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This project explores the impacts of emojis on students' impressions when used in a course welcome email. We adopt a 4 × 3 factorial design to determine how different emojis (i.e., , ,) impact students' impressions of credibility, immediacy, and liking. Data from students (N = 368) indicates emoji choice does impact impressions. Consistently, instructors' emoji use resulted in decreased perceived competence and trustworthiness but increased perceived caring, immediacy, and liking. Findings have implications for instructors who engage in technologically-mediated out-of-class communication and want to strengthen early student-instructor relationships. Limitations and future directions are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-grapefruits with unique sensory properties and potential health benefits provide added value to fruit wine production. This study aimed to explore consumers' fruit wine preferences and descriptors for the varied fruit wines. First, 234 consumers participated in an online survey concerning their preferences for different wines (grape, blueberry, hawthorn, goji, Rosa roxburghii, and apricot). In addition, their attitudes towards general health interests, food neophobia, alcoholic drinks, and sweetness were collected. Grape wine and blueberry wine were the most favored wines, and goji wine was the least liked fruit wine sample. Moreover, 89 consumers were invited to evaluate 10 commercial fruit wines by using partial projective mapping based on appearance, aroma, and flavor (including taste and mouthfeel) to obtain a comprehensive sensory characterization. Multifactor analysis results showed that consumers could differentiate the fruit wines. Participants preferred fruit wines with "sweet", "sour", and "balanced fragrance", whereas "bitter", "astringent", "deep appearance", and "medicinal fragrance" were not preferred. Attitudes toward health, food neophobia, alcohol, and sweetness had less influence than taste and aroma (sensory attributes) on the preferences for fruit wine products. More frequent self-reported wine usage resulted in higher consumption frequency and liking ratings compared to non-users. Overall, the main factors influencing consumer preference for fruit wines were the sensory characteristics of the products, especially the taste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When meeting other people for the first time, how should one behave in order to be liked? We investigated the effects of agentic and communal behaviors on two forms of being liked: popularity (being generally liked by others) and unique liking (being uniquely liked by specific interaction partners). In a round-robin study, 139 unacquainted German adults had dyadic conversations and provided liking ratings afterward. The conversations were recorded on video, and four agentic behaviors (leading, dominant, confident, boastful) and four communal behaviors (polite, benevolent, warm, friendly) were each rated by trained observers. Participants who generally showed agentic and communal behavior were also generally liked (popularity). When participants' level of communal, but not agentic, behavior exceeded their personal standards during an interaction, they were particularly well-liked by the respective interaction partner (unique liking). The behavioral predictors of being liked thus differ, depending on whether one focuses on popularity or unique liking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: The vegan food market is one of the fastest growing markets worldwide for ethical, environmental, and health reasons. However, vegan food is still relatively unfamiliar to Korean consumers. Their liking for vegan burger patties is in the early phase of development; thus, it is necessary to place the patties in an appropriate context or 'frame'. RESULTS: We investigated consumer (n = 269) liking for vegan patty under different frame conditions. The implicit frame condition was manipulated by evaluating a target sample along with four other vegan or meat samples. Consumers were further divided into two explicit groups that were exposed to or not exposed to a video clip on ethical food consumption before evaluating the samples. A control group evaluated the target sample only. The results showed that the implicit frame formed during the sample evaluation had a stronger influence than the explicit frame created by the video clip. Perceived familiarity with the target vegan patty drastically decreased when evaluated with other meat samples and negatively influenced the liking for it. CONCLUSION: The findings show that the type of samples evaluated sequentially together with the target vegan burger patty within the same session had a greater effect on the target sample than the information provided explicitly. To introduce the target vegan burger patty effectively to consumers who are relatively new to the vegan food product category such as Koreans, it is suggested that the product should be positioned under the category of vegan foods rather than the category of conventional burger patties. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Altered reward processing is thought to characterize binge‐type eating disorders, but the exact nature of these alterations is unclear. A more fine‐grained understanding of whether specific aspects of reward processing contribute to the development or maintenance of binge eating may point to new therapeutic targets and personalized treatments. The incentive sensitization theory of addiction proposes that repeated use of a substance increases the desire to approach a reward ('wanting') but not pleasure when consuming the reward ('liking'), suggesting that reward processes driving addiction change over time. We hypothesize that the same may be true for binge eating. Further, consistent with the maladaptive scaling hypothesis, reward processing may be heightened for multiple reinforcers in at‐risk individuals but become tuned toward food once binge eating is initiated. In this article, we propose a mechanistic staging model of reward processing in binge‐type eating disorders that synthesizes existing data and posits that alterations of reward processing depend on illness stage and reward type. We outline translational methods for testing key hypotheses and discuss clinical implications. Considering reward processing alterations in relation to illness stage has the potential to improve treatment outcomes by ensuring that the mechanisms targeted are personalized to the individual patient. Public Significance: Individuals with binge‐type eating disorders experience alterations in their desire for, and pleasure from, food. We believe that the exact nature of these alterations in reward processing change over the course of illness—from the at‐risk state to an established illness. If true, treatments for binge‐type eating disorders that target reward processing should be personalized to the illness stage of the patient. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Drawing upon the newsworthiness model that posits that media outlets rely on criteria (news values) to determine which stories are newsworthy and deserve prominence and the media coverage predicts audience attention to the event, this study examines the news values that lead social media users to like, comment on, and share mainstream news stories on Facebook. A content analysis of 2480 articles from three major news newspapers in South Korea (Chosun, Hankook and Hankyoreh) found that news stories of higher social significance are more common than news stories of higher deviance on the Facebook pages of the three news outlets. Although audiences comment on news stories of higher social significance more frequently than stories of higher deviance, they hit more 'likes' on news stories of higher deviance. The results are mixed for sharing – for the conservative Chosun 's Facebook page, stories of higher deviance were more often shared than stories of higher social significance, while the opposite pattern occurred with the moderate Hankook and liberal Hankyoreh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of seafood in supporting transitions towards more sustainable and healthier diets is often overlooked. Oysters, for example, are a nutrient dense aquatic food whose production requires no feed, freshwater, or land use. However, oyster consumption in Sweden is limited, possibly in part due to being traditionally served raw. This study investigated consumer acceptance of oysters when cooked and prepared to resemble familiar foods and examined whether food neophobia (FN) was related to liking. Four oyster-based samples (raw oyster, oyster crepe, oyster burger, and oyster soup) were evaluated in an ecologically valid setting. Participants (N=102; convenience sampling) rated the samples in terms of hedonics (expected liking and liking after tasting), described which aspects of the samples were liked/disliked, and reported the contexts in which oyster consumption is perceived as appropriate. The findings suggest that FN was negatively associated with expected liking of raw oysters, but not with expected liking for cooked oyster-based products that were cooked to resemble familiar foods. On the other hand, familiarity with oysters was positively associated with expected liking of raw oysters. This suggests that expanding oyster preparations beyond its traditional raw format could be a valuable strategy to promote oyster consumption in Sweden.

Reliance on animal foods must be reduced to improve planetary and human well-being. This research studied plant-based cheese alternatives (PBCA) relative to dairy cheese in a consumer taste test with 157 consumers in New Zealand. A case study approach used cream cheese (commercially available) as the focal product category (2 PBCA, 2 dairy) and implemented a multi-response paradigm (hedonic, sensory, emotional, conceptual, situational). “Beyond liking” insights were established, including drivers of liking (sensory, non-sensory) and sensory drivers of non-sensory product associations. Two consumer segments were identified, of which the largest (n = 111) liked PBCA and dairy samples equally (6.5–6.7 of 9). In this PBCA Likers cluster, the key sensory drivers of liking were ‘creamy/smooth mouthfeel’, ‘dissolves quickly in mouth’, and ‘sweet’, while a significant penalty was associated with ‘mild/bland flavour’. The non-sensory data contributed additional consumer insights, including the four samples being perceived as differently appropriate for 9 of 12 use situations, with PBCA being regarded as less appropriate. In the limited confines of this case on cream cheese, the findings show that PBCA need not be inferior to their dairy counterparts despite a general narrative to the contrary. Of note, the results were obtained among participants who were open to eating a more PB diet but were not vegetarian or vegan.

The present research introduces the minimal deviation effect. We propose that numbers that are slightly above a numerical category boundary (e.g. 1,001 in comparison to 1,000), representing a salient violation of coherent numerical categories, are arousal-inducing, and that the heightened arousal can be misattributed to the incentive value of the focal product, thus increasing consumers' wanting but not liking. Results from nine experiments provide converging evidence to support our proposition. Specifically, we show that consumers are more likely to choose and willing to pay more for products associated with a number with minimal deviation from a categorical border, regardless of whether the number represents product quantity, brand name, or model series. Moreover, we find that the minimal deviation effect diminishes when people are already aroused or when they attribute the arousal to other sources. Finally, we demonstrate that the effect can be reversed when minimal deviation is embedded in certain attribute dimensions (e.g. price), shedding more light on the circumstances under which the minimal deviation effect will occur. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Trichotillomania (TTM; hair-pulling disorder) is characterized by an irresistible urge or desire to pull out one's own hair, and a sense of pleasure when hair is pulled out. Evidence from translational neuroscience has shown that 'wanting' (motivation to seek a reward) and 'liking' (enjoyment when reward is received) are each mediated by overlapping but distinct neural circuitry, and that 'wanting' contributes to addictive/compulsive behaviors more so than 'liking'. In the present study, we developed the Hair Pulling Reward Scale (HPRS), a self-report measure that consists of two subscales designed to assess (a) cue-triggered urges and appetitive motivation to pull hair (i.e., putative correlates of 'wanting'), and (b) momentary pleasure and gratification during pulling episodes (i.e., putative correlates of 'liking'). We administered the HPRS to 259 individuals with TTM and examined its psychometric properties. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a two-factor model reflecting correlated Wanting and Liking scales. Consistent with predictions, Wanting, much more than Liking, had robust correlations with TTM severity, impulsiveness, difficulties in emotion regulation, psychiatric symptoms, and sleep dysfunction. The results suggest that the HPRS is a psychometrically sound instrument that can be used as a symptom-level measure of reward processing in TTM.

In this study, we examined differences in music-evoked emotions and music liking between two approaches to teaching ear-training in music school. Participants were 423 pupils (60% female; Mage = 10.55 years, SDage = 0.92) in the third grade. In two ear-training lessons prepared either by the standard (STA) or the multimodal and interdisciplinary cognitive-emotional approach (CEA), pupils listened to a 2-minute excerpt from the 4th movement (Allegro con fuoco) of the Symphony no. 9 in E minor, Op. 95 (“From the New World”) by Antonín Dvořák. The Geneva Emotional Music Scale (GEMS-9, Zentner et al., 2008) was translated and adapted to measure music-evoked emotions. Pupils also reported their music liking. In this study, the original three-factor structure of the GEMS-9 was not replicated, and instead a two-factor solution with factors labelled Activation and Calmness emerged. The results showed that in both groups the music evoked moderate to moderately high Activation and low Calmness. Pupils reported high music liking, however, those who participated in the CEA liked the music more than those who participated in the STA. The listening activities that enrich children’s experiences of classical music in the classroom are discussed.

People often develop expectations prior to meeting someone for the first time. These pre-interaction expectations, which include how much they will like the other and how much they will enjoy the interaction, have likely increased because of information easily obtained about others through social media. What is not well understood is whether these expectations prior to a first meeting are associated with interpersonal evaluations formed during the get-acquainted interaction. In this study, pre-interaction expectations were collected from both members of 71 dyads. Then, after the dyads interacted through a structured self-disclosure task conducted over Skype, their reactions were assessed again. Several findings of the study have implications for people meeting for the first time, including over visual forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC). Findings included that pre-interaction expectations were associated with reactions after the interaction, a visual greeting with another before learning information about the other did not moderate the effect of that information on liking and other affiliative outcomes, and participants underestimated how much they were liked after the interaction. The implications of the findings are important because people are increasingly becoming acquainted through visual forms of CMC, which has been amplified during the COVID-19 pandemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mimicry has been proven to be responsible for many social consequences linked to social bonding: improved trust, liking, and rapport. This accumulating empirical evidence has mostly been based on experimental designs focused on comparisons between two conditions: an experimental condition involving mimicking behavior versus a control condition in which any movement or direct verbal reaction is withdrawn. Thus, it is unclear whether the observed differences stem from a potential increase in liking, trust, or rapport in the mimicry condition or a decrease thereof when naturally occurring gestures are not present during the interaction. To address this potential confound, we included an additional control condition involving responsiveness (but not mimicry) aimed at increasing both internal and external validity. We found significant differences between the mimicry condition and both control conditions, thereby lending support to the original mimicry-as-a-social-glue hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, we examined differences in music-evoked emotions and music liking between two approaches to teaching ear-training in music school. Participants were 423 pupils(60% female; Mage = 10.55 years, SDage = 0.92) in the third grade. In two ear-training lessons prepared either by the standard (STA) or the multimodal and interdisciplinary cognitive-emotional approach (CEA), pupils listened to a 2-minute excerpt from the 4th movement (Allegro con fuoco) of the Symphony no. 9 in E minor, Op. 95 (“From the New World”) by Antonín Dvořák. The Geneva Emotional Music Scale (GEMS-9, Zentner et al., 2008) was translated and adapted to measure music-evoked emotions. Pupils also reported their music liking. In this study, the original three-factor structure of the GEMS-9 was not replicated, and instead a two-factor solution with factors labelled Activation and Calmness emerged. The results showed that in both groups the music evoked moderate to moderately high Activation and low Calmness. Pupils reported high music liking, however, those who participated in the CEA liked the music more than those who participated in the STA. The listening activities that enrich children’s experiences of classical music in the classroom are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conceptual information is central to the field of artistic photography. Nonetheless, there are very few studies on the matter. Therefore, we investigated whether artist's conceptual titles affected viewers' interest in artistic photographs. Experiment 1 showed that adding artist's conceptual titles increased both the rated liking of and interest in the photographs, whereas adding a descriptive title had no effect. For Experiment 2 participants judged the pairing of photographs with artist-generated conceptual titles as more appropriate than plausible or random pairings, supporting the view that artist's conceptual titles are an essential part of the artwork. In Experiment 3, interest was assessed by asking participants to place adjustable-size frames anywhere on the photographs. Participants selected more interest areas on photographs accompanied by conceptual titles than on those unaccompanied by titles. These findings support the hypothesis that conceptual information provided by the artist's titles increases interest and liking in photographs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of the present study was to evaluate the sweet taste function in obese rats fed with a 30% calorie-restricted cafeteria diet (CAFR) and/or subjected to moderate treadmill exercise (12–17 m/min, 35 min, 5 days per week) for 9 weeks. A two-bottle preference test, a taste reactivity test, and a brief-access licking test were carried out when animals were aged 21 weeks; biometric and metabolic parameters were also measured along the interventions. Two separate experiments for females and males were performed. Behaviorally, CAF diet decreased sucrose intake and preference, as well as perceived palatability, in both sexes and decreased hedonic responses in males. Compared to the CAF diet, CAFR exerted a corrective effect on sweet taste variables in females by increasing sucrose intake in the preference test and licking responses, while exercise decreased sucrose intake in both sexes and licking responses in females. As expected, CAF diet increased body weight and Lee index and worsened the metabolic profile in both sexes, whereas CAFR diet ameliorated these effects mainly in females. Exercise had no noticeable effects on these parameters. We conclude that CAF diet might diminish appetitive behavior toward sucrose in both sexes, and that this effect could be partially reverted by CAFR diet in females only, while exercise might exert protective effects against overconsumption of sucrose in both sexes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Hot-pepper cheese (HPC) is a growing category of flavored natural cheese. The objective of this study was to evaluate consumer perception of HPC using a combination of quantitative survey methods and consumer evaluation of HPC. An online survey (n = 510) was conducted to understand drivers of purchase for the HPC category. Consumers of HPC answered maximum difference exercises and an adaptive choice-based conjoint activity focused on HPC attributes. Subsequently, natural HPC were manufactured in duplicate with 5 different hot-pepper blends with a range of heat intensities and distinct color differences. Trained panel profiling and consumer-acceptance testing (n = 194 consumers) were conducted on the cheeses. Three clusters of consumers were identified from the online survey. Cluster 1 (n = 175) were traditional HPC consumers, and cluster 2 (n = 152) preferred milder HPC. Cluster 3 (n = 183) showed preference for spicier HPC as well as novel HPC, such as those made with habanero peppers or white Cheddar cheese. Conceptually, the overall ideal HPC was a Monterey Jack with medium-sized, multicolored pieces of jalapeno peppers and a medium heat and spiciness. Heat and spiciness intensity and type of cheese were the most important attributes. The 5 HPC used in consumer testing had a distinct range (low to high) of hot-pepper burn and heat intensity by trained panel profiling. Consumer overall liking increased as hot-pepper burn and heat intensity increased to a certain point, indicating HPC consumers may have an optimal point for heat and spiciness in HPC. Consumers also preferred HPC with multicolored pepper pieces over those with a single pepper color, consistent with survey results. Consumers who self-reported that they prefer mild- or medium-spicy foods (mild consumers) preferred HPC that were less intense in hot-pepper burn than consumers who self-reported preference for hot or spicy foods (hot consumers). Most HPC consumers preferred HPC with higher heat intensity and were also motivated by visual characteristics of HPC.

Consumer-sensory methods based on check-all-that-apply (CATA) for texture and flavour terms and conceptual descriptors offer alternatives for characterising eating quality. In this study, 'Red Delicious', 'Gala' and 'Scilate' apples (Malus domestica Borkh.), which were of comparable instrumental firmness, and similar in crispness and apple flavour, evoked profoundly different consumer responses. Mean liking scores from 122 consumers were 7.1 (∼like moderately), 5.8 (∼like slightly), and 5.1 (∼neither like nor dislike) for 'Scilate', 'Gala', and 'Red Delicious' respectively, and cluster analysis indicated three consumer-segments: one that preferred 'Scilate' over the other cultivars (62 % of consumers), another that liked 'Scilate' and 'Gala' equally over 'Red Delicious' (26 %), and a small third segment that liked 'Red Delicious' and 'Gala' equally over 'Scilate' (12 %). In the associated experimental auction, consumers were provided with $US3, and the mean bids for 'Scilate', 'Gala', and 'Red Delicious' reflected the pattern of consumer liking at $US1.72, $US0.79, and $US0.52, respectively. Correspondence analysis plots of CATA data indicated that 'Scilate' was associated with sensory descriptors sweet, fruity, tropical and pear flavours and positive conceptual descriptors including exciting, complex, unique, premium, yummy, intense, and powerful. 'Gala' and 'Red Delicious' were associated with sensory descriptors including old, mealy, bland, green-grassy and sour-acidic and negative conceptual descriptors dissatisfied, inferior, boring, disappointing, and uninspiring. A best-worst scaling methodology was used to elicit consumers' priorities regarding the aspects of apple quality and production sustainability. Despite the profound differences in eating quality uncovered in the hedonic and CATA tasks, the statement ' tastes like the best apple eaten today ' was assessed as being only 23 % as important as the statement ' grown in a way that is sustainable and does not harm the environment ' in consumer choices. This notable outcome was contradicted in a matching online study changing the eating quality statement 'tastes like the best apple eaten today' to ' Crisp, juicy and sweet ' (the attributes most frequently identified in the sensory CATA). This suggests that trade-offs between eating quality and sustainability are subject to context effects associated with whether taste is an experienced or imagined factor. There is an urgent need to better understand how consumers' needs for sustainability in the food production system might alter what is acceptable in terms of eating quality. • A multimethod consumer approach was used to assess eating quality of apples. • Apple cultivars of comparable firmness evoke different consumer responses. • Sustainability was more important than eating quality when apples were available to taste. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reward responses to food are thought to play an important role in highly palatable food overconsumption. In animal models, food reward responses can be decoupled into unique "liking" (in the moment enjoyment) and "wanting" (motivation/craving) components. However, research on liking and wanting has been hampered by uncertainty regarding whether liking and wanting can be reliably separated in humans. We used factor analysis to test whether ratings of liking and wanting could be empirically separated in women assessed across 49 consecutive days. Female participants (N = 688; ages 15–30) from the Michigan State University Twin Registry reported liking and wanting of foods consumed that day, and wanting of foods not consumed that day, separately for sweets (e.g., cookies), fast food (e.g., French fries), carbohydrates (e.g., bread), and whole foods (fruit, plain chicken) each evening for 49 consecutive days. We examined both average levels and daily levels of liking/wanting across the 49-day period that captured individual differences in liking/wanting over time. Across both types of analyses, liking and wanting for foods that were eaten formed a single factor rather than separate, dissociable factors, while wanting of foods not eaten formed an independent factor. At the daily level, a liking/wanting factor emerged for each individual food category (e.g., liking/wanting sweets), whereas in average analyses, a single factor emerged that collapsed across all food types (i.e., liking/wanting of all foods). Results suggest individuals have difficulty distinguishing between liking and wanting of foods they have eaten on that day but may be able to more reliably separate wanting of foods they have not consumed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We compared the performance of three food categorisation metrics in predicting palatability (taste pleasantness) using a dataset of 52 foods, each rated virtually (online) by 72–224 participants familiar with the foods in question, as described in Appetite 193 (2024) 107124. The metrics were nutrient clustering, NOVA, and nutrient profiling. The first two of these metrics were developed to identify, respectively: 'hyper-palatable' foods (HPFs); and ultra-processed foods (UPFs), which are claimed to be 'made to be hyper-palatable'. The third metric categorises foods as high fat, sugar, salt (HFSS) foods versus non-HFSS foods. There were overlaps, but also significant differences, in categorisation of the foods by the three metrics: of the 52 foods, 35 (67%) were categorised as HPF, and/or UPF, and/or HFSS, and 17 (33%) were categorised as none of these. There was no significant difference in measured palatability between HPFs and non-HPFs, nor between UPFs and non-UPFs (p ≥ 0.412). HFSS foods were significantly more palatable than non-HFSS foods (p = 0.049). None of the metrics significantly predicted food reward (desire to eat). These results do not support the use of hypothetical combinations of food ingredients as proxies for palatability, as done explicitly by the nutrient clustering and NOVA metrics. To discover what aspects of food composition predict palatability requires measuring the palatability of a wide range of foods that differ in composition, as we do here. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • The wood species significantly affected the perception of a few crucial attributes. • Olive wood increased the 'roasted meat' sensation in lamb and veal. • Beech wood increased the 'vegetable/herbaceous' sensation in veal. • Beech wood released higher concentrations of most VOCs in all meats. • Grilling with different woods did not affect liking and preference of any meat type. Two firewood species (beech and olive) were used for grilling three meat types (lamb, pork, and veal) to assess their influence on the sensorial properties of meat. A multimethod approach was adopted, including sensory evaluation with consumers and two analytical techniques to characterize the volatile fraction (Solid-Phase Micro-Extraction Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry [SPME-GC/MS] and electronic nose [e-nose]). The sensory session included three pairwise preference tests (one for each type of meat), an overall liking test, a Rate-All-That-Apply test, and a questionnaire on the interest and perceived value of using sustainably certified firewood in food preparation. The firewood species significantly affected the perception of a few crucial attributes. In particular, olive wood increased the roasted meat flavor perception in lamb and veal, while beech wood increased the perceived intensity of a vegetable/herbaceous flavor in veal. No effect of firewood was observed on preference within each pair of meat samples. Lamb was the significantly most liked meat by consumers, followed by pork; veal was the least liked meat type. Positive and negative drivers of preference were discussed. 36 volatile organic compounds were identified from SPME-GC/MS in meats. Congruently with sensory data, the two veal samples showed a greater distance in terms of volatile composition. Relative distances among samples on maps obtained from SPME-GC/MS and the e-nose were similar. This multi-method approach innovatively showed the potential of using firewood as a 'gastronomic' tool to sensorially characterize and valorize cooked meat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Drivers of liking for protein-fortified foods was explored with older adults. • Protein-fortified recipes were equally or less liked than standard recipes. • Fortification may be associated with texture, taste and colour changes. • Fortification was associated with a granular, sticky and compact texture. • Fortified products were perceived as being easy to chew, moisten and swallow. Public health policies recommend food fortification, namely adding ingredients of nutritional interest into commonly consumed foods, to help older adults with reduced appetite achieve sufficient protein intake. The aim of the present study was to assess the acceptability and sensory perception of protein-fortified recipes in older adults. Two variants – standard and protein-fortified – were developed for six food products covering various food matrices (savoury/sweet, hot/cold, liquid/solid): bolognese sauce, mashed potato and carrot soup; stuffed pepper, apple crumble and vanilla custard. Sixty-five and 56 participants tested respectively in a sensory laboratory. All participants were 70 years or older and lived at home (women: 58 %). Participants were asked to rate liking and food oral processing for each sample as well as to describe its sensory characteristics (free comments, CATA). They were not informed about the nature of the difference between the variants, namely protein fortification. It was observed that using protein extracts to fortify food products results in texture alteration, with a granular, sticky, and compact texture. If this effect is minimal compared to the standard variant, it does not significantly impact liking. However, when the effect is more pronounced and/or accompanied by changes in taste and appearance, it leads to a decrease in product liking. Thus, having a fortified product that closely matches the standard product in all sensory aspects (taste, texture, appearance) appears crucial for consumer acceptability. This work lay the groundwork for further enhancing the functionality of protein extracts and/or the sensory properties of fortified recipes in order to develop palatable protein-enriched foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Western countries, a behavioural shift towards more plant-based diets is helpful in protecting population and planet health. School canteens are an important public policy target to achieve this transition. Increasing the frequency of vegetarian meals in school canteens has been proposed as a solution to decrease greenhouse gas emissions while maintaining a good nutritional quality. However, vegetarian meals acceptance by children is key to limit unintended consequences such as increased food waste or increased nutritional inequalities. We aimed to examine children's liking for vegetarian and non-vegetarian main dishes at school canteens; and whether it varied across socioeconomic level. Connected scoring devices displaying a five-point smiley scale were installed in all the 38 primary school canteens of a French city, located in socially diverse neighbourhoods. Every day after their school lunch, children were asked to rate the main dish they had just eaten. During one school year, from September 2021 to June 2022, we collected 208,985 votes for 125 main dishes, including 32 vegetarian (i.e., no meat or fish) and 93 non-vegetarian dishes, for an average of 1672 (SD 440) votes per day across the 38 school canteens. We showed no difference in children's liking for vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Additionally, the socioeconomic level of the schools was found to interact negatively with children's liking for vegetarian main dishes whereby vegetarian main dishes tended to be more liked in schools of lower socioeconomic level. In this French city, children's acceptance would not be a barrier to increase the frequency of vegetarian school meals and would not increase social dietary inequalities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Plant-based meat substitutes replacing animal meat can potentially support the transition towards more sustainable diets. To enable the required transition, consumer acceptance of plant-based meat is essential. An important aspect of this is the feeling of satiety or being full after eating. This study determined the satiating capacity of both plant-based meat and animal meat in 60 adults under real-life in-home conditions. Participants consumed four fixed ready-to eat meals for lunch at home once per week. Two types of Indian curry with ‘chicken’ were investigated as well as two types of pasta Bolognese with ‘minced meat’. The two ‘chicken’ dishes and the two ‘minced meat’ dishes had the same recipe except for a gram-for-gram swap (125 g each) of either animal meat (chicken breast and minced meat) or plant-based (soy) meat. Results showed no difference in the satiating power of an animal meat dish and a plant-based meat dish when these were eaten as part of a full lunch meal at home. In addition, the meals did not result in energy nor macronutrient compensation during the rest of the day after consuming the meals. This occurred despite the caloric differences of the meals as a result of the real-life conditions (i.e., a lower energy content of the pasta with plant-based meat compared to the other meals). We conclude that meals with plant-based meat can be as satiating as meals with animal meat.

Chocolate is a highly appreciated food around the world which is rich in polyphenols but usually sweetened to mask inherent bitterness and astringency. Here we aim to determine how roast time and temperature in cacao roasting affect bitterness intensity and consumer liking of chocolate. We have also determined the relationship between consumer liking and perceived bitterness, astringency, sourness, sweetness, and cocoa intensity. Unroasted cacao from three different origins was roasted according to a designed experiment into a total of 27 treatments which were evaluated for overall liking and sensory attribute intensities by 145 chocolate consumers. We demonstrate that bitterness, sourness and astringency of 100% chocolate can be reduced through optimizing roasting temperature and time. Reduction of bitterness, sourness and astringency were significantly correlated with increased acceptability of the unsweetened chocolate samples. Aside from roasting, cacao origin including base levels of bitterness, astringency, and sourness should also be considered when optimizing consumer acceptability. Perceived cocoa flavor intensity, being highly positively correlated to liking, is likely to also be an important consideration for raw material selection. As for optimal roast profiles, for the cacao origins in our study, more intense roasting conditions such as 20 min at 171 °C, 80 min at 135 °C, and 54 min at 151 °C, all led to the most acceptable unsweetened chocolate. Conversely, for the purposes of optimizing consumer acceptability, our data do not support the use of raw or lightly roasted cacao, such as 0 min at 24 °C, 11 min at 105 °C, or 55 min at 64 °C.

The ability to regulate the intake of unhealthy foods is critical in modern, calorie dense food environments. Frontal areas of the brain, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), are thought to play a central role in cognitive control and emotional regulation. Therefore, increasing activity in the DLPFC may enhance these functions which could improve the ability to reappraise and resist consuming highly palatable but unhealthy foods. One technique for modifying brain activity is transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), a non-invasive technique for modulating neuronal excitability that can influence performance on a range of cognitive tasks. We tested whether anodal tDCS targeting the right DLPFC would influence how people perceived highly palatable foods. In the present study, 98 participants were randomly assigned to receive a single session of active tDCS (2.0 mA) or sham stimulation. While receiving active or sham stimulation, participants viewed images of highly palatable foods and reported how pleasant it would be to eat each food (liking) and how strong their urge was to eat each food (wanting). We found that participants who received active versus sham tDCS stimulation perceived food as less pleasant, but there was no difference in how strong their urge was to eat the foods. Our findings suggest that modulating excitability in the DLPFC influences “liking” but not “wanting” of highly palatable foods. Non-invasive brain stimulation might be a useful technique for influencing the hedonic experience of eating but more work is needed to understand when and how it influences food cravings.

This article describes a dataset providing temporal sensory descriptions and affective answers for red wines: two Bordeaux and two Riojas. The wines were tasted at home by French (FR, n=106) and Spanish (SP, n=98) consumers and in the lab by wine students (WC, n=47). Standardized information was displayed on the samples (country and region of origin, name, producer, vintage, alcohol content). The FR and SP panels were split into three groups, the first having no rating information, the second having expert rating information (based on Wine Advocate ratings), and the third having consumer rating information (based on online Vivino reviews). The participants first rated their expected liking for the four wines. Then, for each wine sample, they had (in order) to taste the sample while being video recorded, rate their liking, temporally describe the sequence of sensations they perceived using Free-Comment Attack-Evolution-Finish, answer several questions about familiarity and quality perception, and declare their willingness to pay (reserve price). Then, they had to rank the four wines according to their quality. General questions about wine involvement, subjective wine knowledge, valuation behaviour, purchasing, and consumption patterns were asked. Finally, an auction was resolved: participants declaring a reserve price greater than the drawn price won a bottle. The data were used to assess the influence of culture and expertise on temporal sensory evaluations in an article entitled “Using Free-Comment to investigate expertise and cultural differences in wine sensory description”. The data can be reused by researchers interested in studying the impact of external information on preferences and choices or investigating the sensory drivers of liking.

Rationale/Objective: This study used an evaluative conditioning (EC) procedure to assess the affective properties of a CS for ingested drug reward in humans. Specifically, the study tested whether the evaluative response ("liking"/"disliking") to an arbitrary visual stimulus ("CS2," e.g., a purple hexagon) could be changed through pairings with an alcohol or non-alcohol beverage cue ("CS1," e.g., a full wine glass, a juice box), which is ostensibly a conditioned visual predictive stimulus for alcohol or non-alcohol liquid reward, respectively. Methods: Participants (N = 369, 18–23 years, 66% female, 79% white, 21% reporting no alcohol use ever or in the past year) received 24 CS1 pairings with each CS2. CS2 and CS1 evaluations were assessed pre- and post-conditioning. Results: Alcohol and non-alcohol CS2 "liking" correlated with alcohol use. "Liking" of the alcohol but not non-alcohol CS1 also correlated with alcohol use. Alcohol CS1 "liking" also correlated with alcohol and non-alcohol CS2 'liking," whereas non-alcohol CS1 'liking" correlated with non-alcohol but not alcohol CS2 "liking." Conclusions: Taken together, findings support the idea that drug-related visual stimuli acquire appetitive (hedonic and/or incentive) properties as a function of individual differences in drug use, which entail individual differences in exposure to the conditioning effects of addictive substances like alcohol. Findings also suggest a link between drug use and the propensity to attribute affective/motivational significance to reward-predictive cues in general. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human-Machine Communication refers to the collaborative process in which humans and machines use messages to create and participate in social reality. Among the most important aspects of social reality are personal relationships, which are accomplished through communication and social interaction with others. As communication between humans and artificial agents becomes more commonplace and sophisticated, it is important to consider whether meaningful relationships between the two are possible, what pathways of development they may follow, and what similarities and differences may emerge in comparison to the development of human interpersonal relationships. In this article, we will discuss the factors of attraction (proximity, physical attraction, similarity, liking, and resources) as they apply to human-machine communication and human-machine relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Across three studies, we integrate relational leadership theory with affective events theory to examine the leader perspective in dyadic relationships and how this perspective influences differential leader behaviors directed toward each subordinate in terms of safety enforcement. First, in two field studies with different high-risk contexts, we delineate a curvilinear relationship between supervisor-rated leader–member exchange (SLMX) and safety enforcement. In our second field study we also examine the moderating role of leaders' safety commitment as well as the linkage between safety enforcement and accidents. Finally, in a fully randomized experiment, we explore three relational dynamics as mechanisms of the effect of SLMX on safety enforcement—trust, consideration, and liking. Through these efforts, we offer rare direct tests of the theoretical assertion that leader–member exchange includes differential treatment based on affective relationship cues within a leader-and-subordinate relationship. Our two field studies reveal that leaders are likely to monitor safety most closely for low- and high-SLMX subordinates, but mid-SLMX subordinates are most likely to be overlooked. This U-shaped relationship emerges only for less committed leaders, and safety enforcement translates these effects to actual accidents. Our experimental study reveals a similar U shape between liking and enforcement, but a positive relationship emerges between distrust and enforcement, as well as between consideration on enforcement. These results shed insight into theoretical and practical implications for how leaders can foster a safer workplace for all. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We tested the relationship between art classification and liking of the graffiti murals among naive viewers (N = 60 college students). Graffiti murals were classified as art to a lesser extent than both abstract and representational paintings. Surprisingly, graffiti murals were only liked less than representational but not abstract paintings. Thus, art classification might not necessarily predict liking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abusive supervision has long been found to have remarkably negative impacts on individual and organizational outcomes. Accordingly, prior studies have explored many organizational and supervisory predictors of abusive supervision and offered several interventions to reduce it. However, extant research lacks the bottom-up perspective to explore how employees can act to reduce abusive supervision, which is an important factor that enriches abusive supervision literature and helps employees protect themselves from being abused. Drawing on self-disclosure theory, we develop a model of whether and how employee boundary blurring behavior may protect them from being abused by their supervisors. Specifically, we conducted two studies to test the theoretical model, including a scenariobased experimental study and a multi-source, multi-wave field study. The results reveal a negative indirect effect of employee boundary blurring behavior on abusive supervision via supervisor liking toward the employee. By uncovering employee boundary blurring behavior as an antecedent of abusive supervision, we enrich the abusive supervision literature with a bottom-up behavioral strategy for employees to proactively protect themselves from being abused. We hope our findings will encourage future studies to identify boundary conditions and other solutions for employees to minimize the risk of being abused. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To clarify the relationship between higher vocational students' liking of teachers and their learning engagement, based on the theory of social exchange, 1,279 vocational students in the Yangtze River Delta and the Pearl River Delta in China are used as the research objects. From the perspective of students and teachers, SPSS and AMOS are used to conduct a two-stage linear regression analysis. The results show that (1) students' liking of their teachers has a positive effect on learning engagement; (2) liking positively affects students' psychological empowerment; (3) liking of teachers indirectly influences learning engagement through psychological empowerment; (4) teacher's support positively moderates the indirect relationship between liking of teachers and learning engagement through psychological empowerment. This study attempts to provide practical guidance for college students to provide learning engagement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pupils' experiences of four music pieces were compared regarding two didactical approaches to music listening in Croatian schools: the predominantly cognitively oriented standard (STA), and the experimental cognitive-emotional (CEA). The research comprised 557 pupils, 10 and 11 years old. After the initial listening to a music piece pupils mostly reported to like its musical components which reflects that listening to music in school is mainly directed toward music-theoretical components of the music. During the central listening pupils' thoughts were mostly related to the music piece content (e.g. narratives related to the music) and to associations within and out of the music piece context. However, some differences between the two approaches emerged. Depending on the music piece, the more active pupils' engagement in CEA encouraged reflections about content and/or expressing opinions about the broader context of the music piece. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over two studies, we examined the extent to which individual differences in the experience and expression of curiosity are reflected in patterns of music preferences and appreciation. In Study 1, we investigated whether differences in trait curiosity profiles are associated with distinct patterns of preferences for commonly heard music genres, while in Study 2, we asked whether curiosity profiles predict the degree of enjoyment of, and interest in, music from non-Western cultures. We were able to produce clusters similar to the four curiosity profile subgroups previously reported in the literature and show that the subgroup lowest in the experience and expression of curiosity (referred to as the Avoiders) displayed the least appreciation of music, regardless of genre dimension and cultural origin. In contrast, we showed that two subgroups, characterized by relatively high levels of social curiosity and deprivation sensitivity displayed the greatest liking of commonly heard music genres, whereas the subgroup highest in acceptance of novelty-related stress and uncertainty (referred to as the Fascinated) demonstrated the greatest appreciation for non-Western music. Taken together, our findings extend previous work that explores links between personality and music preferences, by showing the relevance of considering individual differences in information-seeking traits. Our work also demonstrates how the study of music listening behaviors may be used to enrich research into curiosity and information-seeking. We recommend that future studies seek to include additional ecologically valid measures of music preferences (e.g., patterns of music streaming activity) in any attempts to corroborate and/or extend these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals automatically mimic a wide range of different behaviors, and such mimicking behavior has several social benefits. One of the landmark findings in the literature is that being mimicked increases liking for the mimicker. Research in cognitive neuroscience demonstrated that mentally simulating motor actions is neurophysiologically similar to engaging in these actions. Such research would predict that merely imagining being mimicked produces the same results as actually experiencing mimicry. To test this prediction, we conducted two experiments. In Experiment 1, being mimicked increased liking for the mimicker only when mimicry was directly experienced, but not when it was merely imagined. Experiment 2 replicated this finding within a high-powered online sample: merely imagining being mimicked does not produce the same effects as being actually mimicked. Theoretical and practical implications of these experiments are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Does how people generally engage with their online social networks relate to offline initial social interactions? Using a large-scale study of first impressions (N = 806, Ndyad = 4,565), we examined how different indicators of social media use relate to the positivity of dyadic in-person first impressions, from the perspective of the participants and their interaction partners. Many forms of social media use (e.g., Instagram, Snapchat, passive) were associated with liking and being liked by others more, although some forms of use (e.g., Facebook, active) were not associated with liking others or being liked by others. Furthermore, most associations held controlling for extraversion and narcissism. Thus, while some social media use may be generally beneficial for offline social interactions, some may be unrelated, highlighting the idea that how, rather than how much, people use social media can play a role in their offline social interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Voice preferences are an integral part of interpersonal interactions and shape how people connect with each other. While a large number of studies have investigated the mechanisms behind (speaking) voice attractiveness, very little research was dedicated to other types of vocalizations. In this Registered Report, we proposed to investigate voice preferences with an integrative approach. To this end, we used a newly recorded and validated stimulus set of contrasting vocalizations by 22 highly trained female singers speaking and singing the same material (in Brazilian Portuguese) in contrasting styles (sung as a lullaby, as a pop song or as an opera aria; and spoken aloud as if directed to an adult audience and as if directed to an infant). We asked 62 participants to rate these vocalizations in terms of how much they liked them; and we compared the amount of shared taste (that is, how much participants agreed in their preferences) across styles. We found highly idiosyncratic preferences across all styles. Our predictions concerning shared taste were not confirmed: although shared taste was higher for lullaby than for pop singing, it was unexpectedly higher for operatic than pop singing, and higher for infant-directed than adult-directed speech. Conversely, our prediction of limited consistency in average preferences for some singers across styles was confirmed, contradicting sexual selection-based ideas of singing and speaking as 'backup' signals of individual fitness. Our findings draw attention to the role of individual differences in voice preferences and highlight the need for a broader approach to understanding the underlying mechanisms of voice preferences. Stage 1 recommendation and review history: https://rr.peercommunityin.org/articles/rec?id=357. Stage 2 recommendation and review history: https://rr.peercommunityin.org/articles/rec?id=802., Competing Interests: We declare we have no competing interests., (© 2024 The Author(s).)

Background: Atypical anticipation of social reward has been shown to lie at the core of the social challenges faced by individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, previous research has yielded inconsistent results and has often overlooked crucial characteristics of stimuli. Here, we investigated ASD reward processing using social and nonsocial tangible stimuli, carefully matched on several key dimensions., Methods: We examined the anticipation and consumption of social (interpersonal touch) and nonsocial (flavored milk) rewards in 25 high-functioning individuals with ASD and 25 neurotypical adult individuals. In addition to subjective ratings of wanting and liking, we measured physical energetic expenditure to obtain the rewards, brain activity with neuroimaging, and facial reactions through electromyography on a trial-by-trial basis., Results: Participants with ASD did not exhibit reduced motivation for social or nonsocial rewards; their subjective ratings, motivated efforts, and facial reactions were comparable to those of neurotypical participants. However, anticipation of higher-value rewards increased neural activation in lateral parietal cortices, sensorimotor regions, and the orbitofrontal cortex. Moreover, participants with ASD exhibited hyperconnectivity between frontal medial regions and occipital regions and the thalamus., Conclusions: Individuals with ASD who experienced rewards with tangible characteristics, whether social or nonsocial, displayed typical subjective and objective motivational and hedonic responses. Notably, the observed hyperactivations in sensory and attentional nodes during anticipation suggest atypical sensory overprocessing of forthcoming rewards rather than decreased reward value. While these atypicalities may not have manifested in observable behavior here, they could impact real-life social interactions that require nuanced predictions, potentially leading to the misperception of reduced interest in rewarding social stimuli in ASD., (Copyright © 2024 Society of Biological Psychiatry. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

OBJECTIVES To assess children’s physical and sedentary activity behavior, enjoyment (i.e., liking), and preference during two separate experimental conditions: parent attentive and parent non-attentive. METHODS Ten children (n = 6 boys, 4 girls), 3 to 6 years old, along with one parent (n = 6 mothers, 4 fathers) per child participated in each condition on separate days for 30-minutes in which they could choose from a variety of physical and/or sedentary activities. RESULTS A greater number of accelerometer counts (p = 0.04) were accumulated during the parent attentive (96,547 ± 33,075.26 counts) condition than the parent non-attentive (48,316.30 ± 46,101.47 counts) condition. More time (p = 0.007) was allocated to sedentary activities during the parent non-attentive (19.5 ± 13.3 minutes) condition than parent attentive (2.8 ± 3.55 minutes) condition. Children liked (p = 0.004) the parent attentive (9.05 ± 1.21 cm) condition more than parent non-attentive (4.42 ± 3.18 cm) condition. A non-significant (p = 0.21) proportion of children identified the parent attentive (70%) as their preferred condition over the parent non-attentive condition. CONCLUSIONS Parental attentiveness may be an important component to take into consideration when trying to maximize children’s physical activity behavior and enjoyment while simultaneously reducing sedentary behavior.

The incidence of overweight and obesity has generated significant concerns among European consumers and institutions. As part of a set of measures undertaken, the European Union (EU) called for one harmonized mandatory front-of-pack nutritional label (FOPL) to improve consumer food nutritional knowledge and encourage healthier and more informed food choices. Different types of FOPLs, ranging from nutrient-specific labels—such as the NutrInform Battery—to summary labels—such as the Nutri-Score—have been developed and introduced in different markets, reporting different degrees of effectiveness in terms of understanding. The aim of this study is to provide actionable insights by analyzing a specific part of the complex consumers’ decision-making process in food when aided by FOPLs. Adopting a between-subject experiment on a sample of 4560 respondents in 20 EU member countries, the study compares the consumer subjective understanding and liking of two labels currently under examination by the EU bodies, the NutrInform Battery and the Nutri-Score. At an aggregated level, the results show that NutrInform Battery is more effective than Nutri-Score in improving consumer subjective understanding and leads to a higher liking towards the label. A detailed by-country analysis highlights either a superiority or a parity of NutrInform Battery for subjective understanding and liking. Theoretically, this study, through a large panel of respondents, adds the fundamental perspective on subjective understanding, complementing the findings of extant research on objective understanding, and further clarifies the role of liking as a complementary element in the food decision-making process toward heathier and more informed food choices. This might be of significant relevance in providing additional evidence that can be used by policymakers in their attempt toward the selection of a uniform FOPL at EU level.

Investigating how people respond to and view AI-created artworks is becoming increasingly crucial as the technology's current application spreads due to its affordability and accessibility. This study examined how AI art alters people's evaluation, purchase intention, and collection intention toward Chinese-style and Western-style paintings, and whether art expertise plays a role. Study 1 recruited participants without professional art experience (nonexperts) and found that those who made the paintings would not change their liking rating, purchase intention, and collection intention. In addition, they showed ingroup preference, favoring Chinese-style relative to Western-style paintings, in line with previous evidence on cultural preference in empirical aesthetics. Study 2 further investigated the modulation effect of art expertise. Art experts evaluated less favorably (less liking, lower purchase, and collection intentions) AI-generated paintings relative to artist-made paintings, while non-experts showed no preference. There was also an interaction effect between the author and the art expertise and interaction between the painting style and the art expertise. Collectively, the findings in this study showed that who made the art matters for experts and that the painting style affects aesthetic evaluation and ultimate reception of it. These results would also provide implications for AI-art practitioners. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: A lack of physical activity (PA) is one of the most pressing health issues today. Our individual propensity for PA is influenced by genetic factors. Stated liking of different PA types may help capture additional and informative dimensions of PA behavior genetics. Methods: In over 157,000 individuals from the UK Biobank, we performed genome-wide association studies of five items assessing the liking of different PA types, plus an additional derived trait of overall PA-liking. We attempted to replicate significant associations in the Netherlands Twin Register (NTR) and TwinsUK. Additionally, polygenic scores (PGS) were trained in the UK Biobank for each PA-liking item and for self-reported PA behavior, and tested for association with PA in the NTR. Results: We identified a total of 19 unique significant loci across all five PA-liking items and the overall PA-liking trait, and these showed strong directional consistency in the replication cohorts. Four of these loci were previously identified for PA behavior, including CADM2 , which was associated with three PA-liking items. The PA-liking items were genetically correlated with self-reported (r g = 0.38–0.80) and accelerometer (r g = 0.26–0.49) PA measures, and with a wide range of health-related traits. Each PA-liking PGS significantly predicted the same PA-liking item in NTR. The PGS of liking for going to the gym predicted PA behavior in the NTR (r 2 = 0.40%) nearly as well as a PGS based on self-reported PA behavior (r 2 = 0.42%). Combining the two PGS into a single model increased the r 2 to 0.59%, suggesting that PA-liking captures distinct and relevant dimensions of PA behavior. Conclusions: We have identified the first loci associated with PA-liking and extended our understanding of the genetic basis of PA behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]