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We are at a point in history marked by unprecedented changes in the environmental foundations of human health and well-being. At the same time, the demands from human populations have never been greater, with profound differences in how we engage with the natural environment. By the middle of this century, when climate change impacts are further increasing, the United Nations expects the global population to be approaching 10 billion. In this chapter, we provide a synthesis of published evidence of the complex and important relationships between elements of biodiversity, health and climate change. We draw primarily on reviews conducted in the past five years supplemented with evidence on additional themes. We also develop a detailed case study example focused on urban climate, climate change and biodiversity, taken from the perspective of a large and representative conurbation. The case study uses a body of existing published evidence together with new data and insights to demonstrate important pathways, impacts and outcomes. We end by identifying a set of research questions and stress the need for even more extensive multi-disciplinary and multi-sector approaches. Nevertheless, despite the need for more knowledge, it is already clear that more effective action could, and should, be taken.

Modern urban life style is associated with chronic stress, insufficient physical activity and exposure to anthropogenic environmental hazards. Urban green space, such as parks, playgrounds, and residential greenery, can promote mental and physical health and reduce morbidity and mortality in urban residents by providing psychological relaxation and stress alleviation, stimulating social cohesion, supporting physical activity, and reducing exposure to air pollutants, noise and excessive heat.This chapter summarizes the pathways that link green spaces to health and well-being, and discusses available evidence of specific beneficial effects such as improved mental health, reduced risks of cardiovascular disease, obesity, diabetes and death, and improved pregnancy outcomesSpecific attention is given to benefits of urban green space for disadvantaged groups and their impacts on health equity. Potential health risks associated with urban green spaces are also discussed along with approaches to reducing or eliminating these risks through proper design and maintenance of green spaces.

Die internationale Konvention über die biologische Vielfalt (Convention on Biological Diversity, CBD) unterscheidet sich von anderen Umweltabkommen in einer bemerkenswerten Art und Weise: Fragen der Gerechtigkeit spielen hier eine explizite Rolle. Das durch die Konvention und das zugehörige Nagoya-Protokoll geschaffene Rahmenwerk zum Access and Benefit-Sharing (ABS) legt fest, dass im Gegenzug für den Zugang (access) zu genetischen Ressourcen und traditionellem Wissen ein „gerechter Vorteilsausgleich“ (benefit-sharing) erfolgen soll. Die ABS-Bestimmungen basieren also auf einer Tausch-Perspektive. Aber reicht diese Perspektive aus?Das ABS-Rahmenwerk kann als Reaktion auf die Praxis der Bioprospektion und damit verbundener Vorwürfe der „Biopiraterie“ gesehen werden. Bioprospektion ist die Suche nach biologischem und genetischem Material für praktische Anwendungen in Wissenschaft und Industrie (vgl. LÖßNER 2005: 36). Traditionelles Wissen indigener und lokaler Gemeinschaften kann bei dieser Suche eine wichtige Rolle spielen und die Trefferwahrscheinlichkeit bis um das Vierfache erhöhen (SHIVA 2002: 85). Der Begriff „Biopiraterie“ beschreibt nach Federle eine „Interessenverletzung der Entwicklungsländer bzw. indigenen oder lokalen Gemeinschaften durch die Patentierung von Erfindungen auf der Grundlage pflanzengenetischer Ressourcen und damit verbundenen traditionellen Wissens“ (FEDERLE 2005: 25). Es existiert jedoch keine einheitliche Definition, stattdessen werden unter dieser Überschrift verschiedene Probleme von der Patentierung und Monopolrechten auf Biodiversität, über Nicht-Anerkennung traditionellen Wissens bis zu ausbleibendem benefit-sharing und Nicht-Einhaltung der CBD-Standards problematisiert.Diese Studie rekonstruiert die „Biopiraterie“-Debatte auf gerechtigkeitstheoretischer Grundlage und fragt: Welche Gerechtigkeits-Probleme stellen sich bei der Nutzung traditionellen Wissens und genetischer Ressourcen, insbesondere wenn sie mit einer Patentierung verbunden ist?

Mounting research assesses the provision of regulating ecosystem services by green infrastructure in urban areas, but the extent to which these services can offer effective nature-based solutions for addressing urban climate change-related challenges is rarely considered. In this chapter, we synthesize knowledge from assessments of urban green infrastructure carried out in Europe and beyond to evaluate the potential contribution of regulating ecosystem services to offset carbon emissions, reduce heat stress and abate air pollution at the metropolitan, city and site scales. Results from this review indicate that the potential of regulating ecosystem services provided by urban green infrastructure to counteract these three climate change-related pressures is often limited and/or uncertain, especially at the city and metropolitan levels. However, their contribution can have a substantially higher impact at site scales such as in street canyons and around green spaces. We note that if regulating ecosystem services are to offer effective nature-based solutions in urban areas, it is critically important that green infrastructure policies target the relevant implementation scale. This calls for a coordination between authorities dealing with urban and environmental policy and for the harmonization of planning and management instruments in a multilevel governance approach. Regulating ecosystem services • Urban green infrastructure • Global climate regulation • Local climate regulation • Air quality regulation • Multi-scale assessment