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Chronic supplementation with β-alanine has been shown to increase intramuscular concentrations of carnosine resulting in increased muscle buffering capacity. The ergogenic potential of β-alanine has been widely demonstrated across some exercise intensities, durations and modalities, particularly those limited by muscle acidosis (i.e., high-intensity exercise between 1 and 7 min in duration). Although the effects of training on muscle carnosine are yet to be fully investigated, evidence exists to suggest that supplementation with β-alanine alongside a structured training program may result in enhanced adaptations and additive improvements in exercise performance. Furthermore, several studies have demonstrated the beneficial effects of increased intracellular and extracellular buffering capacity through cosupplementation with sodium bicarbonate. Interestingly, it has been shown that β-alanine supplementation can improve exercise performance to a similar extent in both trained and nontrained individuals, meaning β-alanine can be used as an ergogenic aid for high-intensity exercise regardless of training status. Thus, β-alanine can be considered an appropriate nutritional aid to attenuate fatigue during high-intensity exercise.

As usual, the alphabet throws together a mixture of supplements with different levels of popularity and scientific support. Part 20 covers some rarely reported, studied and/or little used supplements in sport: glycine, histidine and inosine. The majority of human studies of supplementation with the essential amino acid histidine has involved clinical work. In terms of athletic performance, there is current interest in supplementation strategies to increase muscle content of the histidine-containing dipeptide (HCD), carnosine. Despite some interest in the use of a chicken breast extract (CBEX) described in this article, most of the focus in this area involves β-alanine supplementation (covered in part 5). There was some interest in inosine as an ergogenic aid in the 1990s but it appears not to have been studied since then. Meanwhile, there appears little role for glycine supplementation in sport although some interest in glycine-containing compounds is possible. β-Hydroxymethyl β-butyrate (HMB) is much more well known, with marketing usually targeting bodybuilders. ### K Currell Glycine is the smallest amino acid; it is non-essential and can be synthesised from serine. Glycine is present in most proteins and is particularly highly concentrated in collagen. Consequently, one of the highest food sources of glycine is gelatin. Glycine is also one of the three amino acid components of glutathione, which is a key component of the body's defences against oxidative stress; however, it is thought that glycine availability is not the limiting step in glutathione synthesis. Glycine ingestion increases plasma concentrations of insulin in a similar way to other amino acids.1 Glycine is also an inhibitory neurotransmitter. There is little research on supplementation with glycine. Research has looked at its potential role in decreasing inflammation.2 Sport specific research has focused on combining glycine with other nutrients. Glycine-propionyl-L-carnitine (GPLC) has been shown to influence exercise performance,3 decrease oxidative …

The primary purpose of this investigation was to compare the recovery of the W′ to the recovery of intramuscular substrates and metabolites using 31P- and 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Ten healthy recreationally trained subjects were tested to determine critical power (CP) and W′ for single-leg-extensor exercise. They subsequently exercised in the bore of a 1.5-T MRI scanner at a supra-CP work rate. Following exhaustion, the subjects rested in place for 1, 2, 5 or 7 min, and then repeated the effort. The temporal course of W′ recovery was estimated, which was then compared to the recovery of creatine phosphate [PCr], pH, carnosine content, and to the output of a novel derivation of the W′ BAL model. W′ recovery closely correlated with the predictions of the novel model (r = 0.97, p = 0.03). [PCr] recovered faster $$\left( {t \frac{ 1}{ 2}\;{ = }\; 3 8 {\text{s}}} \right)$$ than W′ $$\left( {t\frac{ 1}{ 2}\;{ = }\; 2 3 2 {\text{s}}} \right)$$ The W′ available for the second exercise bout was directly correlated with the difference between [PCr] at the beginning of the work bout and [PCr] at exhaustion (r = 0.99, p = 0.005). Nonlinear regression revealed an inverse curvilinear relationship between carnosine concentration and the W′ t 1/2 (r 2 = 0.55). The kinetics of W′ recovery in single-leg-extensor exercise is comparable to that observed in whole-body exercise, suggesting a conserved mechanism. The extent to which the recovery of the W′ can be directly attributed to the recovery of [PCr] is unclear. The relationship of the W′ to muscle carnosine content suggests novel future avenues of investigation.

Carnosine was first discovered in skeletal muscle, where its concentration is higher than in any other tissue. This, along with an understanding of its role as an intracellular pH buffer has made it a dipeptide of interest for the athletic population with its potential to increase high-intensity exercise performance and capacity. The ability to increase muscle carnosine levels via β-alanine supplementation has spawned a new area of research into its use as an ergogenic aid. The current evidence base relating to the use of β-alanine as an ergogenic aid is reviewed here, alongside our current thoughts on the potential mechanism(s) to support any effect. There is also some emerging evidence for a potential therapeutic role for carnosine, with this potential being, at least theoretically, shown in ageing, neurological diseases, diabetes and cancer. The currently available evidence to support this potential therapeutic role is also reviewed here, as are the potential limitations of its use for these purposes, which mainly focusses on issues surrounding carnosine bioavailability.

Despite the large variety of so-called ergogenic supplements used by the sporting community, only few of them are effectively supported by scientific proof. One of the recent evidence-based supplements that entered the market is β-alanine. β-Alanine is the rate-limiting precursor for the synthesis of the dipeptide carnosine (β-alanyl-L-histidine) in human muscle. The chronic daily ingestion of β-alanine can markedly elevate muscle carnosine content, which results in improved exercise capacity, especially in sports that include high-intensity exercise episodes. The use of β-alanine is exponentially growing in recent years. This chapter aims to (1) discuss the scientific basis and physiological background of β-alanine and its synthesis product carnosine, and (2) translate these scientific findings to practical applications in sports.

Background We examined the effect of four weeks of β-alanine supplementation on isometric endurance of the knee extensors at 45% maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC). Methods Thirteen males (age 23 ± 6 y; height 1.80 ± 0.05 m; body mass 81.0 ± 10.5 kg), matched for pre-supplementation isometric endurance, were allocated to either a placebo (n = 6) or β-alanine (n = 7; 6.4 g·d-1 over 4 weeks) supplementation group. Participants completed an isometric knee extension test (IKET) to fatigue, at an intensity of 45% MVIC, before and after supplementation. In addition, two habituation tests were completed in the week prior to the pre-supplementation test and a further practice test was completed in the week prior to the post-supplementation test. MVIC force, IKET hold-time, and impulse generated were recorded. Results IKET hold-time increased by 9.7 ± 9.4 s (13.2%) and impulse by 3.7 ± 1.3 kN·s-1 (13.9%) following β-alanine supplementation. These changes were significantly greater than those in the placebo group (IKET: t(11) = 2.9, p ≤0.05; impulse: t(11) = 3.1, p ≤ 0.05). There were no significant changes in MVIC force in either group. Conclusion Four weeks of β-alanine supplementation at 6.4 g·d-1 improved endurance capacity of the knee extensors at 45% MVIC, which most likely results from improved pH regulation within the muscle cell as a result of elevated muscle carnosine levels.

The objective of the present study was to compare carnosine levels in tissues of broilers under stress conditions with those of broilers under nonstress conditions. Blood heterophil:lymphocyte ratio and corticosterone levels were measured as indicators of the level of stress. Corticosterone levels of stressed broilers (24,358.67 pg/mL) were 10-fold higher (P = 0.002) than those of nonstressed broilers (2,275.46 pg/mL). However, no difference (P = 0.29) was found in heterophil:lymphocyte ratio of nonstressed (0.29) and stressed (0.31) birds. Carnosine content in breast of stressed birds (17.39 mg/g) was 10 times higher (P = 0.005) than that of nonstressed birds (1.85 mg/g). Carnosine content in thigh of stressed birds (21.25 mg/g) was approximately 2-fold higher (P = 0.001) than that of nonstressed birds (11.10 mg/g). Carnosine content in brain of stressed birds did not differ (P = 0.82) from that of nonstressed birds. Based on the present study, muscle carnosine recovery levels increase during short-term stress, whereas levels in the brain are not affected.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of beta-alanine supplementation on exercise capacity and the muscle carnosine content in elderly subjects. Eighteen healthy elderly subjects (60–80 years, 10 female and 4 male) were randomly assigned to receive either beta-alanine (BA, n = 12) or placebo (PL, n = 6) for 12 weeks. The BA group received 3.2 g of beta-alanine per day (2 × 800 mg sustained-release Carnosyn™ tablets, given 2 times per day). The PL group received 2 × (2 × 800 mg) of a matched placebo. At baseline (PRE) and after 12 weeks (POST-12) of supplementation, assessments were made of the muscle carnosine content, anaerobic exercise capacity, muscle function, quality of life, physical activity and food intake. A significant increase in the muscle carnosine content of the gastrocnemius muscle was shown in the BA group (+85.4%) when compared with the PL group (+7.2%) (p = 0.004; ES: 1.21). The time-to-exhaustion in the constant-load submaximal test (i.e., TLIM) was significantly improved (p = 0.05; ES: 1.71) in the BA group (+36.5%) versus the PL group (+8.6%). Similarly, time-to-exhaustion in the incremental test was also significantly increased (p = 0.04; ES 1.03) following beta-alanine supplementation (+12.2%) when compared with placebo (+0.1%). Significant positive correlations were also shown between the relative change in the muscle carnosine content and the relative change in the time-to-exhaustion in the TLIM test (r = 0.62; p = 0.01) and in the incremental test (r = 0.48; p = 0.02). In summary, the current data indicate for the first time, that beta-alanine supplementation is effective in increasing the muscle carnosine content in healthy elderly subjects, with subsequent improvement in their exercise capacity.

Muscle Carnosine (M-Carn) synthesis is limited by the availability of ?-Alanine ( ?-Ala) but can be increased by supplementation with ?-Ala. This is of interest to athletes since increased levels o...

This study examined the effects of 28 days of beta-alanine supplementation on the physical working capacity at fatigue threshold (PWCFT), ventilatory threshold (VT), maximal oxygen consumption (VO2-MAX), and time-to-exhaustion (TTE) in women. Twenty-two women (age+/-SD 27.4+/-6.1 yrs) participated and were randomly assigned to either the beta-alanine (CarnoSyn) or Placebo (PL) group. Before (pre) and after (post) the supplementation period, participants performed a continuous, incremental cycle ergometry test to exhaustion to determine the PWCFT, VT, VO2-MAX, and TTE. There was a 13.9, 12.6 and 2.5% increase (p0.05) in VT, PWCFT, and TTE, respectively, for the beta-alanine group, with no changes in the PL (p0.05). There were no changes for VO2-MAX (p0.05) in either group. Results of this study indicate that beta-alanine supplementation delays the onset of neuromuscular fatigue (PWCFT) and the ventilatory threshold (VT) at submaximal workloads, and increase in TTE during maximal cycle ergometry performance. However, beta-alanine supplementation did not affect maximal aerobic power (VO2-MAX). In conclusion, beta-alanine supplementation appears to improve submaximal cycle ergometry performance and TTE in young women, perhaps as a result of an increased buffering capacity due to elevated muscle carnosine concentrations.

Carnosine (Carn) occurs in high concentrations in muscle where it contributes to H+ buffering. The aim was to investigate the effect of a commercial supplement containing, per serving, 1.6g β-alani...

1. Muscle samples from the M. gluteus medius were obtained from six Quarter Horses (QH), six Thoroughbreds (TB), and five Standardbreds (SB) to determine carnosine values and fiber type percentages. 2. Muscle biopsies were for fiber type percentages and carnosine concentration. 3. QH had a lower percentage of slow twitch oxidative fibers and a higher percentage of past twitch glycolytic fibers than SB or TB. 4. Fast twitch oxidative-glycolytic fibers were lowest in the QH. 5. The QH had mean carnosine values significantly greater (P less than 0.01) than the mean values for SB and TB. 6. Across breeds muscle carnosine concentration was positively correlated (P less than 0.05; r = 0.53) with fast twitch glycolytic fiber percentage and negatively correlated (P less than 0.05, r = -0.51) with fast twitch oxidative fiber percentage. 7. Free intramuscular carnosine is believed to function as an intracellular buffer. Since carnosine was highest in the muscle of horses with the greatest percentage of fast twitch glycolytic fibers, these data are consistent with the proposed function of this dipeptide.

1. 1. Muscle biopsies were collected from 85 thoroughbred horses and analysed for carnosine content by an automated HPLC method. 2. 2. No significant sex difference was found between colts, geldings and fillies. 3. 3. There was a trend towards lower muscle carnosine contents with age, which was only significant between 1-year-old untrained horses and 4+ year-old horses ( P

The in vitro deproteinized vastus lateralis muscle buffer capacity, carnosine, and histidine levels were examined in 20 men from 4 distinct populations (5 sprinters, 800-m runners; 5 rowers; 5 marathoners; 5 untrained). Needle biopsies were obtained at rest from the vastus lateralis muscle. The buffer capacity was determined in deproteinized homogenates by repeatedly titrating supernatant extracts over the pH range of 7.0–6.0 with 0.01 N HCl. Carnosine and histidine levels were determined on an amino acid AutoAnalyzer. Fast-twitch fiber percentage was determined by staining intensity of myosin adenosinetriphosphatase. High-intensity running performance was assessed on an inclined treadmill run to fatigue (20% incline; 3.5 m X s-1). Significantly (P less than 0.01) elevated buffer capacities, carnosine levels, and high-intensity running performances were demonstrated by the sprinters and rowers, but no significant differences existed between these variables for the marathoners vs. untrained subjects. Low but significant (P less than 0.05) interrelationships were demonstrated between buffer capacity, carnosine levels, and fast-twitch fiber composition. These findings indicate that the sprinters and rowers possess elevated buffering capabilities and carnosine levels compared with marathon runners and untrained subjects.

Rat brain levels of histidine, carnosine, and homocarnosine were determined after intraperitoneal injection of chlorpromazine (CPZ), sodium pentobarbital (PB), or reserpine (RSP). At the same time, rat muscle levels of histidine, carnosine, and anserine were determined. RSP, CPZ, and PB significantly lowered brain homocarnosine levels and RSP raised histidine levels. RSP, CPZ, and PB significantly lowered levels of muscle carnosine and anserine. PB and CPZ also lowered levels of muscle histidine.