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In the form of four W’s: Why? Where? When? and Who?, this chapter describes some of the institutional issues related to ocean and coastal planning. It covers why special or unique approaches are needed, what areas (locations) are included in the coastal zone and make up the different maritime zones. A brief history of how coastal and ocean planning and management has developed is presented, and lastly, the chapter gives examples of international, national and sub-federal entities involved in planning for oceans and coasts. With these emphases, the chapter provides a foundation for further study of environmental planning for oceans and coasts.

Much literature has been published in the past decade on marine spatial planning (MSP), a fact which speaks to its evolution as an accepted means for managing activities within maritime boundaries. This chapter defines MSP, gives a brief history of its development, articulates some of its major challenges and reviews literature on the topic – in particular, tools for incorporating an ecosystem approach in the planning process. Three MSP case studies are presented from the US, Portugal and Germany. It is clear from these examples that MSP is a necessary approach that is increasingly engaging planning professionals and is, to a large extent, still evolving.

This chapter introduces the ecosystem services (ES) approach as it pertains to marine and coastal environments. It starts with a description of the approach’s development, relates the approach to coastal and marine environments and ends on a somewhat critical note. Despite a great amount of attention to the ES approach in conservation literature and its pivotal position in the field of ecology, it struggles to achieve universal and transdisciplinary appeal. This chapter discusses some of the challenges of using ES in planning decisions and of building consensus around ES, and explores the application of this approach across different land and seascape units. ES assessment still requires much research and practical work; finding ways to incorporate ES values into the work of planners in the marine and coastal environment is perhaps as important as it is challenging.

Responding to climate change effects requires increasing awareness on the part of environmental planners, especially by those working in marine and coastal environments where such effects are keenly felt. This chapter covers the implications of climate change for planning, mostly as hazards expected to occur along coasts. The chapter also briefly mentions other types of hazards, not directly related to climate change, such as tsunamis. Mitigation and adaptation are two different strategies that planners use in confronting climate change. Mitigation refers to tackling the causes. Adaptation refers to coping with consequences and is the main approach in which planners will be involved. Adaptation policies should be appropriate to the context, guiding planners towards the achievement of multiple objectives, some of which need to be achieved regardless of the impacts of climate change.

This chapter discusses communication tools that can be used by planners working on oceans and coasts. Such tools can make it easier for stakeholders to examine their own medium and long-term futures, and to envision what is often virtually inaccessible. As such, they can help planners cross the science-policy divide. Myriad ways of presenting information are discussed in the context of environmental planning for oceans and coasts. The tools described are targeted for use with two main audiences – the public and policy makers.

This chapter discusses some of the major pollution prevention measures for ocean and coastal environments. Catastrophic events, particularly offshore oil spills, have influenced environmental protection of both oceans and coasts in many ways. Ocean pollution results both from such major events and from routine activities, both on land and at sea. Two types of marine pollution are discussed at length as examples: oil pollution from ships and litter. Programs and regulations aimed at prevention addressing these and other sources of pollution are continually developing – but the challenges are great. Marine pollution is both persistent and widespread and, as such, poses many challenges for planners.

Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) is a widely accepted approach for sustainable management of the coastal environment. ICZM emphasizes integration across sectors, levels of government, uses, stakeholders, and spatial and temporal scales. While improving integration is central to progress in ICZM, the role of and the achievement of integration remain understudied. To further study these two points, our research analyzes the performance of specific mechanisms used to support ICZM in eight countries (Belgium, India, Israel, Italy, Portugal, Sweden, UK, and Vietnam). The assessment is based on a qualitative comparative analysis conducted through the use of two surveys. It focuses on five ICZM mechanisms (environmental impact assessment; planning hierarchy; setback lines; marine spatial planning, and regulatory commission) and their role in improving integration. Our findings indicate that certain mechanisms enhance specific types of integration more effectively than others. Environmental impact assessment enhances science–policy integration and can be useful to integrate knowledge across sectors. Planning hierarchy and regulatory commissions are effective mechanisms to integrate policies across government levels, with the latter also promoting public–government integration. Setback lines can be applied to enhance integration across landscape units. Marine spatial planning is a multi-faceted mechanism with the potential to promote all types of integration. Policy-makers should adopt the mechanisms that are suited to the type of integration needed. Results of this study also contribute to evidence-based coastal management by identifying the most common impediments related to the mechanisms of integration in the eight studied countries.

Loss of land due to coastal erosion is a problem in the Mediterranean region and world-wide. Following a review of environmental justice (EJ) issues among different sectors of activity and contexts, this article describes research that examines the socio-demographic characteristics of populations destined to be effected by erosion in the city of Netanya, Israel. It also examines the availability of open space serving as an alternative to that expected to erode. Results provide a basis for which to explore the EJ implications of coastal erosion. The study finds that seashore dwellers in the case study area are generally mixed populations, not particularly strong or weak as defined herein. Also, planners and city managers have increasingly provided residents in close proximity to the shore with alternative open space. This work highlights the complexities of considering coastal erosion from a justice perspective. Although coastal erosion does not fit the typical EJ paradigm, the use of this analytical approach in the future at appropriate temporal and spatial intervals is recommended.

This study examined interactions between targeted fish populations, aspects of the fishing industry and land use changes along two ports in New England. By tracking changes in land uses over a two-decade period using parcel level data and geographic information system (GIS) tools, we examined the relationship of changes in species biomass, landings and other fishing industry variables to community spatial change. Using logistic regression models we assessed the impacts on essential infrastructure for continued fishing industry activity. Our findings have implications for land use policy that should accompany efforts being made to rehabilitate fish stocks; it should ensure that current marine infrastructure will remain in place to support the fishing industry if and when species rebound. Our models show that in New Bedford Harbor, the larger of the two ports, increasing scallop biomass (considered a long-term factor) is associated with the increase of marine-related land uses. In Provincetown Harbor, short-term factors, such as value and volume of fish landings as well as stock sizes, influence land use change. These findings suggest that the smaller port (Provincetown) is more vulnerable to market conditions and therefore in need of greater land use controls to prevent the conversion of marine-related uses. We propose some directions for further research and present the methodology used as one that can be applied to research questions of a similar nature.

The development of renewable energy as a major component of efforts to combat climate change serves as the impetus for the location of energy production facilities in coastal ocean space. Yet, while many coastal nations see offshore renewable energy development as an important way forward, the speed and manner in which these efforts take shape vary dramatically. This paper assesses the role of coastal nations’ domestic legal and policy frameworks in the siting of offshore renewable energy facilities in areas under federal jurisdiction. It focuses on two nations—Germany and the United States. Both have articulated their interest in renewable offshore energy, but while Germany has approved many offshore sites, recent US proposals have for the most part stalled. Based on a review of legal and policy documents, laws and regulations, academic literature, and interviews, this research identifies and compares factors that figure most prominently for the development of offshore renewable energy policies. Comparisons are organized under four categories: the regulatory framework, the public's role in siting, targeted economic mechanisms, and indirect mechanisms. The paper concludes with observations about prominent supports and impediments and suggestions for further research.

A major challenge in gauging long-term and cumulative impacts of fisheries management on coastal fishing communities is the lack of understanding of the interactions between changes in fish stocks and waterfront land uses. This study examines these interactions in the New Bedford/Fairhaven area using parcel-level data and geographic information system (GIS) tools. Logistic regression models were used to assess the impact of changes in marine resource abundance on waterfront land uses. Although land use decisions are influenced by many complex market and regulatory factors, our study detected a significant relationship between fish stock conditions and coastal land uses.

Public participation in decision-making about development has many benefits especially in the coastal zone and in the near-shore marine environment. This research expands the discussion of public involvement in decisions about marine resource use by examining public participation in environmental impact assessment as relevant for offshore renewable energy facilities. A review of empirical and theoretical research supports the development of a framework for further analysis. The framework consists of five main features: (1) effective communication, (2) broad-based inclusion, (3) prioritization, (4) early three-way learning, and (5) alternatives analysis. The paper's concluding sections explore the relevance of such a framework and indicate possible applications.

Many policymakers conclude that marine conservation strategies are limited when compared to land protection tools. Limitations are described as resulting from institutional differences between land and sea resources such as the lack of private ownership in the sea, and differences in physical characteristics such as the fluid nature of marine resources. Despite these differences, some trends in land protection are relevant for marine protection, such as the increased role of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). This article examines how marine protection strategies develop from an NGO's terrestrial experience. I researched marine conservation tools used by three land trusts and point out limitations and opportunities related to their use. Tools these organizations have adapted from their land protection experience are management partnerships, acquisition, strategic planning, zoning, and database development. The extent to which these organizations use previous land experience for marine conservation may ...

In marine protected areas (MPAs), zoning schemes can help balance multiple resource uses. Literature on ocean zoning design methods points out the need for analytical tools that guarantee stakeholder involvement and that address the unique spatial characteristics of the sea, especially under multiple jurisdictions. I illustrate the use of a method of spatial multi-criteria analysis (MCA) that combines data of the land and ocean environment with stakeholder preferences to identify areas most suitable for varying levels of protective zoning. To solicit preferences, I apply social science survey techniques at an early stage in the process. I synthesize the resulting preferences with physical data using a geographical information system. This comprehensive approach addresses some of the challenges of designing zoning for a cross-border, multi-jurisdictional MPA such as varying levels of information between countries, limited cooperation between managers and scientists, differing statutory regimes, and difficulties bringing stakeholders together to solicit their opinions. As a case study, I developed a zoning proposal for the Red Sea Marine Peace Park (RSMPP), a proposed MPA to be jointly managed by Jordan and Israel in the northern Gulf of Aqaba.

This article examines a form of regulatory capture that occurs when significant ambiguity exists regarding the environmental protection standards for new types of activities in the marine environment. To begin with, there is little research that categorizes the typologies of regulatory capture despite the ubiquity of the phenomenon. After a discussion of theoretical approaches to regulatory capture, I describe the operative definition and theory appropriate to the situation related to authorization of oil and natural gas production in Israel following the discovery of large offshore reserves in 2010. This approach, embodying several facets of existing typologies, is applied to decisions made authorizing construction of the Gabriella offshore exploratory drilling platform. The analysis highlights the nature of capture in the absence of clear agency jurisdiction over new activities located in offshore environs organized as temporal and spatial “vacuums”. I conclude that comprehensive marine spatial planning would result in less capture and the development of more capture-resistant regulations.

The Massachusetts Waterways Regulation Program (WRP) regulates the use of tidelands throughout the state's 1500 miles of coastline. The main goals of the program are the protection of public access and the promotion of water-dependent uses on tidelands. Although many states throughout the USA have similar regulations, the Massachusetts program is the oldest and one of the most developed. Despite its essential purpose, the long history of its enabling statute and extensive regulations, the WRP faces some obstacles, including an implementation deficit. Evolutionary and functional problems impact its effectiveness and are aggravated by the need to maintain costly compliance and enforcement efforts in the face of limited fiscal resources. This paper summarizes a research effort aimed at characterizing current challenges. The framework for discussion of the WRP challenges and case analysis draws on policy development studies and implementation research. Ways to strengthen the program are outlined that...

This article examines a form of regulatory capture that occurs when significant ambiguity exists regarding the environmental protection standards for new types of activities in the marine environment. To begin with, there is little research that categorizes the typologies of regulatory capture despite the ubiquity of the phenomenon. After a discussion of theoretical approaches to regulatory capture, I describe the operative definition and theory appropriate to the situation related to authorization of oil and natural gas production in Israel following the discovery of large offshore reserves in 2010. This approach, embodying several facets of existing typologies, is applied to decisions made authorizing construction of the Gabriella offshore exploratory drilling platform. The analysis highlights the nature of capture in the absence of clear agency jurisdiction over new activities located in offshore environs organized as temporal and spatial “vacuums”. I conclude that comprehensive marine spatial planning would result in less capture and the development of more capture-resistant regulations.

This paper reviews visualization tools available to environmental planners and managers working on ocean and coastal environments. The practice of visualization involves making and manipulating images that convey novel phenomena and ideas. First I describe visualization within the context of visual environmental communication, an emerging and rapidly evolving discipline. A review of the literature on visualization is provided and a typology of cartographic visualization and scene simulation is proposed. Ways to make visualizations relevant for work with the public and policy makers is discussed. While significant progress has been made in the area of visualization for climate change with much of it focusing on coastal impacts, little attention has been given to visualizing the marine environment within the framework of visualization studies. More technical work on integrating maps and scenes is needed for planning and management of ocean and coasts, including research on advanced GIS methods for decision-making and virtual reality.

Man’s ability to exploit marine resources has improved in recent decades and as expected, efforts of exploitation have intensified. To avoid conflicts and support ecosystem-based principles, determination of pro-active marine policy based on an understanding of current and future uses of the marine environment is essential. This chapter highlights major uses of the marine and near shore environment of Israel. I relate trends in marine uses in this part of the Mediterranean Sea to corresponding past policy developments in coastal and near-shore management. Current policies fail to address new and increasing uses, especially those that are exclusively marine and/or beyond the country’s territorial waters. The lack of marine policy in Israel is particularly worrisome when one considers the value of the country’s offshore resources and the pressures on its terrestrial resources. Approaches such as marine ecosystem based management, integrated coastal zone management and mechanisms for the pro-active mediation of develop and conservation interests, such as marine spatial planning, are discussed in terms of their potential contribution for the management of evolving and emerging uses of the sea.

Ecosystem services (ES) and ecosystem services assessment (ESA) have become common parlance in the environmental field. Scientists, policy-makers and activists have promoted the ES approach as a means of conveying the extent of threats to natural ecosystems with the goal of crafting socially acceptable and effective policy to address ecological threats and biodiversity conservation. Yet there are some significant challenges to wide acceptance of the ES approach which hinder its absorption into the mainstream geography literature. This paper reviews the historical development of the ES approach focusing on its relevance to applied geography at different stages of its development, describes the present state-of-the-art of ES, and synthesizes the results from several seminal papers and reports. I posit that there are two major stumbling blocks: 1) the difficulty of simplifying complexities between services so that statutory planning processes can incorporate the approach, and 2) the lack of cross-landscape assessment methods and examples. If we focus on the most immediately surmountable challenges to the ES approach much progress could be made in a short time. The subsequent and final substantive section of this review summaries these challenges and offers some suggestions for moving forward.

7 pages, 1 figure, Twenty leading scientists in the field of marine conservation planning attended the first international workshop on conservation planning in the Mediterranean Sea. This globally significant biodiversity hotspot has been subjected to human exploitation and degradation for 1,000s of years. Recently, several initiatives have tried to identify priority areas for conservation across the Mediterranean Sea. However, none of these efforts have led to large-scale actions yet. The aim of the workshop was to establish a network of scientists who are involved in large-scale conservation planning initiatives throughout the Mediterranean basin to promote collaboration and reduce redundancy in conservation initiatives. The three focus groups of the workshop build on existing efforts and intend to deliver: (1) a roadmap for setting conservation priorities, (2) a methodological framework for linking threats, actions and costs to improve the prioritization process, and (3) a systematic conservation planning process tailored to complex environments such as the Mediterranean Sea. Joining forces and involving more scientists (especially from the South-eastern part of the region) in following meetings, the participants endeavour to provide guidelines on how to bridge the science-policy gap and hence aid decision-makers to take efficient conservation actions, Sylvaine Giakoumi was supported by the project ‘‘NETMED’’ co-financed by the European Union and the Greek State

Integrated coastal zone management )ICZM) is a widely accepted approach for sustainable management of the coastal environment. ICZM emphasizes integration across sectors, levels of government, uses, stakeholders, and spatial and temporal scales. While improving integration is central to progress in ICZM, the role of some types of integration remains understudied. To further understand the concept of integration, our research analyzes the performance of specific mechanisms used to support ICZM in eight countries (Belgium, India, Israel, Italy, Portugal, Sweden, UK, and Vietnam). The assessment is based on a qualitative comparative analysis conducted through two surveys. It focuses on five ICZM mechanisms (environmental impact assessment; planning hierarchy; setback lines; marine spatial planning, and regulatory commission) and their role in improving integration. Our findings indicate that certain mechanisms enhance specific types of integration more effectively than others. Environmental impact assessment is especially suitable to enhance science-policy integration and can be useful to integrate knowledge across sectors. Planning hierarchy and regulatory commissions are effective mechanisms to integrate policies across government levels, with the latter also promoting public-government integration. Setback lines can be applied to enhance integration across landscape units. Marine spatial planning is a multi-faceted mechanism able to promote all types of integration. Therefore, policy-makers should adopt the mechanisms that are more adequate to support the required type of integration. Results of this study also contribute to evidence-based coastal management by identifying the most common impediments limiting integration in the eight studied countries.

Portman, M. E. 2011. Marine spatial planning: achieving and evaluating integration. – ICES Journal of Marine Science, 68: 2191–2200. Coastal states and nations are conducting marine spatial planning (MSP) at an ever-increasing pace. Some MSP efforts are aimed at planning areas at a subnational level, whereas others extend as far as 200 nautical miles from shore, within national exclusive economic zones. For planning of all types, but especially for planning in the marine realm, integration has become a sought-after norm now that traditional sectoral, single-issue management has not succeeded. Fisheries collapse, threats to marine biodiversity, and global climate change all support the case for greater integration in marine resource management and policy. The designation of boundaries can be related to the level of cross-sector and cross-jurisdictional integration achieved by MSP. The importance of scale and scope for MSP initiatives is examined, relating these aspects of plans and/or programmes to the levels of integration achieved, and a framework is suggested for evaluation. MSP initiatives in Portugal, the UK, and the USA serve as potential case studies for use of the framework.

Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM) addresses the interconnections, complexities, and conflicts between many users of the coastal area with different goals. It requires setting managerial boundaries that capture many elements of human and natural systems. Experience teaches us that without a directed effort managerial rules and laws are not likely to coincide with the physical sensitivity of units that reflect different environmental characteristics of the coastal zone. Hence the aim of this study is to explore why coastal managerial boundaries are set arbitrarily and whether and how it is possible to address the problems this poses. We examine what influences the decisions of a new coastal management authority in Israel to determine how this body overcomes the limits of arbitrary boundary demarcation. The study found that real life management succeeded to both address areas outside the arbitrary boundaries and also to respect some of the different socio-economic needs and physical constraints of the coastal sub-units. Israel's Coastal Environment Protection Law allows and, in fact, encourages the regulator to use discretion and to employ various criteria to balance development and conservation. This implies that policy makers are cognizant of a need to balance ecologically-sensitive boundaries that consider the homogeneity of the coast with politically feasible boundaries that are set arbitrarily.

This paper compares the U.S. and German approaches to offshore wind farm development. It addresses how each country's legal and regulatory principles and institutional mechanisms support or impede the siting and development of renewable energy in the Exclusive Economic Zone. Overall the German approach can be characterized as cautious, but committed, while a lack of public support at the federal level has characterized the U.S. approach in recent years.

The Policy Forum “Legal bedrock for rebuilding America's ocean ecosystems” (M. Turnipseed et al. , 10 April, p. [183][1]) brings much-needed attention to ocean policy reform. The authors address the problem of too many agencies having management authority with little overall coordination. The authors' focus on the public trust doctrine as a solution seems misplaced, however. Most of the agencies managing resources in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) already work under a public-benefit mandate. The problem is that these agencies do not coordinate or integrate their work. It is unclear how the extension of the public trust doctrine out to the EEZ through executive order, legislation, or judicial interpretation would lead to more integrated management. Before we introduce new laws and regulatory bodies or give existing agencies further mandates, we must research the success (or failure) of existing legislation that aims to protect the public trust. I worked for 8 years implementing the Massachusetts regulatory program that administers the state's Public Waterfront Act of 1866. The Act protects the public's right in tidelands for “fishing, fowling, and navigating” and draws its legal basis from the public trust doctrine ([ 1 ][2]). Many properties within the jurisdiction of this program are not in compliance. The problem is not the lack of a legal basis but rather the limited resources allocated for compliance and enforcement with the law's mandate ([ 2 ][3]). To jump-start integrated management in the EEZ, we need much more than legislative, judicial, or executive backing of fundamental principles. We need regulatory mechanisms that have been proven to be effective in other comparable contexts, as well as recognition of the regional benefits of the wise use of the sea. 1. [↵][4]Massachusetts General Law (MGL), Chapter 91, The Massachusetts Public Waterfront Act \[codified at 310 CMR 9.01(2)(a) and 310 CMR 9.02\] (2008). 2. [↵][5]1. M. E. Portman , J. Env. Pol. Plan. 8, 293 (2006). [OpenUrl][6][CrossRef][7] [1]: /lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1170889 [2]: #ref-1 [3]: #ref-2 [4]: #xref-ref-1-1 "View reference 1 in text" [5]: #xref-ref-2-1 "View reference 2 in text" [6]: {openurl}?query=rft.jtitle%253DJ.%2BEnv.%2BPol.%2BPlan.%26rft.volume%253D8%26rft.spage%253D293%26rft_id%253Dinfo%253Adoi%252F10.1080%252F15239080601084737%26rft.genre%253Darticle%26rft_val_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Ajournal%26ctx_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ver%253DZ39.88-2004%26url_ctx_fmt%253Dinfo%253Aofi%252Ffmt%253Akev%253Amtx%253Actx [7]: /lookup/external-ref?access_num=10.1080/15239080601084737&link_type=DOI

Harpoon Into the Heart of Whaling. By Andrew Darby . Da Capo (Perseus), Cambridge, MA, 2008. 320 pp. $25, C$26.95, £14.99. ISBN 9780306816291. Paper, Allen and Unwin, Sydney, Australia, 2007. A$29.95. ISBN 9781741146110. Darby's account of commercial whaling and efforts to save decimated cetacean populations highlights anti-whaling activists and controversies swirling around the International Whaling Commission.