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In addition to the traditional Geographic Information System (GIS) data such as images and vectors, point cloud data has become more available. It is appreciated for its precision and true three-Dimensional (3D) nature. However, managing the point cloud can be difficult due to scaling problems and specificities of this data type. Several methods exist but are usually fairly specialised and solve only one aspect of the management problem. In this work, we propose a complete and efficient point cloud management system based on a database server that works on groups of points rather than individual points. This system is specifically designed to solve all the needs of point cloud users: fast loading, compressed storage, powerful filtering, easy data access and exporting, and integrated processing. Moreover, the system fully integrates metadata (like sensor position) and can conjointly use point clouds with images, vectors, and other point clouds. The system also offers in-base processing for easy prototyping and parallel processing and can scale well. Lastly, the system is built on open source technologies; therefore it can be easily extended and customised. We test the system will several billion points of point clouds from Lidar (aerial and terrestrial ) and stereo-vision. We demonstrate ~ 400 million pts/h loading speed, user-transparent greater than 2 to 4:1 compression ratio, filtering in the approximately 50 ms range, and output of about a million pts/s, along with classical processing, such as object detection.

Streets are large, diverse, and used for conflicting transport modalities as well as social and cultural activities. Proper planning is essential and requires data. Manually fabricating data that represent streets (street reconstruction) is error-prone and time consuming. Automatising street reconstruction is a challenge because of the diversity, size, and scale of the details (~ cm for cornerstone) required. The state-of-the-art focuses on roads and is strongly oriented by each application (simulation, visualisation, planning). We propose a unified framework that works on real Geographic Information System (GIS) data and uses a strong, yet simple hypothesis when possible to produce coherent street modelling at the city scale or street scale. Because it is updated only locally in subsequent computing, the result can be improved by adapting input data and the parameters of the model. We reconstruct the entire Paris streets in a few minutes and show how the results can be edited simultaneously by several concurrent users.

This paper is an output of a French national project called iSpace&Time aiming to provide a 4 dimensional platform of an urban dynamics. In order to express the urban traffic, we took an advantage of the mobile phone data to investigate the behavior of the origin destination flow within the Paris and its suburb aiming to explore the different mode of the transportation. Indeed the spatiotemporal heterogeneities of mobile phone data make the task of mode of transportation separation very challenging, sometimes even impossible. Thus, by exploring the OD matrix in order to revealing any probable continues trends or any dominant trace of the flow stating a specific mode of transportation, the commuter trains happened to be somehow detectable. Then an individual-based step-by-step approach is proposed to estimate mode of transportation from mobile phone data. Analyzing the individual trajectory, the decision is given to a segment level with respect to different measures. An early promising outcome consists of detection of the segments in which people would take the metro.

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Cities are complex systems shaped by dynamics operating at different scales. As an interdisciplinary researcher in geographical information sciences, I work together with transport, geography, urban planning, history, demography and physics specialists, in order to propose better tools, models and data for the multi-scale study of urban dynamics. I present my contributions by order of scale, from the largest to the smallest:the very large scale for questions relating to mobility, the large scale for those relating to urban planning and the small scale for questions about territorial evolutions. For each part, I propose a common progress: first, questions about information sources, knowledge representation and manipulation, their storage; then, data analysis, their enrichment and matching ; finally, the interaction with these data, their visualisation, their interpretation, their validation and their correction by users., La ville est un système complexe façonné par des dynamiques opérant à des échelles différentes. En tant que chercheur en sciences de l’information géographique travaillant dans l’interdisciplinarité, je travaille en collaboration avec des spécialistes du transport, des géographes, des urbanistes, des historiens, des démographes, et des physiciens, afin de proposer de meilleurs outils, modèles et données pour l’étude multi-échelle des dynamiques urbaines. Je présente mes contribution dans un ordre correspondant à l’échelle spatiale, de la plus large à la plus fine : la très grande échelle pour les questions liées à la mobilité, la grande échelle pour celles liées à l’urbanisme et la petite échelle pour les questions liées à l’évolution du territoire dans le temps long. Pour chaque partie, je propose un cheminement commun : tout d’abord la question des sources d’information, des connaissances manipulées, leur représentation, leur stockage ; ensuite, la question de l’analyse de ces données, de leur enrichissement, de leur croisement ; enfin, l’interaction avec ces données, leur visualisation, leur interprétation, leur validation, leur correction par des utilisateurs.

International audience; The design of documents impacting potential new constructions, such as Right to Build plans, is a complex issue. New tools need to be proposed in order to systematically assess the impact of regulations on the building potential of the concerned areas. Furthermore, it is often not directly the morphology of new constructions that administrations and citizens would like to regulate but their properties with regard to other phenomena (solar energy potential, etc.). In order to tackle these issues, we propose in this article to explore building configurations and regulations using a stochastic building generator and a workflow engine. The workflow we propose for such an exploration will produce important amounts of data that we intend to release as OpenData in order for administrations, urban planners and citizens to be able to freely visualize and collectively choose the regulations that best suit their territory. Such amount of 3D geographical data also suggests new issues in geovisualization.

Morphological analysis of urban fabric is a relevant step in order to perform the analysis of urban dynamics and to simulate their evolutions. In this context, the objective of this paper is to test to test two relational data mining methods (Cardinalisation and Quantiles) to label urban blocks and to produce rules on their morphology. The objective is to automate the identification of urban fabrics from vector and historical database and to extract knowledge on urban morphology. Several tests applied on the Strasbourg area on historical database, are encouraging (80% of global accuracy on historical database). From the classification results, a statistical analysis of evolutions is described. MOTS-CLES : tissu urbain, morphologie, bases de donnees vectorielles, classification, arbre de decision, evolution.

The approach presented in this paper uses a multi-agent system to model the self- organising properties of urban systems from a morphological point of view and aims at provid- ing a tool to study urban growth. The proposed multi-agent system is a hierarchy of topographic agents (e.g. buildings, roads, rivers or urban blocks) that are built, modified, merged, split, re- structured and destroyed over time. Each agent's behaviour is controlled by a set of evolution rules, constraints and associated actions. This paper deals especially with populating functions which allow the creation of new agents while respecting a certain spatial organisation and a certain construction process.

This article presents the use of 3D GIS to represent, analyze and explore the most common urban rules of constructability found in French local urban planning regulations. A model is proposed in order to allow the capture and the management of urban rules. In this article, the exploration of these rules is made in 3D GIS through three different functions: check-up of these rules on a parcel, visualization of volume generated by a set of rules and generation under constraints of a building shape regarding to this volume. Thus, this tool offers the possibility to link parameters of urban rules to their impact on morphology of buildings. MOTS-CLES : SIG 3D, regles d'urbanisme, analyse spatiale, geovisualisation

L'analyse des phénomènes territoriaux est facilitée aujourd'hui par les Systèmes d'Information Géographique, lesquels permettent d'intégrer au sein d'une même plateforme les données géographiques et les données thématiques associées aux phénomènes d'intérêt. En pratique, les outils et les méthodes offerts par les SIG proposent d'analyser les phénomènes de manière intégrée, sans distinguer explicitement les facteurs explicatifs propres à la spatialisation des phénomènes et les facteurs explicatifs contextuels. Pour autant, les données géographiques ne se limitent pas à un simple support cartographique pour représenter les phénomènes territoriaux, mais contiennent en puissance des informations susceptibles de faire comprendre les mécanismes spatiaux qui sous-tendent ces phénomènes. En particulier, les données géographiques représentatives des réseaux hydrographiques décrivent la forme et la topologie de ces réseaux, et peuvent à ce titre fournir des informations complémentaires sur leurs types morphométriques. Sur la base de la typologie établie en géomorphométrie et des caractérisations géométriques fournies par la littérature, cet article montre qu'il est possible d'extraire l'information sémantique relative aux différents types de réseaux en automatisant leur reconnaissance, grâce à des indicateurs structurels quantitatifs construits sur leur représentation topographique. Cette démarche est mise en œuvre sur les réseaux de type parallèle, à partir de l'observation des angles formés par les tronçons hydrographiques au niveau des nœuds de confluence des réseaux. En considérant les directions moyennes empruntées par les tronçons autour de ces nœuds et en étudiant les distributions des angles qu'ils forment sur l'ensemble de la zone d'étude, il est alors possible d'élaborer une méthode de segmentation des réseaux hydrographiques, permettant de faire la part entre les réseaux de type parallèle et ceux relevant de types différents.Analyzing territorial phenomena is made easier today by Geographical Information Systems, which make it possible to integrate within the same platform geographical and thematic data related to the phenomena under study. In practice, tools and methods provided by GIS propose an integrated way to analyze the phenomena, without explicitly distinguishing the spatial from the contextual factors which explain the phenomena. Nonetheless, geographical data do not amount to a simple cartographic support representing the territorial phenomena, but potentially contain information making the undelying spatial mechanisms of these phenomena explicit. In particular, the geographical data related to the river networks describe the shape and topology of these networks and, for this reason, can provide additional details on their morphometric types. Thanks to the networks typology and the geometric characterizations provided by previous research in geomorphometry, this article shows that it is possible to extract semantic information relative to the various network types by automating their recognition, thanks to quantitative structural indicators built on their topographic representation. This process is implemented on parallel networks, starting from the observation of the angles formed by the networks edges around the junction nodes. By considering the average directions taken by the edges around these nodes, and by studying the angles distributions on the whole study area, it is possible to implement a segmentation method for hydrographic networks, dinstinguishing parallel networks from the other network types.

The evolution of infrastructure networks such as roads and streets are of utmost importance to understand the evolution of urban systems. However, datasets describing these spatial objects are rare and sparse. The database presented here represents the road network at the french national level described in the historical map of Cassini in the $18^{th}$ century. The digitization of this historical map is based on a collaborative methodology that we describe in detail. This dataset can be used for a variety of interdisciplinary studies, covering multiple spatial resolutions and ranging from history, geography, urban economics to network science., 12 pages, 4 figures

International audience; In recent years, many projects have focused on studying the transformations of a territory over time. The phenomena are then made of temporal, spatial and functional components.This multiplicity of features is the core of some complexity. We propose in this paper to revolve our thinking around the models starting from the definition of the scope of the study up to the analysis of transformations. Our approach is illustrated with several projects carried out in various application domains: geography, archeology, history, agriculture. For each project, we state the simplifying assumptions.; Ces dernières années, de nombreux projets ont porté et portent sur l’étude des transformations d’un territoire au cours du temps. Les phénomènes étudiés sont alors constitués de composantes temporelles, spatiales et fonctionnelles. Cette multiplicité des attributs est le coeur d’une certaine complexité. Nous proposons dans cet article d’articuler notre réflexion autour des modèles en partant de la définition du cadre de l’étude pour aller vers l’analyse des transformations, de l’évolution des objets dans une ou plusieurs des trois dimensions précédentes.Notre démarche sera illustrée par plusieurs projets ayant des domaines d’application variés : géographie, archéologie, histoire, agriculture. Pour chaque projet, nous détaillons les hypothèses simplificatrices utilisées.

International audience

International audience; In most countries, a project for the development of an urban area has to obey zoning regulations. In France, such zoning regulations are specified in local urban planning schemes (LUPS or PLU in French) defining the right to build at the scale of a parcel. Such rules define, for example, the maximal building height. As the rules are stated in technical documents, they are not easy for non-professionals to comprehend. It is also hard for professionals to assess their impacts. Driven by such issues, we propose to generate 3D building layouts that comply with these rules while optimizing urban indicators (e.g. floor area ratio). A building layout can be seen as a realization of a marked point process (MPP), which is a stochastic model mapping from a probability space to configurations of geometric objects, namely horizontal 3D boxes. Then, the problem of finding an optimized building layout is converted into finding the optimal realization of a MPP of 3D boxes. We solve this optimization problem by trans-dimensional simulated annealing (TDSA), which allows to explore both parameter space and model space in order to find the combination optimizing a given criterion or energy function. A global energy function is defined as the sum of weighted energy terms. Each energy term is able to penalize the building layouts that violate a specific rule or favor the ones according to the optimization task. TDSA generates the optimal building layout by minimizing this global energy using the coupling of a simulated annealing scheme with a Reversible Jump Markov Chain Monte Carlo (RJMCMC) sampler. We studied several common types of the French PLU rules and modeled them into energy terms. A case study is conducted and the results show that our proposed approach is capable of such an optimization task within a short computation time.

International audience; Considering sustainable development of cities implies investigating cities in a holistic way taking into account many interrelations between various urban or environmental issues. 3D city models are increasingly used in different cities and countries for an intended wide range of applications beyond mere visualization. Could these 3D City models be used to integrate urban and environmental knowledge? How could they be improved to fulfill such role? We believe that enriching the semantics of current 3D city models, would extend their functionality and usability; therefore, they could serve as integration platforms of the knowledge related to urban and environmental issues allowing a huge and significant improvement of city sustainable management and development. But which elements need to be added to 3D city models? What are the most efficient ways to realize such improvement / enrichment? How to evaluate the usability of these improved 3D city models? These were the questions tackled by the COST Action TU0801 " Semantic enrichment of 3D city models for sustainable urban development ". This book gathers various materials developed all along the four year of the Action and the significant breakthroughs.

International audience; This paper addresses the creation and maintenance of partitions of city surfaces for mapping and transportation applications. It proposes a hierarchical spatial surface partitioning, encoding the spatial partition with a 2D arrangement and structuring a generic hierarchy of semantic objects with a directed acyclic graph (DAG), in which the leaves point to the partition elements (polygonal regions, line strings, points). Semantic objects such as buildings, sidewalks and roads are described by grouping other objects and partition elements with their semantic relationships. In the proposed generic data model, geometry and spatial relationships of the semantic objects are respectively described by the geometry and topology of the planar partition. The proposed geometric data structure for creating and maintaining this partition is a 2D arrangement. In addition, the hierarchical object model encodes the thematic and semantic relationships between the objects. Besides the data model, methods and algorithms are discussed for leveraging existing vector datasets to create and maintain such partitions. These partitions are then fit to further processing and analysis using computational geometry and graph theory algorithms. For this purpose, three application-wise generic algorithms were integrated into our system called Streetmaker: two skeleton operators for centerline generation (straight skeleton and medial axis) and connectivity graphs for itinerary calculations. Moreover, specific algorithms can be integrated into Streetmaker for specific applications. We demonstrated an example usage of this framework for generating static obstacle avoiding pedestrian network graphs. The representation of the network graph and the process used to generate it, can be considered as the second contribution of our work besides the proposed data model.

International audience

owned by the authors; The increased availability of 3D urban data reflects a growing interest in 3D spatial analysis. As 3D spatial analysis often uses complex 3D data, studies of the potential gains of using more detailed 3D urban databases for specific uses is an important issue. First, more complex data implies an increase in time and memory usage for the analysis (and calls for more research on the efficiency of the algorithms used). Second, detailed 3D urban data are complex to produce, expensive and it is important to be well informed in order to decide whether of not to invest in such data. Currently, many studies have been led about the fitness for use of 2D data but they are very scarce concerning 3D data. This article presents a method to determine the influence of 3D modeling on the results of 3D analysis by isolating the potential sources of errors (such as roof modeling and geometric accuracy). This method is applied on two 3D datasets (LOD1 and LOD2) and a 3D indicator (the sky view factor or SVF). The results show that the significant influence of roof modeling is globally compensated by the difference in geometric modeling but that important local variations are noticed. Nevertheless, for 75% of the SVF processed the difference between the results using these two databases is lower than 2%.

This chapter presents a platform for classifying urban areas, improved by a machine learning framework able to ease this classification. We propose thanks to this platform an iterative procedure for geographic experts that have to define classes or “labels” and then classify in a semi-automated way. This work is part of the GeOpenSim project and has been developed within the Geoxygene framework.

Back to the 80s and 90s, researchers at the COGIT laboratory of the French National Mapping Agency often developed their own vector platforms dedicated to their respective research purposes like generalization, integration or 3D. This multiplicity of platforms became an obstacle to many important research activities like capitalizing and sharing. In 2000, based on ISO/OGC standard for data exchange, the COGIT laboratory decided to invest in the development of an ad hoc interoperable GIS platform that would host most of its research developments. This platform, called GeOxygene, was designed to have a rich data model and a genuine programming language to manipulate data. It facilitates the design and prototyping of processes which geographical data model are object oriented. It is also intended to facilitate the sharing of knowledge and programming efforts with other research labs. It is also shared through regular open source releases. This paper highlights the relevance for a research team like COGIT to contribute to Open Source software.

International audience; The aim of our research is to analyze the evolution of urbanization and to simulate it on specific areas. We focus on the evolution between 1950 and now. We analyse the densification by means of comparing temporal topographic data bases created from existing topographic data base and maps and photo from 1950. In this paper we present how a simulation works - which input data are used, which functions are used to densify the space and how the simulation works, is tuned and run - the densification method for each urban block illustrated with results, the method used during the project to build the required knowledge for simulation and we conclude and present the main research perspectives. The methods are implemented on a dedicated open source software named GeOpenSim.

http://www.elsevier.com/wps/find/homepage.cws_home; FL-systems are conditional rewriting systems. They are used for programming (describing) and evaluating (generating) huge 3D virtual environments, such as cities and forests. This paper presents a formal semantics and a dynamic dependency analysis for FL-systems. This analysis allows the characterization of a set of terms which are joinable with the currently rewritten term. Consequently, it is possible to speed up the rewriting steps of the environments generation by using a cache mechanism which is smarter than standard ones. This work can be seen as a dynamic completion of a set of rewriting rules. This completion increases the number of terms which are rewritten in normal form by the application of a single rewriting rule.

Cet article présente une application de techniques issues du génie logiciel à la modélisation d'environnements virtuels. Ces derniers, dès lors qu'ils sont complexes, constituent des masses de données particulièrement volumineuses et, de ce fait, difficiles à manipuler. De plus, les descriptions exhaustives de ces environnements, c'est-à-dire explicites, sont peu évolutives. Pour résoudre ces problèmes, il existe des méthodes basées sur des systèmes de réécriture permettant de décrire de fac¸on générique les objets de l'environnement. Chaque objet est ainsi décrit par un axiome qui est réécrit lors de la génération de l'environnement. Lors de cette phase, il est fréquent de retrouver deux séquences de réécriture aboutissant à un même objet. Il est alors possible d'utiliser un mécanisme tel que le cache afin d'améliorer les performances en profitant des calculs déjà effectués. Cependant, se contenter de mettre en correspondance les noms et paramètres des axiomes n'est pas suffisant pour établir l'ensemble des réécritures identiques. En effet, les réécritures d'un même axiome avec des paramètres effectifs différents peuvent aboutir au même objet. Le système proposé dans cet article effectue une analyse dynamique des réécritures afin d'améliorer les performances du cache en d´etectant de tels cas. La première partie de cet article présente le système de réécriture, la seconde l'analyse utilisée, et la dernière le mécanisme proposé.

In this paper, we present an FL-system, an extension of an L-system that allows us to generate any kind of object hierarchy and mesh on the fly. This has been made possible thanks to a modification of the classical L-system rewriting mechanism that produces a string of symbols interpreted afterwards. In our system, terminal symbols are not characters, but functions that can be executed at any step of the rewriting process. Thanks to this extension, our system allows the instantiation of generic objects during the course of the rewriting process as well as their initialization. Therefore, we are able to simulate all of the existing solutions proposed by classical L-systems, but we are also able to generate VRML97 scene graphs and geometry on the fly, since VRML97 nodes are handled as generic objects. As an example, we will show in the second part of this paper how to use our extension to describe building styles that are utilized to generate large sets of different building models. We also present some models of urban features (street lamps, etc.) and plants modeled and generated using FL-systems.

This paper presents a new navigation system built upon our client-server framework named Magellan. With this system one can navigate through a city model represented with procedural models transmitted to clients over a low bandwidth network. The geometry of these models is generated on the fly and in real time at the client side. The navigation system relies on different kinds of preprocessing such as space subdivision, visibility computation as well as a method for computing some parameters used to efficiently select the appropriate level of detail of objects. These two last kinds of preprocessing are automatically performed by the graphics hardware.

This report presents a new navigation system built upon our client-server framework named Magellan. With this system one can navigate through a city model represented with procedural models transmitted to clients over a network. The geometry of these models is generated on the fly and in real time at the client side. These procedural models are described using an enhanced and open version of the L-system language we have developed. The navigation system relies on different kinds of preprocessing such as space subdivision, visibility computation as well as a method for computing some parameters used to efficiently select the appropriate level of detail of objects. The two last preprocessings are automatically performed by the graphics card connected to the used computer. We also show how to build and compress the different files used to represent the database (corresponding to a city model) once this preprocessing has been effected. Methods for prefetching, anticipating and caching during remote navigation are also presented. Finally, we show how the procedural models, the space subdivision and the visibility information data are encoded into VRML97 files.

The process of urban sprawl of urban agglomerations is very often criticised for numerous reasons. The dynamics of residential developments, at the origin of urban sprawl, are very complex and result from the interaction of several phenomena. Many laws and regulations are supposed to control the construction of buildings in order to limit the negative impacts of urbanisation. It is nevertheless difficult to anticipate the effects of such a regulatory corpus. Its multi-scale nature, related to the different levels of regulation, the multiple regulated subjects and the different parties executing those regulations complicate the forecasting of their effects and the spatial configurations they contribute to create.Here, we propose a simulation model for the residential development of an urban agglomeration. It produces realistic configurations respecting the orientations, goals and constraints stemming from urban planning documents. To that end, we elaborate a coupling of two existing spatial simulation models. This coupling, named ArtiScales, follows a top-down approach in simulating the shape of the residential development of an entire study area by selecting the constructible parcels and by simulating the construction potential of each plot. ArtiScales integrates the MUP-City model, which allows us to select interesting locations with respect to the built configuration of the study area and to several points of interest (transportation networks, shopping facilities, services, etc.). We develop a parcel management model in order to select the existing parcels interesting for residential development and to recompose them when needed according to the chosen scenarios and to specific situations (densification, special operations). Finally, we use the SimPLU3D model to simulate the constructibility of each parcel. This model generates spatial configurations, in three dimensions, respecting the regulatory constraints originating from the local urban planning scheme (Plan Local de l’Urbanisme - PLU). We concentrate the analysis of the coupling results on the estimation of created housing units and its agreement with the goals defined by the local housing program (Programme Local de l’Habitat - PLH) and on the housing density by hectares and its agreement with the goals defined by the territorialcoherence scheme (Schéma de Cohérence Territoriale - SCoT).Spatial simulation models are subject to an important variability that questions the reliability of simulation results.MUP-City being particularly subject to such variability, we conduct a complete analysis of its simulation results in order to characterise the parameters responsible for this variability and how it translates to the produced spatial configurations. We distinguish two types of variations : the ones caused by scenaristic parameters, allowing to simulate different residential development forms, and those caused by technical parameters (internal to the model), allowing to suggest variants of the scenarios. The variability between the variants is compared with the variability found in the study of MUP-City results in order to see if the model coupling absorbs or amplifies it.The ArtiScales model (https ://github.com/ArtiScales/ArtiScales) is available as free and open source software and can be used in many applications. A set of simulations representing different scenarios has been explored on the Grand Besançon area (East of France). Simulations carried out represent a realistic and plausible residential development conforming to all the regulations at work and to the local spatial environment. We also suggest simulations that modify the zoning authorising the construction or not.; L’étalement des agglomérations urbaines est un processus très critiqué pour de nombreuses raisons. Les dynamiques du développement résidentiel, principal facteur de cet étalement, sont très complexes car elles résultent de l’interaction de plusieurs sous-systèmes. De nombreuses lois et règlements sont supposés contrôler la construction des bâtiments afin de limiter les impacts négatifs de l’urbanisation. Il est toutefois difficile d’anticiper l’effet d’un tel corpus réglementaire. Sa nature multi-échelle, liée aux différents niveaux de réglementation, aux différentes thématiques réglementées et aux différentes parties mettant en œuvre ces règlements complique la prévision de leurs effets et des configurations spatiales qu’ils contribuent à créer.Nous proposons ici un modèle de simulation du développement résidentiel d’une agglomération urbaine. Il produitdes configurations réalistes à partir d’une modélisation fine du territoire en respectant les orientations, les objectifs etles contraintes provenant des documents de planification et d’urbanisme. Pour ce faire, nous élaborons un couplagede deux modèles de simulation spatiale préexistants. Ce couplage, nommé ArtiScales, procède d’une manière des-cendante en simulant la forme du développement résidentiel de l’ensemble de la zone d’étude, en sélectionnant desparcelles constructibles et en simulant le potentiel de construction de chaque emplacement. ArtiScales intègre le modèle MUP-City afin de sélectionner des emplacements intéressants à urbaniser en fonction de la configuration bâtie de la zone d’étude et de divers points d’intérêt (réseaux de transports, commerces, services, etc.). Un modèle de gestion parcellaire est développé afin de sélectionner les parcelles existantes intéressantes à urbaniser et de les recomposer au besoin des scénarios et des situations particulières (densification, opérations spéciales). Pour chaque parcelle, nous utilisons ensuite le modèle SimPLU3D afin de simuler des bâtiments en trois dimensions respectant les contraintes réglementaires provenant du Plan Local de l’Urbanisme (PLU). Nous concentrons l’analyse des résultats du couplage ArtiScales sur l’estimation de la création de logements et sa concordance avec les objectifs définis dans le Programme Local de l’Habitat (PLH), ainsi que sur la densité de logements par hectare et sa concordance avec les objectifs définis dans le Schéma de Cohérence Territoriale (SCoT).Les modèles de simulation spatiale sont sujets à une forte variabilité pouvant mettre en cause la fiabilité des résultats de simulation. Le modèle MUP-City étant particulièrement soumis à cette variabilité, nous menons une analyse complète des résultats de simulation provenant de ce modèle afin de caractériser les paramètres à l’origine de cette variabilité et comment elle se traduit en termes de formes produites. Nous distinguons deux types de variations : celles provoquées par les paramètres scénaristiques, permettant de simuler différentes formes de développement résidentiel, et celles issues des paramètres techniques internes au modèle, permettant de proposer des variantes à ces scénarios.La variabilité entre les variantes de scénarios d’ArtiScales est comparée avec la variabilité dans l’étude des résultats de MUP-City afin de constater si le couplage de modèle la résorbe ou l’amplifie.Le modèle ArtiScales (https://github.com/ArtiScales/ArtiScales) est disponible sous une licence ouverte et peut être utilisé pour de nombreuses applications. Un ensemble de simulations représentant différents scénarios a été expérimenté sur le territoire du Grand Besançon (est de la France). Les simulations réalisées permettent de représenter un potentiel de développement résidentiel se conformant à toutes les réglementations en vigueur. Si ces objectifs ne peuvent être atteints, le modèle serait en mesure de proposer des modifications plus ou moins enviables pour les aménageurs.

The process of urban sprawl of urban agglomerations is very often criticised for numerous reasons.The dynamics of residential developments, at the origin of urban sprawl, are very complex and result from the interaction of several phenomena. Many laws and regulations are supposed to control the construction of buildings in order to limit the negative impacts of urbanisation.It is nevertheless difficult to anticipate the effects of such a regulatory corpus. Its multi-scale nature, related to the different levels of regulation, the different regulated subjects and the different parties executing those regulations complicate the forecasting of their effects and the spatial configurations they contribute to create. Here, we propose a simulation model for the residential development of an urban agglomeration. It produces realistic configurations respecting the orientations, goals and constraints stemming from urban planning documents. To that end, we elaborate a coupling of two existing spatial simulation models. This coupling, named ArtiScales, follows a top-down approach in simulating the shape of the residential development of an entire study area by selecting the constructible parcels and by simulating the construction potential of each plot. ArtiScales integrates the MUP-City model, that allows us to select interesting locations with respect to the built configuration of the study area and to several points of interest (transportation networks, shopping facilities, services, etc.). We develop a parcel management model in order to select the existing parcels interesting for residential development and to recompose them when needed according to the chosen scenarios and to specific situations (densification, special operations). Finally, we use the SimPLU3D model to simulate the constructibility of each parcel. This model generates spatial configurations, in three dimensions, respecting the regulatory constraints originating from the local urban planning scheme (Plan Local de l’Urbanisme - PLU). We concentrate the analysis of the coupling results on the estimation of created housing units and its agreement with the goals defined by the local housing program (Programme Local de l’Habitat - PLH) and on the housing density by hectare and its agreement with the goals defined by the territorial coherence scheme (Schéma de Cohérence Territoriale - SCoT). Spatial simulation models are subject to an important variability that questions the reliability of simulation results. MUP-City being particularly subject to such variability, we conduct a complete analysis of its simulation results in order to caracterise the parameters responsible for this variability and how it translates to the produced spatial configurations. We distinguish two types of variations : the ones caused by scenaristic parameters, allowing to simulate different residential development forms, and those caused by technical parameters (internal to the model), allowing to propose variants of the scenarios. The variability between the variants is compared with the variability found in the study of MUP-City results in order to see if the model coupling absorbs or amplifies it. The ArtiScales model (https://github.com/ArtiScales/ArtiScales) is available as free and open source software and can be used in many applications. A set of simulations representing different scenarios has been explored on the Grand Besançon territory (East of France). Simulations carried out represent a potential for residential development conforming to all the regulations at work. We also propose simulations that modify the zoning authorising the construction or not; L’étalement des agglomérations urbaines est un processus très critiqué pour de nombreuses raisons. Les dynamiques du développement résidentiel, principal facteur de cet étalement, sont très complexes car elles résultent de l’interaction de plusieurs sous-systèmes. De nombreuses lois et règlements sont supposés contrôler la construction des bâtiments afin de limiter les impacts négatifs de l’urbanisation. Il est toutefois difficile d’anticiper l’effet d’un tel corpus réglementaire. Sa nature multi-échelle, liée aux différents niveaux de réglementation, aux différentes thématiques réglementées et aux différentes parties mettant en œuvre ces règlements compliquent la prévision de leurs effets et des configurations spatiales qu’ils contribuent à créer. Nous proposons ici un modèle de simulation du développement résidentiel d’une agglomération urbaine. Il produit des configurations réalistes à partir d’une modélisation fine du territoire en respectant les orientations, les objectifs et les contraintes provenant des documents de planification et d’urbanisme. Pour ce faire, nous élaborons un couplage de deux modèles de simulation spatiale pré-existants. Ce couplage, nommé ArtiScales, procède d’une manière descendante en simulant la forme du développement résidentiel de l’ensemble de la zone d’étude, en sélectionnant des parcelles constructibles et en simulant le potentiel de construction de chaque emplacement. ArtiScales intègre le modèle MUP-City, qui permet de sélectionner des emplacements intéressants à urbaniser en fonction de la configuration bâtie de la zone d'étude et de divers points d’intérêt (réseaux de transports, commerces, services, etc.). Nous avons ensuite développé un modèle de gestion parcellaire, afin de sélectionner les parcelles existantes intéressantes à urbaniser et de les recomposer au besoin des scénarios et des situations particulières (densification, opérations spéciales). Nous utilisons enfin le modèle SimPLU3D afin de simuler la constructibilité de chaque parcelle. Ce modèle génère des configurations bâties en trois dimensions respectant les contraintes réglementaires provenant du Plan Local de l’Urbanisme (PLU). Nous concentrons l’analyse des résultats du couplage ArtiScales sur l’estimation de la création de logements et sa concordance avec les objectifs définis dans le Programme Local de l’Habitat, ainsi que sur la densité de logements par hectare et sa concordance avec les objectifs définis dans le Schéma de Cohérence Territoriale. Les modèles de simulation spatiale sont sujets à une forte variabilité pouvant mettre en cause la fiabilité des résultats de simulation. Le modèle MUP-City étant particulièrement soumis à cette variabilité, nous menons une analyse complète de ses résultats de simulation afin de caractériser les paramètres à l'origine de cette variabilité et comment elle se traduit en termes de formes produites. Nous distinguons deux types de variations : celles provoquées par les paramètres scénaristiques, permettant de simuler différentes formes de développement résidentiel, et celles issues des paramètres techniques internes au modèle, permettant de proposer des variantes à ces scénarios. La variabilité entre les variantes de scénarios d’ArtiScales est comparée avec la variabilité dans l’étude des résultats de MUP-City afin de constater si le couplage de modèle la résorbe ou l’amplifie. Le modèle ArtiScales (https://github.com/ArtiScales/ArtiScales) est disponible sous une licence ouverte et peut être utilisé pour de nombreuses applications. Un ensemble de simulations représentant différents scénarios ont été expérimentées sur le territoire du Grand Besançon (est de la France). Les simulations réalisées permettent de représenter un potentiel de développement résidentiel se conformant à toutes les réglementations en vigueur. Nous proposons également des simulations modifiant le zonage autorisant ou non la construction

3D geographic data are very frequent and represent territories in various ways. Such data are often used to better understand cities and their underlying phenomena by integrating different information (environmental, economic, etc.) to support urban planning. On a local scale, the French Local Urban Plan (PLU) describes constraints that regulate the urban development, notably through tri-dimensional constraints (for example by defining a maximal height or by limiting built area) that new buildings must respect. These constraints are compiled in a textual format. They are difficult to understand for non experts and their impact for a given territory is complex to assess.The aim of this thesis is to demonstrate how 3D geographic data enable the exploitation of local urban regulation constraints through two different uses : the verification of the respect of constraints and the generation of building configurations. Our method relies on a model of the urban environment, representing relevant objects according to regulations. This model supports the formulation of the constraints with the OCL language. The generation of building configurations is processed by an optimization method based on a trans-dimensional simulated annealing relying on a rule checker., Les données géographiques 3D sont de plus en plus courantes et modélisent de manières variées le territoire. Elles sont souvent utilisées pour mieux comprendre la ville et ses phénomènes sous-jacents en intégrant de nombreuses informations (environnementales, économiques, etc.) pour l’appui à l’aménagement du territoire. À l’échelle locale, le plan local d’urbanisme (PLU) décrit les connaissances régulant le développement urbain, incluant des contraintes tri-dimensionnelles (par exemple : hauteur maximale d’un bâtiment ou surface de plancher) que doivent respecter les nouveaux bâtiments. Ces contraints sont rédigées dans un format textuel, difficile de compréhension pour le non-initié et dont l’interprétation sur un territoire donné est complexe.L’objectif de cette thèse est de montrer comment les données géographiques 3D permettent d’exploiter les règlements locaux d’urbanisme à travers deux usages : la vérification de règles d’urbanisme et la proposition de configurations bâties. Notre méthodologie s’appuie sur une modélisation de l’espace urbain, représentant les objets pertinents mentionnés dans les règlements, support d’une formalisation des règles avec le langage OCL. La proposition de configurations bâties est réalisée grâce à une méthode d’optimisation basée sur un recuit simulé trans-dimensionnel et une technique de vérification du respect des règles.