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As issues of traffic congestion, obesity, and environmental conservation receive increased attention globally and in the US, focus turns to the role that walking and cycling can play in mitigating such problems. This enthusiasm has created a need for evidence on the degree to which policies to increase walking and cycling travel have worked. This paper outlines the important challenges researchers face in their attempts to produce credible evidence on walking and cycling interventions. It closes by discussing matters to consider in such research endeavors, including the importance of clear conceptualization, sound research design, measurement innovations, and strategic sampling.

This article serves as the introduction for the debut of the Journal of Transport and Land Use (JTLU), a journal designed to be the leading outlet for research at the interdisciplinary intersection of these two domains. The journal will include work from the disciplines of engineering, planning, modeling, behavior, economics, geography, regional science, sociology, architecture and design, network science, and complex systems. The authors review how the field of transport has evolved as an interdisciplinary field and briefly summarize some of the relevant journals that have appeared and disappeared through the years. JTLU is an open-content journal which is open-content, subscription-free, and free to contribute, supported by the Center for Transportation Studies at the University of Minnesota. The authors explain the advantages of being an open-content journal. A final section introduces the current, debut issue and briefly mentions some of the special topic issues that are planned for the future. Readers are encouraged to submit original, top-notch research for publication in the JTLU.

The intersection of land use and transportation policy is becoming an increasingly important focus for all urban planners. This focus, however, challenges the academic community to design effective courses that teach the concepts and professional skills required for professional experience. Integrated land use and transportation courses should engage students to develop interdisciplinary skills while becoming familiar with, for example, travel behavior and zoning policies. Laboratory courses (or segments of courses) as part of graduate curricula provide platforms to further emphasize skills. A common pedagogy problem is devising laboratory assignments that are integrative, cumulative, practical, and interesting for students. Furthermore, laboratory projects should introduce students to real-world problems and techniques while exploring broad planning themes. This paper presents uses four years of laboratory segments from a land use-transportation course (LUTC) at the University of Minnesota to evaluate the needs and results of practitioner-oriented land use and transportation planning education. The laboratory used group projects where students proposed integrated developments using air rights above existing (and sunken) urban freeways in the Twin Cities. The projects provided a practitioner-oriented project through a collaborative and reflexive learning process. This article describes the completed projects, as well as the technical skills, integrated approach and visionary planning necessary for successful execution. The students addressed complicated problems associated with large-scale development by researching neighborhood demographics, characteristics, and pertinent regulations. They used their research to analyze traffic impacts, propose zoning regulations, and outline costs and benefits from their proposal using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), statistical analyses, assessor data and traffic engineering manuals. Using the completed student projects and comparisons with other land use-transportation course and laboratory projects the authors demonstrate how these laboratory components serve multiple pedagogy goals.

none 3 si As cities aim to spur cycling, a key issue revolves around the location and quality of separated bicycle facilities. However, sometimes owing to impedances, these facilities fail to have the desired overall utility for cyclists. This study focuses on the role of non-stationary disturbances, i.e., the presence of users of other modes. The aim is to quantify the effects and frequencies of disturbances on offstreet bicycle facilities (from other cyclists and pedestrians) and compare them to disturbances (from motorized vehicles) while cycling in mixed traffic. Using three segments in Bologna, Italy, we measured the frequency, type, and speed reduction attributed to different types of disturbances. We analyzed speed and likelihood of events to calculate a weighted average of the cyclists’ speed for separated bicycling facilities and on the roadway. For two of the segments, weighted speed reductions were minimal. However, in a third segment—one with considerably more disturbances—speed reductions were considerable: 20 percent for the separated facility and 40 percent for the mixed traffic. When married with cycling use patterns along the facilities, the notable speed reductions point to a possible trade-off cyclists make in choosing between different routes. The results help quantify relationships between cyclists and non-stationary disturbances; they also caution transport officials about possible unintended outcomes for separated bicycle facilities. mixed Bernardi, Silvia; Krizek, Kevin J.; Rupi, Federico Bernardi, Silvia; Krizek, Kevin J.; Rupi, Federico

Ridership is a key goal in the transit industry. Conventional transit analysis focuses on 2 types of users—captive and choice riders—but rarely aims to understand the preferences of non-transit riders. This research aims to better understand habits and preferences—for both users and non-users of the transit system—as they relate to the transit market in the Twin Cities (Minnesota) metropolitan area. The paper first articulates different broad market segments commonly considered in transit research and follows by describing how specific features of transit service characteristics may play out in influencing demand. The source of 2 surveys analyzed in this application are described, one for existing transit users and a separate one for non-users. Our analysis approach employs factor and cluster analysis to shed light on preference and other characteristics for 8 different segments of transit users/potential transit users. The discussion section and conclusions highlight findings and prescribe relevant policy recommendations.

Transportation specialists, urban planners, and public health officials have been steadfast in encouraging active modes of transportation over the past decades. Conventional thinking, however, suggests that providing infrastructure for cycling and walking in the form of off-street trails is critically important. An outstanding question in the literature is how one's travel is affected by the use of such facilities and specifically, the role of distance to the trail in using such facilities. This research describes a highly detailed analysis of use along an off-street facility in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA. The core questions addressed in this investigation aim to understand relationships between: (1) the propensity of using the trail based on distance from the trip origin and destination, and (2) how far out of their way trail users travel for the benefit of using the trail and explanatory factors for doing so. The data used in the analysis for this research was collected as a human intercept survey along a section of an off-street facility. The analysis demonstrates that a cogent distance decay pattern exists and that the decay function varies by trip purpose. Furthermore, we find that bicyclists travel, on average, 67% longer in order to include the trail facility on their route. The paper concludes by explaining how the distance decay and shortest path versus taken path analysis can aid in the planning and analysis of new trail systems.

This study evaluates individual preferences for five different cycling environments by trading off a better facility with a higher travel time against a less attractive facility at a lower travel time. The tradeoff of travel time to amenities of a particular facility informs our understanding of the value attached to different attributes such as bike-lanes, off-road trails, or side-street parking. The facilities considered here are off-road facilities, in-traffic facilities with bike-lane and no on-street parking, in-traffic facilities with a bike-lane and on-street parking, in-traffic facilities with no bike-lane and no on-street parking and in-traffic facilities with no bike-lane but with parking on the side. We find that respondents are willing to travel up to twenty minutes more to switch from an unmarked on-road facility with side parking to an off-road bicycle trail, with smaller changes associated with less dramatic improvements.

Planning and policy efforts at all levels of transportation planning aim to increase levels of walking and bicycling. In many cases, initiatives are motivated by a desire to reduce automobile use a...

Expectations remain high that information communications technology (ICT) might reduce travel. The rapid evolution of technology, combined with a dearth of longitudinal data, has made it extremely difficult to assess the affects of ICT on travel. Results are compared from two independent but similar household surveys in 1995 and 2003 to examine changes in home ICT use and store travel. Multiple analysis of covariance is used to control for differences in sample characteristics, attitudes, and city type and to examine changes in the frequency of out-of-home and at-home shopping and banking between 1995 and 2003. Results indicate that the year of the survey has a main effect in explaining shopping, but not banking frequencies. Respondents in 2003 shop out of home and at home with greater frequency and bank out of home and at home with less frequency, though the latter finding is not statistically significant. Despite reported increases in at-home activities substituting out-of-home shopping trips, the most likely explanation of the results—examining several behaviors—is that people engage in multiple forms of shopping and banking and do so in the ways that are most convenient. Preferences for store shopping and online security concerns may limit observable changes in past growth and the future potential of ICT to replace physical trips.

Despite much enthusiasm among practitioners to spur rates of bicycle commuting via promotional measures such as community rides or commuter incentive programs, there is little research regarding their impact. Using data from one such event, Bike-to-Work Day (BTWD), this paper aims to understand the following: (1) who attends BTWD; (2) the impacts of these event-based promotional strategies across different groups; and (3) lessons for increasing commuter cycling in general. The authors assess these research questions by examining motives to participate, behavior change, and influences of the event using over 1,000 surveys collected in the Denver region. Using an ordered logit model, the authors then identify significant factors for grouping cyclists’ by behavior category. The results suggest that event attendees vary widely, from those who only bicycle on BTWD to those who report year-round bicycling, while reasons for participation and impacts of participation vary across bicycling behavior groups...

This article reports the results of two different approaches to valuing some of what are thought to be benefits of bicycle trails and lanes. First, an adaptive stated preference survey is used to measure how much travel time individuals are willing to spend to obtain particular features of on- and off-street bicycle facilities. These findings indicate that bicycle commuters in Minneapolis and St. Paul prefer bicycle lanes on existing streets over off-street bicycle trails, and also prefer them over streets that have no onstreet parking but lack designated bicycle lanes. Second, I used home sales data to learn the effect of bicycle trail proximity on home value. Though proximity to bicycle facilities is valued differently for different types, it actually significantly reduced home value in suburban locations. Suburban home values were most reduced by proximity to roadside trails, which also reduced home values significantly in the cities. Proximity to other types of bicycle facilities in the citie...

This study used multivariate modeling techniques to estimate the effect of household proximity to retail and bicycle facilities on the odds of walking and cycling in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, Minnesota. We analyzed these relationships employing detailed GIS data and individual-level travel diary data. We found that distances to retail and bicycle facilities are statistically significant predictors of choosing active modes of transport at close distances, but the relationships do not appear to be linear.

Despite considerable examination of the impact of telecommunications on travel, little empirical evidence sheds light on the impact of e‐shopping on travel—a recent and increasingly popular form of telecommunications. This paper analyses determinants of online buying and their relationship with in‐store shopping, using empirical data obtained from Minneapolis, USA, and Utrecht, the Netherlands. Based on chi‐square tests and logistic and ordinary least‐squares regressions, the results indicate that online buying is affected by sociodemographics and spatial characteristics of people, their Internet experience, and their attitudes towards in‐store shopping. US respondents who prefer to see products in person are less likely to buy online. Dutch respondents are more likely to buy online as travel times to shops are shorter. At first sight, this counterintuitive result might be related to an urban, innovative lifestyle that supports e‐shopping. A more detailed analysis of Dutch online buyers reveals t...

The idea of using land use patterns to influence people's behavior is popular in urban planning circles these days. Activity-based travel modeling has begun to make significant progress toward a more behavioral framework for simulating household travel behavior and understanding, in particular, pedestrian activity. A significant challenge remains in the need to address the interaction of pedestrian use with longer-term household choices of neighborhood choice, other activities, and overall travel. The choices often depend on one another and jointly define the lifestyle of an individual. This paper refines a framework to analyze household choices relating to three dimensions of lifestyle: travel patterns (including pedestrian activity), activity participation, and neighborhood characteristics. Cluster analysis on data from the Twin Cities metropolitan region in Minnesota uncovers seven classifications of lifestyle. These clusters demonstrate empirically how decisions about residential location reinforce and affect daily decisions related to travel patterns, pedestrian and transit use, and activity participation. The final section comments on the applicability of these lifestyle clusters for land use–transportation planning.

Planning pedagogy is increasingly focused on ways to teach interdisciplinary topics in an integrated and synergistic manner. The intersection of land use and transportation represent two topics that, in recent years, have risen front and center for the planning profession as a whole as well as for individual program specialization areas. This article focuses on the manner in which planning programs and in particular, specific courses, address land use and transportation planning. After describing the context in which such courses exist (e.g., program specializations, faculty size), the bulk of this analysis centers on analyzing syllabi from 15 courses in North American planning programs that squarely address integrated land use-transportation planning. The syllabi are analyzed in two respects. The first examines the list of topics covered within each course. The nature of primary, secondary, and peripheral topics (as assessed by the frequency in which they appear in the syllabi) are discussed. Second, the analysis uncovers the frequency in which specific readings are used in each course (articles, book chapters, books). Special attention is devoted to discussing the substance (e.g., what topics), origin (e.g., journal name), and/or the availability of key readings. The article closes by discussing the detailed nature of a sample land use-transportation course from the Urban and Regional Planning Program at the University of Minnesota in which there is a lecture and laboratory component.

Information and communications technologies (ICTs) are affecting an ever-increasing array of household activities. Although considerable research has documented patterns of ICT use and sociodemographic profiles of ICT users, surprisingly little research has examined the role of spatial attributes such as accessibility, ICT availability, and levels of congestion in ICT-related activities. This paper aims to answer questions related to the propensity of residents in metropolitan areas to use the Internet for e-commerce, e-banking, and other financial transactions and how such use is affected by spatial attributes of retail and bank accessibility and traffic congestion. First, a snapshot of aggregate patterns of ICT use in the United States is provided, and past theories are described. Next, the methodology is described for administering a mail-out and mail-back survey of households in the spring of 2003 (including Seattle, Washington; Kansas City, Kansas and Missouri; and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania). The survey measured participation in ICT-based activities in the form of shopping on the Internet (referred to as e-shopping), electronic banking, and other financial transactions. Finally, analyses are presented that focus on the degree to which the use of such activities is shaped by factors of accessibility, ICT availability, and traffic congestion. Contrary to expectations, the results suggest that, for the most part, spatial attributes do not appear to play a significant or substantive role in affecting rates of ICT use.

Demarcating on-street bicycle facilities is often mentioned as an important strategy to encourage increased bicycle safety and bicycle travel. However, little if any literature has focused on instances where separate on-street bicycle facilities end. This paper better understands the severity of such instances and corresponding physical characteristics. We identify 30 discontinuities of on-street bicycle lanes in Minneapolis, Minnesota, and collect primary data measuring their physical attributes and cyclists’ perceptions of the level of comfort while cycling through each. Using multi-variate analysis, the findings suggest that discontinuities ending on the left side of the street, with increased distance of crossing intersections, having parking after the discontinuities, and wider width of the curb lane are statistical elements that contribute to higher levels of discomfort. Such analysis is useful in determining bicyclists’ comfort level where discontinuities exist and such methods can be an important part of an overall level of service toolkit for planning on-street bicycle lanes.

This article presents an empirical study of the relationship between neighborhood-scale urban form and travel behavior. It focuses on households who relocate within the Central Puget Sound region to determine if they change their travel behavior when they move from one neighborhood type to another. Regression models are used to predict change in travel behavior as a function of change in neighborhood accessibility, controlling for changes in life cycle, regional accessibility, and workplace accessibility. The study is unique in that it analyzes the travel behavior of the same households in a longitudinal manner in concert with detailed urban form measures. The findings suggest that households change travel behavior when exposed to differing urban forms. In particular, locating to areas with higher neighborhood accessibility decreases vehicle miles traveled.

Many land use-transportation planning proposals aim to create neighborhoods with higher levels of neighborhood accessibility (NA). This article focuses on how such features are operationalized for purposes of research and/or regional modeling. The first section reviews specific variables classified by three basic tenets of NA: density, land use framework, and streets/design. The second section describes challenges in measuring NA to provide a better understanding of how such challenges shape research efforts and applications. The final section creates an NA index that is applied to the Central Puget Sound metropolitan area. The index uses detailed measures of density, land use mix, and street patterns and makes at least five contributions for urban form research.

This article discusses mortgage lending programs aimed at lower‐income buyers looking to purchase homes in compact, transit‐accessible neighborhoods. Unlike traditional lending formulas, the transit supportive home loans consider the transportation cost savings from living in transit‐friendly neighborhoods and applies these savings to a larger mortgage calculation. However, little has been published positioning the concept against the broader goals of smart growth, describing the application of the product, or commenting on its prospects. The first part of this article therefore draws heavily from the literature on smart growth to present the theoretical foundations of the transit supportive home loans and how they address growth management program goals. The second part describes the application of the concept, and the third examines the prospects for this tool and briefly comments on circumstances likely to bedevil its widespread adoption or overall impact.

Activity-based travel modeling has begun to make significant progress toward a more behavioral framework for simulating household travel behavior. A significant challenge remains in the need to address the interaction of daily activity and travel patterns with longer-term household choices of vehicle ownership, residential location, and employment location. The choices often depend on one another and jointly define the lifestyle of the household. These choices are likely to evolve over the course of the life cycle as households are formed; as children are born, raised, and ultimately depart to form their own households; and as retirement and old age change patterns of residence, work, and travel. A framework is developed for analyzing household choices relating to three dimensions of lifestyle: travel patterns (including vehicle ownership), activity participation, and residential location (neighborhood type). With cluster analysis on data from the Puget Sound Transportation Panel, nine classifications of lifestyle are uncovered. These clusters demonstrate empirically how decisions of residential location reinforce and affect daily decisions related to travel patterns and activity participation. The applicability of these lifestyle clusters for land use transportation planning is discussed.

Communities are increasingly looking to land use planning strategies based on a less auto-dependent urban form to reduce the need for travel, especially drive-alone travel. In recent years, several studies have attempted to test the impact urban form has on travel behavior to determine if such designs are warranted. The results of these studies are mixed because of several shortcomings. Some shortcomings can be attributed to data availability; others are a product of the techniques used to characterize urban form or travel. Still other shortcomings are embedded in the strategies employed, using cross-sectional travel data and correlating travel outcomes with urban form. The line of research is being extended, aimed at isolating the influence of urban form on travel behavior; a new research strategy is presented using longitudinal travel data in concert with detailed measures of travel behavior and urban form. Data sources from the Puget Sound are described and a research strategy is presented that permits a pretest-posttest analysis of households’ travel behavior before and after they changed residential location. Early results show few changes in household travel behavior after a move, suggesting that attitudes toward travel are firmly entrenched and postmove travel provides little insight into how changes in urban form affect travel. Although a pretest-posttest makes valiant strides in shedding new light on the matter, the complex phenomenon being addressed requires myriad approaches. More comprehensive research techniques and even research approaches based on different different traditions are much needed to better understand how urban form and travel interact.

This article focuses on the access objective of urban planning. It aims to articulate a clear role for measures of metropolitan accessibility, and to demonstrate the utility of these measures in informing and influencing policy. The article describes the use and measurement of accessibility for metropolitan areas, evaluates the current state of knowledge and literature, and identifies important issues about measurement. It suggests that problem definitions should be reformed to bring them in line with current transportation goals and argues that the concept of accessibility may offer a compelling, attractive, and alternative basis for policies related to the built environment when operationalized using cumulative-opportunities measures.

Background:The Pedestrian and Bicycling Survey (PABS) is a questionnaire designed to be economical and straightforward to administer so that it can be used by local governments interested in measuring the amount and purposes of walking and cycling in their communities. In addition, it captures key sociodemographic characteristics of those participating in these activities.Methods:In 2009 and 2010 results from the 4-page mail-out/mail-back PABS were tested for reliability across 2 administrations (test-retest reliability). Two versions—early and refined—were tested separately with 2 independent groups of university students from 4 universities (N = 100 in group 1; N = 87 in group 2). Administrations were 7 to 9 days apart.Results:Almost all survey questions achieved adequate to excellent reliability.Conclusions:Transportation surveys have not typically been tested for reliability making the PABS questionnaire an important new option for improving information collection about travel behavior, particularly walking and cycling.

This paper urges that policy decisions be based on important and reliable performance measures. Robust measures that assess the performance of the transportation and land use dimensions of cities, however, are typically missing from such discussions - they typically focus on congestion and mobility. The heart of approach suggested herein lies concept of accessibility: the ability of people to reach the destinations that they need to visit in order to meet their needs. By focusing on accessibility - rather than congestion or mobility - this approach produces a more complete and meaningful picture of metropolitan transport and land use. We place accessibility in a position of prominence as a performance measure by (a) describing the use and measurement of accessibility for metropolitan areas, (b) identifying robust, concrete and practical issues about measurement of the concept, (c) and offering prescriptions for resolving measurement issues.

Congestion is worse than ever and land development continues unabated into the countryside. Recent accounts suggest that unprecedented conditions are ahead; coordinated land use and transport planning in metropolitan areas is both targeted as a solution and the subject of increased scrutiny. Planning for Place and Plexus provides a fresh and unique perspective on metropolitan land use and transport networks, challenging current planning strategies and offering frameworks to understand and evaluate policy. The book suggests actions for the future urban growth of metropolitan areas and includes current and cutting edge theory, findings, and recommendations which are cleverly illustrated throughout using international examples. Planning for Place and Plexus is a valuable resource for students, researchers, practitioners and policy advisors working across transport, land-use and planning.

As a house is a machine for living, cities are the machine for accessibility. This chapter introduces the book "Access to Destinations" and outlines the editors reasons for presenting a series of papers centered around the concept of access. It is observed that, if the city is the machine for access, then policies need to be evaluated against that metric--policies that are based on empirically grounded research. These papers will not only serve to broaden the understanding of the meaning of accessibility, but raise questions that provide a research agenda for years to come on understanding the relationship between infrastructure, location, behavior, and accessibility.

Much of land use and transportation planning aims to reduce traffic congestion. Comprehensive and policy relevant measures useful to land-use and transportation planning need to capture both land use and travel dimensions. This book focuses on the science and policy around the multi-modal concept of accessibility.

This paper describes how urban form, whether it is compact, multi-nodal, or sprawling, impacts they type and cost of transportation systems needed to serve residents of a metropolitan area. On the other hand, the type and location of major transportation facilities greatly influences urban form. Almost a half of century’s worth of study on the link between tow provides a solid foundation to understand some inherent interactions between land use and transportation. These interactions manifest themselves in two forms: (1) the influence of urban form on transportation systems, travel demand, and urban travel behavior; and (2) the influence of transportation systems and transportation investments on metropolitan urban form. The two phenomena share a common heritage; however each asks different questions, and they often relate to different scales of analysis. This paper attempts to describe the issues that emanate from the former question—that is, what do we know abut the manner in which land use patterns affect household travel. In doing so, the paper discusses how the relationship between urban form and transportation has historically been conceptualized and also summarizes some of the existing research. The paper then turns to describing how the history relates to new and pressing research questions that provide the impetus for studying more in depth matters related to accessibility.

Synopsis This paper provides a first step in addressing special considerations for youth in a relatively new area of physical activity research. After reviewing the urgent need for novel approaches to increasing physical activity, the growing interest in the effects of community design are discussed. Although most discussion on this topic has focused on adults, there are important differences between youth and adults that warrant a special focus on youth and need to be accounted for. This article presents a schematic that accounts for how and where youth spend their time, decomposing the day into time spent in travel and time spent at destinations, and identifying portions of those times that are spent engaged in physical activity. By focusing on both spatial and behavioral dimensions of youth time, the schematic may help organize and advance scientific inquiry into the relationships between community design and physical activity specifically for youth.(Am J Health Promot 2004;0[0]:000‐000.)

Urban journalists and researchers seek performance measures on how one city fares versus another in any dimension. An increasingly important performance measure relates to how well cities advance one important dimension of sustainability - decreased mobile source pollutants and decreased travel for vehicles - and how much driving and congestion is occurring. But is congestion really the problem? This paper argues that a superior metric to measure the sustainability of a city's transportation system should centre around accessibility: resident's ease to visit destinations to meet their needs. This paper explores the issues related to the development of accessibility measures for non-motorised modes, namely bicycling and walking. We describe how difficulties in calculating accessibility measures arise primarily from problems with data quality, the zonal structure of transportation planning models, and the adequacy of models and travel networks for walking and cycling. Drawing from a larger research initiative (www.accesstodestinations.org), we present practical strategies for addressing these issues.

Accessibility is a concept central to integrated transport and land use planning. The goal of improving accessibility for all modes, for all people, has made its way into mainstream transport policy and planning in communities worldwide. This unique and fascinating book introduces new accessibility approaches to transport planning across Europe and the United States.

Accessibility is a concept central to integrated transport and land use planning. The goal of improving accessibility for all modes, for all people, has made its way into mainstream transport policy and planning in communities worldwide. This unique and fascinating book introduces new accessibility approaches to transport planning across Europe and the United States.

Bicycles, scooters, Segways, skateboards, and more are placing new demands on urban streets in big cities. These modes, termed ”little vehicles” (LVs) here, share common characteristics. This research leverages the 2017 National Household Travel Survey to understand and benchmark key characteristics for current users and trip characteristics of LVs. Our findings show that young men are the predominant users of these modes for a wide range of purposes, including recreational and social activities, shopping and errands, and work travel. In the biggest metro areas in the United States, three-quarters of the trips by LVs are less than 4 km (2.5 mi), and half are shorter than 2 km (1.2 mi) (median)—a distance band that is often considered too far to walk, but shorter than most trips currently taken by car.

Accessibility models not only help to explain spatial and transport developments in developed and developing countries but also are powerful tools to explain the equity and efficiency impacts of urban and transport policies and projects. In this book, leading researchers from around the world show the importance of accessibility in contemporary issues such as rural depopulation, investments in public services and public transport and transport infrastructure investments in Europe.