for reduction of cytochrome f in the high potential chain undergoes a pH-dependent transition below pH 6.5 and increased 2-fold in the physiological region of the lumen pH, pH 5.7-6.3, where k(fred)(H2O)/k(fred)(D2O) approximately 4. It is proposed that a rate-limiting step for proton transfer in the high potential chain resides in the conserved, buried, and extended water chain of cytochrome f, which provides the exit port for transfer of the second proton derived from p-side quinol oxidation and a "dielectric well" for charge balance.

A variety of neutral carrier type ionophores for monovalent cations were employed to prepare solid-state cation-selective electrodes (SSEs) for use as a detector in single-column ion chromatography (IC). The polyurethane-based pseudoreference electrode made it possible to assemble an array type SSE detector for IC. An SSE-based detector provides not only the overall chromatogram for the separated ion species (monensin methyl ester-nonactin-based membrane), but also the enhanced chromatogram for specified ions of interest (valinomycin as K+ and nonactin for NH4+). This feature makes it possible to perform highly quantitative analysis with low detection limits even if the separation efficiency of the ion-exchange is not sufficient. Since SSE-based IC detectors are easily miniaturized and replaceable at low cost, they are an ideal component of a portable IC system.

Annexins are proteins that bind lipids in the presence of calcium. Though multiple functions have been proposed for annexins, there is no general agreement on what annexins do or how they do it. We have used the well-studied conductance probes nonactin, alamethicin, and tetraphenylborate to investigate how annexins alter the functional properties of planar lipid bilayers. We found that annexin XII reduces the nonactin-induced conductance to approximately 30% of its original value. Both negative lipid and approximately 30 microM Ca(2+) are required for the conductance reduction. The mutant annexin XIIs, E105K and E105K/K68A, do not reduce the nonactin conductance even though both bind to the membrane just as wild-type does. Thus, subtle changes in the interaction of annexins with the membrane seem to be important. Annexin V also reduces nonactin conductance in nearly the same manner as annexin XII. Pronase in the absence of annexin had no effect on the nonactin conductance. But when added to the side of the bilayer opposite that to which annexin was added, pronase increased the nonactin-induced conductance toward its pre-annexin value. Annexins also dramatically alter the conductance induced by a radically different probe, alamethicin. When added to the same side of the bilayer as alamethicin, annexin has virtually no effect, but when added trans to the alamethicin, annexin dramatically reduces the asymmetry of the I-V curve and greatly slows the kinetics of one branch of the curve without altering those of the other. Annexin also reduces the rate at which the hydrophobic anion, tetraphenylborate, crosses the bilayer. These results suggest that annexin greatly reduces the ability of small molecules to cross the membrane without altering the surface potential and that at least some fraction of the active annexin is accessible to pronase digestion from the opposite side of the membrane.

A novel ammonium ionophore, which exhibits superior NH4+ selectivity compared with that of the natural antibiotic nonactin, was successfully designed and synthesized based on a 19-membered crown compound (TD19C6) having three decalino subunits in the macrocyclic system. This bulky decalino subunit is effective for (1) increasing the structural rigidity of the cyclic compound, (2) introducing the "block-wall effect", which prevents forming a complex with a large ion, and (3) increasing the lipophilicity of the ionophore molecule. In the ammonium ionophore design, the first factor contributes to increasing the NH4+ selectivity relative to smaller ions such as Li+, Na+, or even the closest size, K+, and the second factor increases the NH4+ selectivity over larger ions such as Rb+ and Cs+. The X-ray structural analysis proved that TD19C6 forms a size-fit complexwith NH4+ in its crown ring cavity. As an application of this ionophore, an ion sensor (ion-selective electrode) was prepared, which exhibited NH4+ to K+ and Na+ selectivity of 10 and 3,000 times, respectively. This electrode showed a better performance compared to the electrode based on nonactin, which is the only ammonium ionophore presently used in practical applications.

The study of ammonium (NH4 +) transport across plant cell membranes requires accurate measurement of NH4 + gradients across subcellular gradients. We have developed an ammonium-selective microelectrode based on the ionophore nonactin. This electrode can detect NH4 + activities (aNH4) in vivo in the millimolar range in the presence of cytosolic levels of potassium, the main interfering ion. The electrode was used to measure intracellular aNH4 in internodal cells of the giant alga Chara corallina. Results from cells incubated in media supplemented with 1 mM NH4 + produced two populations, with means of 7.3 and 30.8 mM, respectively. HPLC analysis of vacuolar sap suggests the higher population represents vacuolar impalements, and the lower population can thus be assumed to be cytosolic. These results suggest a four-fold accumulation of NH4 + in the vacuolar compartment of Chara.

An optical urea biosensor was developed by immobilizing an urease enzyme layer on a thin ammonium-selective polymer membrane. The ammonium optical membrane utilized dichlorofluorescein octadecyl ester (DCFOE) as anionic chromophore and nonactin as neutral ionophore. The urease layer was coated on the top of the ammonium layer by gelatin entrapment combined with glutaradehyde cross-linking. Hydrolysis of urea catalyzed by urease produced ammonium ion, which was extracted into the-polymer film to form complexes with nonactin. A proton was released which resulted in a color change of the optical membrane due to charge neutrality principle. The biosensor

An ion-selective electrode (ISE) based on receptor 1 is highly selective for binding NH(4)(+) over K(+) (lg K(NH(4)(+)/K(+))=-2.6); the three imine nitrogen atoms in 1 are ideally positioned for hydrogen bonding with the tetrahedral NH(4)(+) ion. This selectivity is considerably greater than that found for commercial ISEs based on nonactin (lg K(NH(4)(+)/K(+))=-1.0).

A urea biosensor prepared by covalent binding of urease directly to the surface of an ammonium-sensitive field effect transistor (FET) is described. Nonactin incorporated in carboxylated polyvinyl chloride was used to obtain the sensitive membrane of the ammonium-sensitive FET. The grafting of urease on the polyvinylchloride-COOH membrane surface was performed through carbodiimide coupling. The activity of the immobilized enzyme was spectrometrically controlled through the time-dependent disappearance of the absorbance of NADH at 340 nm. An apparent activity of 50% was found, compared with free enzyme. The sensitivity of the urea enzyme FET is 50 mV/pUrea working in a differential mode of 2 muM to 1 mM, this sensitivity being constant during 15 days. Finally, in order to test the potentialities of the urea biosensor for the environmental applications, the detection of heavy metal ions such as Cu(II) and Hg(II) in solution was performed by measuring the remaining activity of the inhibited enzyme.

Nonactin is the parent compound of a group of ionophore antibiotics, known as the macrotetrolides, produced by Streptomyces griseus subsp. griseus ETH A7796. Nonactin is a significant compound because of its inhibitory effects on the P170 glycoprotein-mediated efflux of chemotherapeutic agents in multiple-drug-resistant cancer cells. Nonactin is also significant in that it is a highly atypical polyketide. Very little is presently known about the genes of the nonactin biosynthesis cluster. In this paper we describe our efforts to establish a connection between the product of a gene from the nonactin biosynthesis cluster and a known biochemical transformation in nonactin biosynthesis. Nonactate synthase is the enzyme which catalyzes the formation of nonactic acid from an acyclic precursor in nonactin biosynthesis. We have synthesized the substrate for this enzyme and have detected the in vitro cyclization activity of the substrate in cell-free preparations of S. griseus subsp. griseus ETH A7796. Previous studies by R. Plater and J. A. Robinson (Gene 112:117–122, 1992) had suggested, based on sequence homology, that the product of a partial open reading frame found close to the tetranactin resistance gene of S. griseus could be the nonactate synthase. We have therefore cloned, sequenced, and heterologously expressed this full gene ( nonS ), and we have shown that the gene product, NonS, does indeed catalyze the formation of the furan ring of nonactic acid as hypothesized.

A flow injection set-up based on potentiometric detection and gas diffusion device for the determination of total nitrogen in food is described. The detection system consisted of two ammonium-sensitive electrodes placed sequentially and each alternately operating as reference electrode. Tubular electrodes without an inner reference solution were prepared with a PVC membrane composed of nonactin in Tris (2-ethylhexyl) phosphate and potassium tetrakis (4-chlorophenyl) borate to reduce the membrane resistance. The food sample digests were inserted into the system, and the ammonium present was converted into ammonia gas. The gas diffused through a gas-permeable membrane to a buffer acceptor stream with a pH that ensured transformation to the ammonium cation, which was potentiometrically detected. Good agreement between FIA results and those provided by the reference procedure was obtained, with relative deviation errors below 5%. Using the proposed system, low reagent consumption is possible, a sampling rate of about 30 samples/h was achieved, as well as a good reproducibility for consecutive injections of the same sample (variation coefficient < 2%).