Search

Signed and written languages are intimately related in proficient signing readers. Here, we tested whether deaf native signing beginning readers are able to make rapid use of ongoing sign language to facilitate recognition of written words. Deaf native signing children (mean 10 years, 7 months) received prime target pairs with sign word onsets as primes and written words as targets. In a control group of hearing children (matched in their reading abilities to the deaf children, mean 8 years, 8 months), spoken word onsets were instead used as primes. Targets (written German words) either were completions of the German signs or of the spoken word onsets. Task of the participants was to decide whether the target word was a possible German word. Sign onsets facilitated processing of written targets in deaf children similarly to spoken word onsets facilitating processing of written targets in hearing children. In both groups, priming elicited similar effects in the simultaneously recorded event related potentials (ERPs), starting as early as 200 ms after the onset of the written target. These results suggest that beginning readers can use ongoing lexical processing in their native language - be it signed or spoken - to facilitate written word recognition. We conclude that intimate interactions between sign and written language might in turn facilitate reading acquisition in deaf beginning readers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, I review the evidence on the involvement of sleep and consolidation in word learning and processing during language comprehension, focusing on implications for theory. The theoretical basis for the review is a complementary systems account of word learning involving flexible (hippocampal) and stable (cortical) pathways to lexical knowledge. I argue that the accumulated data are consistent with a role for both pathways in both learning and recognition of lexical items, with sleep and consolidation supporting the transfer of recent experience between the pathways. The level of involvement of each pathway is dependent on key factors, such as consistency with prior knowledge in the case of learning, and reliance on context and/or automaticity in the case of recognition. As a consequence, the notion of a mental lexicon cannot really be restricted to just the listener's stable knowledge about words: flexible knowledge and recent experiences are also important. Furthermore, I argue that the flexible pathway plays a critical role even in the absence of new lexical items. The available evidence suggests that this pathway encodes (and potentially consolidates) recent linguistic experiences, providing potential benefits to interpretation of subsequent language and the long-term retention of knowledge. In conclusion, I propose that a dual-pathway account incorporating both flexibility and stability is necessary to explain the learning, recognition, and interpretation of words., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflicting interestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Adults heard recordings of two spatially separated speakers reading newspaper and magazine articles. They were asked to listen to one of them and ignore the other, and EEG was recorded to assess their neural processing. Machine learning extracted neural sources that tracked the target and distractor speakers at three levels: the acoustic envelope of speech (delta- and theta-band modulations), lexical frequency for individual words, and the contextual predictability of individual words estimated by GPT-4 and earlier lexical models. To provide a broader view of speech perception, half of the subjects completed a simultaneous visual task, and the listeners included both native and non-native English speakers. Distinct neural components were extracted for these levels of auditory and lexical processing, demonstrating that native English speakers had greater target-distractor separation compared with non-native English speakers on most measures, and that lexical processing was reduced by the visual task. Moreover, there was a novel interaction of lexical predictability and frequency with auditory processing; acoustic tracking was stronger for lexically harder words, suggesting that people listened harder to the acoustics when needed for lexical selection. This demonstrates that speech perception is not simply a feedforward process from acoustic processing to the lexicon. Rather, the adaptable context-sensitive processing long known to occur at a lexical level has broader consequences for perception, coupling with the acoustic tracking of individual speakers in noise., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing financial interests., (Copyright © 2024 Iverson and Song.)

Over the past few decades, research into the function of the cerebellum has expanded far beyond the motor domain. A growing number of studies are probing the role of specific cerebellar subregions, such as Crus I and Crus II, in higher-order cognitive functions including receptive language processing. In the current fMRI study, we show evidence for the cerebellum's sensitivity to variation in two well-studied psycholinguistic properties of words-lexical frequency and phonological neighborhood density-during passive, continuous listening of a podcast. To determine whether, and how, activity in the cerebellum correlates with these lexical properties, we modeled each word separately using an amplitude-modulated regressor, time-locked to the onset of each word. At the group level, significant effects of both lexical properties landed in expected cerebellar subregions: Crus I and Crus II. The BOLD signal correlated with variation in each lexical property, consistent with both language-specific and domain-general mechanisms. Activation patterns at the individual level also showed that effects of phonological neighborhood and lexical frequency landed in Crus I and Crus II as the most probable sites, though there was activation seen in other lobules (especially for frequency). Although the exact cerebellar mechanisms used during speech and language processing are not yet evident, these findings highlight the cerebellum's role in word-level processing during continuous listening., Competing Interests: Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (© 2024 Massachusetts Institute of Technology.)

The COVID-19 pandemic has altered our routines, our conversations, the specific social contexts in which we hear or use certain words, and potentially, the representation of the words related to the disease and its consequences. Here we investigated whether the effects of the pandemic have changed the representation of the affective features of COVID-19-related words. To this aim, we collected new ratings of valence (from unpleasant to pleasant) and arousal (from calm to activated) dimensions for COVID-19-related words (e.g., hospital) and COVID-19-unrelated words (e.g., whale). Subsequently, we compared these scores with those from databases that reported ratings for the same pool of words before the pandemic. Our results showed significant changes in arousal for COVID-19-related words but not unrelated words, thus revealing that the pandemic social context modified their affective representation. These findings support the flexibility of emotional representations and the malleability and dynamicity of the mental lexicon as a function of contextual factors.

Signed and written languages are intimately related in proficient signing readers. Here, we tested whether deaf native signing beginning readers are able to make rapid use of ongoing sign language to facilitate recognition of written words. Deaf native signing children (mean 10 years, 7 months) received prime target pairs with sign word onsets as primes and written words as targets. In a control group of hearing children (matched in their reading abilities to the deaf children, mean 8 years, 8 months), spoken word onsets were instead used as primes. Targets (written German words) either were completions of the German signs or of the spoken word onsets. Task of the participants was to decide whether the target word was a possible German word. Sign onsets facilitated processing of written targets in deaf children similarly to spoken word onsets facilitating processing of written targets in hearing children. In both groups, priming elicited similar effects in the simultaneously recorded event related potentials (ERPs), starting as early as 200 ms after the onset of the written target. These results suggest that beginning readers can use ongoing lexical processing in their native language – be it signed or spoken – to facilitate written word recognition. We conclude that intimate interactions between sign and written language might in turn facilitate reading acquisition in deaf beginning readers.

This study compared how distinct lexical competences, including lexical knowledge as well as processing skills at both word/lexical and sublexical/morphological levels, collectively and relatively predict reading comprehension in adult learners of English as a foreign language (EFL). The participants were 220 Arabic‐speaking EFL learners in a Saudi university. A battery of paper‐ and computer‐based tests was administered to measure the participants' lexical competences, reading comprehension ability, and working memory. Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that over and above working memory, both lexical and sublexical knowledge were significant and unique predictors of reading comprehension, and sublexical processing efficiency, as opposed to lexical processing efficiency, predicted reading comprehension significantly. In addition, among the measured lexical competences, lexical knowledge was the strongest predictor, and the two knowledge variables collectively had a far greater influence on reading comprehension than did the two processing efficiency variables. These findings are discussed in light of the lexical basis of text comprehension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study employed a quantitative correlational design to explore the correlation between the students' performances among lexical-related tasks and how these tasks affect the performance in a sentence construction task. Using IBM SPSS Statistics Version 22’s Pearson Partial Correlation Test, this study calculated participants' performance in primary lexical attributes by recognizing the following aspects of lexical knowledge: pronunciation patterns, morphological structures, syntactic properties, semantic characteristics such as abstract and interconnectedness, and a complete sentence construction in a strict naturalistic classroom setting. The test results showed that the participants made 297.05 seconds on average for 42 correct responses in Lexical Decision Task, 5.88 seconds per picture projected on the screen in Picture-Naming Task, 8.33 seconds for each word in Semantic Judgment Task, and 30.17 seconds on average to complete a sentence. These results concluded that the participants' performance in identifying strings of letters does not correlate significantly with their performance in understanding how a particular word functions grammatically within a sentence. In terms of the level of automaticity, the participants’ performance exceeded the average performance. The findings suggested that their performance in understanding primary lexical attributes in single lexicons does not facilitate their understanding of semantic characteristics. Henceforth, the students’ lexical knowledge does not yet construct an integrated linguistic representation in the target language acquisition. The study confirmed previous evidence that stated that a better performance in lexical-related tasks significantly impacted sentence processing and construction skill.

Primary progressive aphasia (PPA) is a clinical syndrome in which patients progressively lose speech and language abilities. Three variants are recognized: logopenic (lvPPA), associated with phonology and/or short-term verbal memory deficits accompanied by left temporo-parietal atrophy; semantic (svPPA), associated with semantic deficits and anterior temporal lobe (ATL) atrophy; non-fluent (nfvPPA) associated with grammar and/or speech-motor deficits and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) atrophy. Here, we set out to investigate whether the three variants of PPA can be dissociated based on error patterns in a single language task. We recruited 21 lvPPA, 28 svPPA, and 24 nfvPPA patients, together with 31 healthy controls, and analyzed their performance on an auditory noun-to-verb generation task, which requires auditory analysis of the input, access to and selection of relevant lexical and semantic knowledge, as well as preparation and execution of speech. Task accuracy differed across the three variants and controls, with lvPPA and nfvPPA having the lowest and highest accuracy, respectively. Critically, machine learning analysis of the different error types yielded above-chance classification of patients into their corresponding group. An analysis of the error types revealed clear variant-specific effects: lvPPA patients produced the highest percentage of “not-a-verb” responses and the highest number of semantically related nouns (production of baseball instead of throw to noun ball); in contrast, svPPA patients produced the highest percentage of “unrelated verb” responses and the highest number of light verbs (production of take instead of throw to noun ball). Taken together, our findings indicate that error patterns in an auditory verb generation task are associated with the breakdown of different neurocognitive mechanisms across PPA variants. Specifically, they corroborate the link between temporo-parietal regions with lexical processing, as well as ATL with semantic processes. These findings illustrate how the analysis of pattern of responses can help PPA phenotyping and heighten diagnostic sensitivity, while providing insights on the neural correlates of different components of language.

Toddlerhood is marked by advances in several lexico-semantic skills, including improvements in the size and structure of the lexicon and increased efficiency in lexical processing. This project seeks to delineate how early changes in vocabulary size and vocabulary structure support lexical processing (Experiment 1), and how these three skills together (vocabulary size. structure, and lexical processing) relate to later language outcomes at age 3 (Experiment 2), Experiment 1 explored how the size and semantic structure of toddlers' vocabulary from 18 to 24 months (N = 61) predicted performance on two lexical processing tasks (semantically related and semantically unrelated trials). Denser semantic connectivity (i.e., global level connectivity between near and far neighbors) positively associated with semantic interference during semantically related lexical processing, whereas denser category structure (i.e., lower-level connectivity between near neighbors) facilitated lexical processing in semantically unrelated trials. In Experiment 2, a subset of the same children (N = 49) returned at age 36 months and completed a comprehensive assessment of their language skills using the Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamental, Preschool 2 (CELF-P2). Here, earlier measures of lexicosemantic connectivity and lexical processing best predicted age 3 language skill. The findings support accounts that early vocabulary structure and lexical processing skills promote continued growth in language. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has demonstrated effects of both orthographic neighborhood size and neighbor frequency in word recognition in Chinese. A large neighborhood—where neighborhood size is defined by the number of words that differ from a target word by a single character—appears to facilitate word recognition, while the presence of a higher-frequency neighbor has an inhibitory effect. The present study investigated modulation of these effects by a word's predictability in context. In two eye-movement experiments, the predictability of a target word in each sentence was manipulated. Target words differed in their neighborhood size (Experiment 1) and in whether they had a higher-frequency neighbor (Experiment 2). The study replicated the previously observed effects of neighborhood size and neighbor frequency when the target word was unpredictable, but in both experiments neighborhood effects were absent when the target was predictable. These results suggest that when a word is preactivated by context, the activation of its neighbors may be diminished to such an extent that these neighbors do not effectively compete for selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We report the construction of two age-of-acquisition (AoA) norms for 3300+ characters in simplified Chinese, which make up about 99% of the texts used in daily life. We determined a character's AoA according to the time in which the character is formally learned in two sets of leading textbooks of Chinese in compulsory education, published respectively on the basis of the 2001 and 2011 national curriculum. Apart from having a significantly larger coverage of characters than previous norms, the current norms also outperformed them in explaining accuracy and reaction times in four large-scale databases for character decision, character naming, or character handwriting, even after controlling for the effects of frequency, number of meanings, and number of strokes. The explanatory advantage of the current norms suggests that, compared to earlier norms, the current norms capture more up-to-date character AoAs; these findings also highlight the diachronic nature of some lexical variables such as AoA and frequency. The developed objective AoA norms can be used for subsequent research on Chinese character recognition or production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigates individual differences in pupildilation during standard word naming. We looked at (i) howindividual subjects’ pupil size changes over the course of timeand (ii) how well pupil size is predicted by the frequency ofthe stimuli. The time course of the pupil size was analysedwith generalized additive modeling. The results show large in-dividual variations in the pupil response pattern in this verysimple task. Although, we see a pupil response to both stimu-lus onset and articulation onset and offset, both the amplitudeof change and the direction of change differ substantially be-tween subjects. This raises the question of what makes thepupil response functions so diverse, and one factor indicatedby the frequency effect or the lack thereof might be shallowreading versus reading for content.

Aims and objectives: This study aims to investigate how lexical processing (LP) is organized in early Turkish–English bilinguals and Turkish monolinguals. Methodology: We used a visual hemifield paradigm where bilingual (n = 48) and monolingual (n = 53) participants performed a lexical decision task. Bilingual participants performed the task in both their languages. Data and analysis: We recorded response times (RTs) and the accuracy rates (ARs) of the participants. An analysis of variance and t -test were run to analyze the bilingual and monolingual data, respectively. Findings: The results obtained from the analysis of the RTs and ARs for the Turkish and English words showed a balanced hemispheric organization in LP in bilingual speakers. The RTs for Turkish words in the monolingual group provided supportive evidence for the predominant role of the left hemisphere in LP. However, no significant difference was found in the accuracy of their answers, suggesting that the monolingual participants' performance was not influenced by visual field of presentation of the words. Finally, the comparison of the two groups revealed that bilingual participants' performance was inferior to monolinguals' in speed and accuracy of processing of words presented in both visual fields. This result gives further support for the differential representation of LP in monolinguals and bilinguals. Originality: The psycholinguistic literature abounds with studies of LP in bilinguals and monolinguals from a variety of language backgrounds; however, there is much less data regarding the brain correlates of LP in Turkish–English bilinguals and Turkish monolinguals. Implications: Since Turkish–English bilinguals and Turkish monolinguals are underrepresented in the literature as compared to the population who speak other languages with alphabetic writing, this study provides preliminary data for future studies. Limitations: We did not control for gender or lexical factors such as orthographic neighbors when designing the word sets used as stimuli. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This is a short report of an experiment conducted to investigate the effects of phonology-to-orthography (P-O) consistency, lexical frequency, imageability, and the number of strokes on writing-to-dictation in Chinese. Thirty-two undergraduates were tested using a writing-to-dictation task consisting of 60 Chinese characters without homophones (i.e., P-O consistent) and 60 Chinese characters with at least two homophones (i.e., P-O inconsistent), the responses of which were recorded on an Android tablet. Linear mixed-effect modelling was used to investigate the significance of the different effects on three measures—accuracy, response time (RT), and total writing time. The results indicated that imageability was significant in predicting accuracy and RT; P-O consistency was significant in predicting RT and total writing time; the number of strokes was significant in predicting accuracy and total writing time; and the lexical frequency effect was significant in predicting all three measures. In general, the results supported the dual-route account of writing-to-dictation in Chinese and confirmed that both the lexical-semantic and lexical non-semantic pathways are needed to explain writing-to-dictation in Chinese. The significance of the different effects observed in the three measures also indicated the need to include different measures when studying writing-to-dictation to better understand the time course of the writing process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lexical inferencing is an important strategy in reading comprehension and vocabulary learning, both in L2 and in L1. Focusing both on the effect of L1 lexicalization (i.e., the existence of lexical equivalents in learner’s L1 for a L2 word) and on that of learner’s cognitive investment, we are interested in the process of inferring an unknown L2 word encountered in reading and the subsequent learning of the inferred word. We observed 33 French-speaking learners of Chinese while they inferred 20 unknown Chinese words contained in two passages and examined the evolution of their lexical knowledge of these words. The results show that the L1 lexicalization is not a critical factor for French-speaking learners to understand an unknown Chinese word. However, it is more difficult for them to retain the meaning of a non-lexicalized Chinese word than a lexicalized one, in the short and long term. Moreover, a more important cognitive involvement may help a learner obtain a better grasp of an unknown word, but only of its form, not its meaning.

Accessing semantic information has negative consequences for successive recovering attempts of similar information. For instance, in the course of picture-naming tasks, the time required to name an object is determined by the total number of items from the same category that have already been named; naming latencies increase proportionally to the total number of semantically related words named previously. This phenomenon is called cumulative semantic cost (or interference). Two picture-naming experiments with children (4–11 years old, 229 participants) investigate whether having successfully named the previous within-category items is a necessary condition for the cumulative semantic cost to appear. We anticipated that younger children would have a larger rate of nonresponses compared with older children, reflecting the fact that younger children have not yet consolidated many lexical representations. Our results confirmed this prediction. Critically, we also observed that cumulative semantic cost was independent of having successfully retrieved previous within-category lexical items. Furthermore, picture trials for which the previous within-category item elicited a nonresponse showed the same amount of cost as those picture trials for which the previous within-category item elicited a correct naming event. Our findings indicate that it is the attempt to retrieve a lexical unit, and not the successful retrieval of a specific lexical unit, that causes semantic cost in picture naming. This cost can be explained by a mechanism of weakening the semantic-to-lexical mappings of semantic coordinate words. The findings are also discussed in the context of retrieval-induced forgetting effects in memory recall research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this paper was to study the cognitive processes underlying cross-dialectal novel word borrowing and loanword establishment in a Standard-Chinese-to-Shanghainese (SC-SH) auditory lexical learning and borrowing experiment. To investigate these underlying cognitive processes, SC-SH bi-dialectals were compared with SC monolectals as well as bi-dialectals of SC and other Chinese dialects (OD) to investigate the influence of short-term and long-term linguistic experience. Both comprehension and production borrowings were tested. This study found that early and proficient bi-dialectism, even if it is not directly related to the recipient dialect of lexical borrowing, has a protective effect on the ability of cross-dialectal lexical borrowing in early adulthood. Bi-dialectals tend to add separate lexical representations for incidentally encountered dialectal variants, while monolectals tend to assimilate dialectal variants to standard forms. Bi-dialectals, but not monolectals, use etymologically related morphemes between the source and recipient dialects to create nonce-borrowing compounds. Dialectal variability facilitates lexical borrowing via enriching instead of increasing the short-term lexical experience of learners. The long-term bi-dialectal experience of individuals, as well as their short-term exposure to each specific loanword, may collectively shape the route of lexical evolution of co-evolving linguistic varieties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Second language (L2) listening requires efficient processing of continuing incoming information (Vandergrift & Goh, 2012). Even so, research into individual differences in L2 listening has mostly shed light on the role of linguistic knowledge measured without time pressure (e.g., Mecarty, 2000; Wang & Treffers-Daller, 2017; cf. Vafaee & Suzuki, 2020), leaving the role of processing speed and automaticity largely unexplored. To close this gap, we explored the determinants of successful listening using three processing tasks at lexical, syntactic, and propositional levels. Participants were 44 Chinese learners of English. Response accuracy afforded measures of vocabulary size, syntactic parsing skills, and formulation of propositional meaning. Reaction times and the coefficient of variation (Segalowitz & Segalowitz, 1993) afforded processing speed and automaticity measures at each level. We found a hierarchical relationship between different levels of processing, whereby lower-level, lexical effects cascade up and are mediated by propositional comprehension in accounting for listening comprehension. The results highlight the importance of considering processing accuracy and speed at different levels of the linguistic hierarchy to explain variability among L2 listeners. Different from most previous studies, we argue for a need to consider the temporal aspects of processing, along with linguistic knowledge, in modeling L2 listening. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In an event‐related potential (ERP) study of the vowel team rule in American English ("when two vowels go walking, the first does the talking"), we used a visual lexical decision task to determine whether words that do (e.g., braid) and do not (e.g., cloud) follow the rule elicit different processing, and to determine if this extends to nonwords (e.g., braip, cloup). In 32 young adults, N1 amplitude distinguished between rule‐following and rule‐breaking items: N1 amplitude was more negative to rule‐breaking words and nonwords. In contrast, there were no significant effects of vowel team rule adherence on N400 amplitude. Behaviorally, participants responded more quickly and accurately to rule‐following words, a pattern not observed for nonwords. These findings demonstrate that adherence to the vowel team rule can be indexed by both neural and behavioral measures in fluently reading young adults. In a novel event‐related potential (ERP) exploration of the vowel team rule ("when two vowels go walking, the first does the talking"), we discovered that N1 amplitude differentiated between words and nonwords that did and did not follow the rule in young adult readers. Remarkably, a rule taught in many phonics programs—an educational mnemonic, but a poor reflection of linguistic reality—may have lingering effects on neural sublexical processing of vowel digraphs in words and nonwords. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study explored the morpheme transposition process of two-character Chinese words in the upper and lower visual fields by adopting a dual-target rapid serial visual presentation paradigm. The results showed that the identification accuracy of canonical words was better in the lower visual field, whereas the accuracy of transposed words was almost identical in the upper and lower visual fields. Furthermore, there was no significant difference between canonical and transposed words at 0°, 2°, 4°, and 6° eccentricities in the upper visual field. However, the accuracy of canonical words was markedly higher than that of transposed words at 2°, 4°, and 6° eccentricities in the lower visual field. Finally, the character order errors mainly occurred at 0°eccentricity with a duration of 100 ms in vertical visual fields. These findings, taken together, indicated that the character transposition affected the lexical process of two-character Chinese words in the lower visual field but not in the upper visual field, and the character order of words was more likely to be reversed at 0° eccentricity and the initial stage of visual word processing in vertical reading. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Models of spoken word recognition in monolingual, nativelisteners account for the dynamics of lexical activation ofintended words and their phonologically similar“competitors,” in terms of continuous, cascaded processingdynamics. Here we explore how the dynamics of spoken wordrecognition differ for second language listeners. Groups ofnative Korean speakers (KL1) and native English speakers(EL1) listened to recordings of words in three conditions:phonological overlap at the beginnings of the words (cohort),at the ends of the words (rhyme), or without phonologicaloverlap (unrelated), and used a computer mouse to select thematching stimulus from an array of two pictures. There aremany reasons to predict that KL1 participants would differfrom EL1 participants; for example, participants with nonnativespeech sound perception might strategically reduce thecontribution of anticipatory processes to avoid committing toan incorrect response and thus demonstrate smaller effects ofanticipatory competition (cohort effect). Instead, the resultsdid not reveal any interactions between language backgroundand performance across the cohort, rhyme and unrelatedconditions. Nor were effects of similarity related to overallperformance on independent tests of speech soundcategorization or vocabulary. The results suggest that thecohort and rhyme effects are robust features of proficientsecond language spoken word recognition, despitedemonstrable differences in speech sound recognition.

The objective of this paper was to study the cognitive processes underlying cross-dialectal novel word borrowing and loanword establishment in a Standard-Chinese-to-Shanghainese (SC-SH) auditory lexical learning and borrowing experiment. To investigate these underlying cognitive processes, SC-SH bi-dialectals were compared with SC monolectals as well as bi-dialectals of SC and other Chinese dialects (OD) to investigate the influence of short-term and long-term linguistic experience. Both comprehension and production borrowings were tested. This study found that early and proficient bi-dialectism, even if it is not directly related to the recipient dialect of lexical borrowing, has a protective effect on the ability of cross-dialectal lexical borrowing in early adulthood. Bi-dialectals tend to add separate lexical representations for incidentally encountered dialectal variants, while monolectals tend to assimilate dialectal variants to standard forms. Bi-dialectals, but not monolectals, use etymologically related morphemes between the source and recipient dialects to create nonce-borrowing compounds. Dialectal variability facilitates lexical borrowing via enriching instead of increasing the short-term lexical experience of learners. The long-term bi-dialectal experience of individuals, as well as their short-term exposure to each specific loanword, may collectively shape the route of lexical evolution of co-evolving linguistic varieties.

Native English speakers do not show masked priming effects in lexical decision when a prime word is related to its target purely on the basis of orthographic form (e.g., pillow-PILL, protest-PROTECT). There is strong evidence, however, that non-native English speakers do show such form priming. This paper explores the possible cognitive mechanisms behind this difference between native and non-native speakers. Taft and Li (2020) found that only non-native speakers (with Chinese as their first language) showed priming when the nonword prime ended in the same embedded word as the word target (e.g., plerough-THOROUGH), but a newly reported experiment goes on to show priming for native speakers as well when the shared letter-combination is not itself a word (e.g., celtoise-TORTOISE). This contrast in results leads to the interpretation that native speakers have a specific mechanism for activating embedded words that is important when recognizing polymorphemic words through their stems. It is suggested that non-native speakers, or at least those with Chinese as their first language, do not engage or are slow in engaging such a mechanism. The form priming that they demonstrate arises from facilitated processing of the repeated letters rather than the pre-activation of a lexical representation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High-Variability Phonetic Training (HVPT) has been shown to be effective in improving the perception of the hardest non-native sounds. However, it remains unclear whether such training can enhance phonological processing at the lexical level. The present study tested whether HVPT also improves word recognition. Late French learners of English completed eight online sessions of HVPT on the perception of English word-initial /h/. This sound does not exist in French and has been shown to cause difficulty both at the prelexical (Mah, Goad & Steinhauer, 2016) and the lexical level of processing (Melnik & Peperkamp, 2019). In pretest and posttest participants were administered a prelexical identification task and a lexical decision task. Results demonstrate that after training the learners' accuracy improved in both tasks. Moreover, these improvements were retained four months after posttest. This is the first evidence that short training can enhance not only prelexical perception, but also word recognition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lexical tones are widely believed to be a formidable learning challenge for adult speakers of nontonal languages. While difficulties—as well as rapid improvements—are well documented for beginning second language (L2) learners, research with more advanced learners is needed to understand how tone perception difficulties impact word recognition once learners have a substantial vocabulary. The present study narrows in on difficulties suggested in previous work, which found a dissociation in advanced L2 learners between highly accurate tone identification and largely inaccurate lexical decision for tone words. We investigate a "best-case scenario" for advanced L2 tone word processing by testing performance in nearly ideal listening conditions—with words spoken clearly and in isolation. Under such conditions, do learners still have difficulty in lexical decision for tone words? If so, is it driven by the quality of lexical representations or by L2 processing routines? Advanced L2 and native Chinese listeners made lexical decisions while an electroencephalogram was recorded. Nonwords had a first syllable with either a vowel or tone that differed from that of a common disyllabic word. As a group, L2 learners performed less accurately when tones were manipulated than when vowels were manipulated. Subsequent analyses showed that this was the case even in the subset of items for which learners showed correct and confident tone identification in an offline written vocabulary test. Event-related potential results indicated N400 effects for both nonword conditions in L1, but only vowel N400 effects in L2, with tone responses intermediate between those of real words and vowel nonwords. These results are evidence of the persistent difficulty most L2 learners have in using tones for online word recognition, and indicate it is driven by a confluence of factors related to both L2 lexical representations and processing routines. We suggest that this tone nonword difficulty has real-world implications for learners: It may result in many toneless word representations in their mental lexicons, and is likely to affect the efficiency with which they can learn new tone words. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To explore how processing lexicality may change with aging and in the presence of Alzheimer's disease (AD), we conducted two experiments investigating lexicality judgements using an on-line behavioural psycholinguistic methodology and electrophysiological/event-related potential (ERP) methods; oddball lexical decision tasks. Results from these lexical decision tasks showed that while those with AD show similar rates of accuracy for their lexical decision as compared older adults (OA), they are particularly slowed when making judgements for pseudowords. Our results from the ERP tasks also showed that the two groups behaved differently with regard to elicitation of the P3 ERP response, which indicates differences in how these two groups form lexical categories. The pattern of ERP responses suggests that older adults are sensitive to the orthography/phonology of the stimuli during the course of lexical processing as compared to participants with AD who show less sensitivity to orthographic/phonological cues. Additionally, the ERP P3 amplitude results suggest further linguistically related differences between healthy older adults and those with AD, and highlight the importance and usefulness of combining behavioural psycholinguistic and ERP methodologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many models of lexical and semantic processing, it is assumed that single word processing is a function of the characteristics of the words presented and the distributional properties of the words’ networks. Recent research suggests that semantic characteristics of a target word’s associates may in fact influence target-word responses in lexical-semantic tasks. The present study extends that previous research to examine whether lexical and semantic properties of target-word associates are recruited during lexical and semantic decision tasks, and whether the type of associate information recruited varies as a function of task and concreteness of the target word. We found that lexical-semantic properties of words’ first associates are related to accuracy of responses to words in lexical decision, and that semantic properties of words’ first associates are related to both response time and accuracy in semantic decision. Further, these effects differ depending on the target word’s concreteness. These findings provide new insight about the way words’ associates contribute to semantic representation and processing, even though the associates are not actually presented, moving beyond previous assumptions about lexical-semantic processing of single words. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To date, research on wordform learning biases has mostly focused on language-dependent factors, such as the phonotactics and neighborhood density of the language(s) known by the learner. Domain-general biases, by contrast, have received little attention. In this study, we focus on one such bias—an advantage for string-internal repetitions—and examine its effects on wordform learning. Importantly, we consider whether any type of segmental repetition is equally beneficial for word recall, or whether learning is favored more or only by repeated consonants, in line with previous research indicating that consonants play a larger role than vowels in lexical processing. In Experiment 1, adult English speakers learned artificial consonant-vowel-consonant-vowel words containing either a repeated consonant (e.g., /sesu/, “c-rep”), a repeated vowel (e.g., /sepe/, “v-rep”), or dissimilar consonants and vowels (e.g., /sepu/, “no-rep”). Recall results showed no advantage for v-reps but higher accuracy for c-reps compared with no-reps. In Experiment 2, participants performed a label preference task with the same stimuli. The results showed dispreference for both c-reps and v-reps relative to no-reps, indicating that the results of Experiment 1 are independent of wordlikeness effects. These outcomes reveal that there is a form-learning bias for words with identical consonants but not for words with identical vowels, suggesting that a domain-general advantage for repetitions within strings is modulated by a language-specific processing bias for consonants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lexical knowledge is complex, multidimensional, and difficult to pin down to a set of defined components. The development, organization, and use of lexical knowledge in the first and additional languages are studied in a number of neighbouring disciplines beyond second language acquisition and applied linguistics, including psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, computational linguistics, and language education. In this introduction, we highlight how the five articles in this special issue hone our understanding of different aspects of second language (L2) lexical knowledge, its acquisition, and use by adopting innovative research design, methods, and approaches to data collection and analysis from these distinct but related disciplines, affording new theoretical and empirical insights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent research on the acoustic realization of affixes has revealed differences between phonologically homophonous affixes, e.g. the different kinds of final [s] and [z] in English (Plag, Homann & Kunter 2017, Zimmermann 2016a). Such results are unexpected and unaccounted for in widely accepted post-Bloomfieldian item-and-arrangement models (Hockett 1954), which separate lexical and post-lexical phonology, and in models which interpret phonetic effects as consequences of different prosodic structure. This paper demonstrates that the differences in duration of English final S as a function of the morphological function it expresses (non-morphemic, plural, third person singular, genitive, genitive plural, cliticized has, and cliticized is) can be approximated by considering the support for these morphological functions from the words' sublexical and collocational properties. We estimated this support using naïve discriminative learning and replicated previous results for English vowels (Tucker, Sims & Baayen 2019), indicating that segment duration is lengthened under higher functional certainty but shortened under functional uncertainty. We discuss the implications of these results, obtained with a wide learning network that eschews representations for morphemes and exponents, for models in theoretical morphology as well as for models of lexical processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Substantial research has examined cognition in aging bilinguals. However, less work has investigated the effects of aging on language itself in bilingualism. In this article I comprehensively review prior research on this topic, and interpret the evidence in light of current theories of aging and theories of bilingualism. First, aging indeed appears to affect bilinguals' language performance, though there is considerable variability in the trajectory across adulthood (declines, age-invariance, and improvements) and in the extent to which these trajectories resemble those found in monolinguals. I argue that these age effects are likely explained by the key opposing forces of increasing experience and cognitive declines in aging. Second, consistent with some theoretical work on bilingual language processing, the grammatical processing mechanisms do not seem to change between younger and older bilingual adults, even after decades of immersion. I conclude by discussing how future research can further advance the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Extensive studies have been conducted on the impact of foreign language reading anxiety on reading, primarily focusing on pedagogy and behavior but lacking electrophysiological evidence. The current study aimed to investigate the influence of foreign language reading anxiety on reading and its underlying mechanisms. The results revealed a negative correlation between foreign language reading anxiety and foreign language reading performance, irrespective of the native language. Adults with low levels of foreign language reading anxiety (LFLRA) demonstrated a significant difference in early lexical component N170 amplitude between foreign and native languages. However, this effect was not observed in adults with high levels of foreign language reading anxiety (HFLRA). In terms of N170 latency, HFLRA showed a longer N170 for the foreign language compared to the native language. Furthermore, the N170 effects were predominantly localized over the left occipitotemporal electrodes. Regarding N400 latency, a significant difference was found in LFLRA individuals between foreign and native language processing, while HFLRA individuals did not exhibit this difference. These findings suggest that HFLRA individuals experience inefficient lexical processing (such as orthography or semantics) during reading in foreign language., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (© 2024 The Author(s).)

Sense Identification is a newly proposed task; in considering a pair of terms to assess their conceptual similarity, human raters are postulated to preliminarily select a sense pair. Senses involved in this pair are those actually subject to similarity rating. The sense identification task is searching for the sense selected during the similarity rating. The sense individuation task is important to investigate strategies and sense inventories underlying human lexical access and, moreover, it is a relevant complement to the semantic similarity task. Individuating which senses are involved in the similarity rating is also crucial in order to fully assess those ratings: if we have no idea of which two senses were retrieved, on which base can we assess the score expressing their semantic proximity?The Sense Identification Dataset (SID) dataset has been built to provide a common experimental ground to systems and approaches dealing with the sense identification task. It is the first dataset specifically designed for experimenting on the mentioned task. The SID dataset was created by manually annotating with sense identifiers the term pairs from an existing dataset, the SemEval-2017 Task 2 English dataset. The original dataset was originally conceived for experimenting on the semantic similarity task, and it contains a score expressing the human similarity rating for each term pair. For each such term pair we added a pair of annotated senses: in particular, senses were annotated such that they are compatible (explicative of) with the existing similarity ratings. The SID dataset contains BabelNet sense identifiers. This sense inventory is a broadly adopted ‘naming convention’ for word senses, and such identifiers can be easily mapped onto further resources such as WordNet and WikiData, thereby enabling further processing tasks and usages in the Natural Language Processing pipeline.

In the current study, the effects of orthographic and phonological processing in Chinese character copying were investigated using a data set extracted from a database containing handwriting data of 856 stimuli; the responses of which were collected from 100 participants. To investigate the effect of character frequency, radical frequency, and phonetic regularity, 151 phonetic compounds were selected from the database because (1) their corresponding phonetic radicals were all free-standing characters, (2) their corresponding phonetic radicals were located at either the right or the bottom positions in the characters, and (3) no more than 10% of the participants made errors when copying these target characters. The results of the linear mixed effect models revealed that after controlling for inter-stroke distance (ISD) and stroke number, the inter-stroke intervals (ISIs) at the radical and logographeme boundaries were significantly longer, indicating significant orthographic processing in the immediate copying task that radicals and logographemes were used as writing units. In addition, shorter ISIs at the logographeme boundary associated with higher radical frequency, and shorter ISIs at the radical boundary associated with higher character frequency and regular characters, were observed. These observations indicated significant orthographic and phonological effects in the immediate copying task. Finally, the significant phonetic regularity effect observed also supported the notion that phonology contributes to Chinese character writing and that the effects of central processing, including character frequency and phonetic regularity, cascade over peripheral processing during Chinese character copying.

Insights on the neurocognitive particularities of expert individuals have benefited from language studies on professional simultaneous interpreters (PSIs). Accruing research indicates that behavioral advantages in this population are restricted to those skills that are directly taxed during professional practice (e.g., translation as opposed to reading), but little is known about the neural signatures of such selective effects. To illuminate the issue, we recruited 17 PSIs and 15 non-interpreter bilinguals and compared behavioral and electrophysiological markers of word reading and translation from and into their native and non-native languages (L1 and L2, respectively). PSIs exhibited greater delta-theta (1–8 ​Hz) power across all tasks over varying topographies, but these were accompanied by faster performance only in the case of translation conditions. Moreover, neural differences in PSIs were most marked for L2-L1 translation (the dominant interpreting direction in their market), which exhibited maximally widespread modulations that selectively correlated with behavioral outcomes. Taken together, our results suggest that interpreting experience involves distinct neural signatures across reading and translation mechanisms, but that these are systematically related with processing efficiency only in domains that face elevated demands during everyday practice (i.e., L2-L1 translation). These findings can inform models of simultaneous interpreting, in particular, and expert cognitive processing, in general.

The current study replicated and extended the results from a study conducted by Narayan, Mak, and Bialystok (2017) that found effects of top‐down linguistic information on a speaker discrimination task by examining four conditions: rhymes (day‐bay), compounds (day‐dream), reverse compounds (dream‐day), and unrelated words (day‐bee). The original study found that participants were more likely to judge two words to be spoken by the same speaker if the words cohered lexically (created lexical compounds such as day‐dream) or were phonologically related (rhymes, such as day‐bay), but their study contained two limitations: (a) Same‐ and different‐speaker trials were analyzed separately, which obscures effects of response bias, and (b) cross‐gender pairs were used in the different‐speaker trials, potentially inflating performance. The current study addresses these limitations by including only within‐gender trials and by examining sensitivity and bias using signal detection theory. Our results not only provide support of the original study but also provide clear evidence that listeners are biased to judge two words as being produced by the same person when they share either phonological information (rhymes) or lexical‐semantic coherence (compounds). Thus, the current study provides an important modified replication of previous research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the effect of stress change during compound processing in Modern Greek. Twenty-five native speakers were tested in a cross-modal lexical decision task and a naming task in order to test for performance differences across stress-change vs. non-stress-change compounds. No statistically significant difference was found for the lexical decision task. However, the naming task showed a significant effect of stress change in compound processing, with the production of non-stress-change compounds showing facilitation. These results indicate that stress change is reflected in compound processing in Greek and underscore the importance of considering the interplay between specific tasks and the computational role of linguistic features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study analyzed lexical processing efficiency in Spanish-speaking English language learners (ELLs) and their monolingual English-speaking peers from kindergarten through second grade. Specifically, changes in the patterns of speed and accuracy on a rapid object-naming task were evaluated across languages for the ELL children and across the groups of children. Repeated measures analysis of variance demonstrated that ELL children have a rapid shift in language processing efficiency from Spanish to English by the end of kindergarten. Results also showed that by the end of kindergarten ELL children were slightly faster and more accurate in English compared with their monolingual peers. This work provides perspective on how lexical processing is impacted by the development of a dual lexical system. We discuss how lexical density, strength of lexical connections, and environmental constraints may influence this rapid shift in lexical processing efficiency for young Spanish-speaking ELL children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jargon aphasia is a language disorder characterised by phonological and nonword error. Errors are thought to arise when target segments are insufficiently activated, allowing non-target or recently used phonology to intrude. Words which are more frequent and familiar reside with greater degrees of activation and therefore should be less susceptible to error. The current study tested this hypothesis in a group of 10 people with Jargon aphasia using single word repetition and reading aloud. Each task had two lexicality conditions, one high and one low lexical availability word set. Measures of nonword quantity, phonological accuracy and perseveration were used in group and case series analyses. Results demonstrated that fewer nonwords were produced when lexical availability was greater. However, lexicality effects on phonological accuracy and perseveration were only observed in repetition in a sub-group of moderately impaired individuals, demonstrating that lexical information does not consistently influence phonological processing in Jargon aphasia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent evidence suggests that during the first year of life, a preference for consonant information during lexical processing (consonant bias) emerges, at least for some languages like French. Our study investigated the factors involved in this emergence as well as the developmental consequences for variation in consonant bias emergence. In a series of experiments, we measured 5‐, 8‐, and 11‐month‐old French‐learning infants orientation times to a consonant or vowel mispronunciation of their own name, which is one of the few word forms familiar to infants at this young age. Both 5‐ and 8‐month‐olds oriented longer to vowel mispronunciations, but 11‐month‐olds showed a different pattern, initially orienting longer to consonant mispronunciations. We interpret these results as further evidence of an initial vowel bias, with consonant bias emergence by 11 months. Neither acoustic‐phonetic nor lexical factors predicted preferences in 8‐ and 11‐month‐olds. Finally, counter to our predictions, a vowel bias at the time of test for 11‐month‐olds was related to later productive vocabulary outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated which components of the writing production process are impaired in Spanish children with developmental dyslexia (DD) aged 8 to 12 years. Children with and without dyslexia (n = 60) were assessed in their use of the lexical and the sublexical routes of spelling as well as the orthographic working memory system by manipulating lexical frequency, phonology-to-orthography (P-O) consistency, and word length in a copying task and a spelling-to-dictation task. Results revealed that children with dyslexia produced longer written latencies than chronological age-matched (CA) controls, more errors than CA and reading age-matched (RA) controls, and writing durations similar to CA controls. Latencies were more affected by frequency, consistency, and length in the DD group and the RA group than in CA controls. Children in the DD and RA groups produced longer written latencies in the copying than in the spelling-to-dictation task, while controls in the CA group were not affected by the task. Results indicate that spelling impairments in Spanish children with dyslexia affect the relative involvement of lexical and sublexical information during handwriting. Meanwhile, effects on writing speed seem to be related to deficits in reading ability, and accuracy scores seem to be poorer than expected by children's reading skill. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]