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A Gram-staining-positive bacterium, designated AS-0823(T), which formed spiral spore chains on the aerial mycelium, was isolated from the intestinal tract of Armadillidium vulgare, a small terrestrial crustacean commonly found on the ground around houses in Japan. 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis showed that the isolate belonged to the genus Streptomyces and was most closely related to Streptomyces longisporus ISP 5166(T) (98.6 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity), Streptomyces curacoi NBRC 12761(T) (98.4 %) and Streptomyces griseoruber NBRC 12873(T) (98.4 %). The affiliation of strain AS-0823(T) to the genus Streptomyces was supported by chemotaxonomic data: iso-C(16 : 0), anteiso-C(15 : 0), C(16 : 0), iso-C(15 : 0) and anteiso-C(17 : 0) as the major cellular fatty acids, ll-diaminopimelic acid as the characteristic diamino acid in the peptidoglycan and the absence of mycolic acids. DNA-DNA hybridization and physiological and biochemical analysis supported the differentiation of strain AS-0823(T) from S. longisporus JCM 4395(T). Therefore, strain AS-0823(T) represents a novel species, for which the name Streptomyces coacervatus sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is AS-0823(T) ( = IFM 11055(T)  = DSM 41983(T)  = JCM 17138(T)).

Background: Most of crustacean immune responses are well described for the aquatic forms whereas almost nothing is known for the isopods that evolved a terrestrial lifestyle. The latter are also infected at a high prevalence with Wolbachia, an endosymbiotic bacterium which affects the host immune system, possibly to improve its transmission. In contrast with insect models, the isopod Armadillidium vulgare is known to harbor Wolbachia inside the haemocytes., Methodology/principal Findings: In A. vulgare we characterized three haemocyte types (TEM, flow cytometry): the hyaline and semi-granular haemocytes were phagocytes, while semi-granular and granular haemocytes performed encapsulation. They were produced in the haematopoietic organs, from central stem cells, maturing as they moved toward the edge (TEM). In infected individuals, live Wolbachia (FISH) colonized 38% of the haemocytes but with low, variable densities (6.45±0.46 Wolbachia on average). So far they were not found in hyaline haemocytes (TEM). The haematopoietic organs contained 7.6±0.7×10(3)Wolbachia, both in stem cells and differentiating cells (FISH). While infected and uninfected one-year-old individuals had the same haemocyte density, in infected animals the proportion of granular haemocytes in particular decreased by one third (flow cytometry, Pearson's test = 12 822.98, df = 2, p<0.001)., Conclusions/significance: The characteristics of the isopod immune system fell within the range of those known from aquatic crustaceans. The colonization of the haemocytes by Wolbachia seemed to stand from the haematopoietic organs, which may act as a reservoir to discharge Wolbachia in the haemolymph, a known route for horizontal transfer. Wolbachia infection did not affect the haemocyte density, but the quantity of granular haemocytes decreased by one third. This may account for the reduced prophenoloxidase activity observed previously in these animals.

In previous studies we detected lower species richness and lower Hg sensitivity of the bacteria present in egested guts of Porcellio scaber (Crustacea, Isopoda) from chronically Hg polluted than from unpolluted environment. Basis for such results were further investigated by sequencing of 16S rRNA genes of mercury-resistant (Hgr) isolates and clone libraries. We observed up to 385 times higher numbers of Hgr bacteria in guts of animals from polluted than from unpolluted environment. The majority of Hgr strains contained merA genes. Sequencing of 16S rRNA clones from egested guts of animals from Hg-polluted environments showed elevated number of bacteria from Pseudomonas, Listeria and Bacteroidetes relatives groups. In animals from pristine environment number of bacteria from Achromobacter relatives, Alcaligenes, Paracoccus, Ochrobactrum relatives, Rhizobium/Agrobacterium, Bacillus and Microbacterium groups were elevated. Such bacterial community shifts in guts of animals from Hg-polluted environment could significantly contribute to P. scaber Hg tolerance., (Copyright (c) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Ecological factors modulate animal immunocompetence and potentially shape the evolution of their immune systems. Not only environmental parameters impact on immunocompetence: Aging is one major cause of variability of immunocompetence between individuals, and sex-specific levels of immunocompetence have also been frequently described. Moreover, a growing core of data put in light that vertically transmitted symbionts can dramatically modulate the immunocompetence of their hosts. In this study, we addressed the influence of gender, age and the feminising endosymbiont Wolbachia (wVulC) on variations in haemocyte density, total PO activity and bacterial load in the haemolymph of the terrestrial isopod Armadillidium vulgare. This host-symbiont system is of particular interest to address this question since: (1) wVulC was previously shown as immunosuppressive in middle-aged females and (2) wVulC influences sex determination. We show that age, gender and Wolbachia modulate together immune parameters in A. vulgare. However, wVulC, which interacts with aging, appears to be the prominent factor interfering with both PO activity and haemocyte density. This interference with immune parameters is not the only aspect of wVulC virulence on its host, as reproduction and survival are also altered.

The digestion of lignocellulose is attracting attention both in terms of basic research into its metabolism by microorganisms and animals, and also as a means of converting plant biomass into biofuels. Limnoriid wood borers are unusual because, unlike other wood-feeding animals, they do not rely on symbiotic microbes to help digest lignocellulose. The absence of microbes in the digestive tract suggests that limnoriid wood borers produce all the enzymes necessary for lignocellulose digestion themselves. In this study we report that analysis of ESTs from the digestive system of Limnoria quadripunctata reveals a transcriptome dominated by glycosyl hydrolase genes. Indeed, > 20% of all ESTs represent genes encoding putative cellulases, including glycosyl hydrolase family 7 (GH7) cellobiohydrolases. These have not previously been reported in animal genomes, but are key digestive enzymes produced by wood-degrading fungi and symbiotic protists in termite guts. We propose that limnoriid GH7 genes are important for the efficient digestion of lignocellulose in the absence of gut microbes. Hemocyanin transcripts were highly abundant in the hepatopancreas transcriptome. Based on recent studies indicating that these proteins may function as phenoloxidases in isopods, we discuss a possible role for hemocyanins in lignin decomposition.

Mycoplasms are known as pathogens of economic and medical interest in plants, animals and man. Here, we show a positive correlation between the presence of Mycoplasma-like symbionts in their isopod hosts and survivorship on low-quality food. Most isopods that survived feeding on a cellulose-based low-quality diet for 90 days harboured 'Candidatus Hepatoplasma' in their midgut glands, while those that died within 90 days mostly either harboured no or other bacterial symbionts. We detected 'Candidatus Hepatoplasma' in all but one of the examined species of terrestrial isopods from different habitats and locations, suggesting an evolutionarily ancient association between terrestrial isopods and their Mycoplasma-like symbionts. Phylogenetic analyses clustered symbionts from different populations of the same isopod species together, and clearly distinguished between symbionts of different isopod species, indicating host-specificity of 'Candidatus Hepatoplasma', although a previous study provided evidence for environmental symbiont transmission. Nonetheless, horizontal exchange of symbionts between species may have been possible in evolutionary earlier stages, as suggested by only limited congruency of phylogenetic trees of hosts and symbionts. Another symbiont, 'Candidatus Hepatincola porcellionum', was only detected in midgut glands of the most terrestrial tribe of isopods (Crinocheta), suggesting an evolutionarily younger host-symbiont association. This symbiont proved to be negatively correlated with host longevity, even on high-quality food.

In this study, we evaluated the effect of entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) Steinernema carpocapsae, Steinernema feltiae and Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, symbiotically associated with bacteria of the genera Xenorhabdus or Photorhabdus, on the survival of eight terrestrial isopod species. The EPN species S. carpocapsae and H. bacteriophora reduced the survival of six isopod species while S. feltiae reduced survival for two species. Two terrestrial isopod species tested (Armadillidium vulgare and Armadillo officinalis) were found not to be affected by treatment with EPNs while the six other isopod species showed survival reduction with at least one EPN species. By using aposymbiotic S. carpocapsae (i.e. without Xenorhabdus symbionts), we showed that nematodes can be isopod pathogens on their own. Nevertheless, symbiotic nematodes were more pathogenic for isopods than aposymbiotic ones showing that bacteria acted synergistically with their nematodes to kill isopods. By direct injection of entomopathogenic bacteria into isopod hemolymph, we showed that bacteria had a pathogenic effect on terrestrial isopods even if they appeared unable to multiply within isopod hemolymphs. A developmental study of EPNs in isopods showed that two of them (S. carpocapsae and H. bacteriophora) were able to develop while S. feltiae could not. No EPN species were able to produce offspring emerging from isopods. We conclude that EPN and their bacteria can be pathogens for terrestrial isopods but that such hosts represent a reproductive dead-end for them. Thus, terrestrial isopods appear not to be alternative hosts for EPN populations maintained in the absence of insects.

Wolbachia are maternally inherited alpha-proteobacteria that induce feminization of genetic males in most terrestrial crustacean isopods. Two clusters of vir genes for a type IV secretion machinery have been identified at two separate loci and characterized for the first time in a feminizing Wolbachia. Furthermore, we demonstrated that these operons are transcriptionally active in ovaries and in all other tissues tested, suggesting that T4SS has a significant role in Wolbachia biology. These observations and the identification of homologous vir genes in Wolbachia strains infecting insects or nematodes show that vir genes are conserved among Wolbachia strains whatever the phenotype induced by the bacteria.

The aim of our work was to assess the pollution-induced community tolerance (PICT) of isopod gut microbiota and pollution-induced isopod population tolerance (PIPT). Animals collected from a chronically Hg polluted and an unpolluted location were exposed for 14 days to 10microg Hg/g dry food under laboratory conditions. The lysosomal membrane stability, hepatopancreas epithelium thickness, feeding activity and animal bacterial gut microbiota composition were determined. The results confirm the hypothesis that the response to short-term Hg exposure differs for animals from the Hg polluted and the unpolluted field locations. The animals and their gut microbiota from the Hg polluted location were less affected by Hg in a short-term feeding experiment than those from the unpolluted environment. We discuss the pollution-induced population tolerance of isopods and their gut microbiota as a measure of effects of long-term environmental pollution. The ecological consequences of such phenomena are also discussed.

We report the inedited occurrence of zygospores in symbiotic Asellariales (Zygomycota) from Puerto Rico and Dominican Republic. Two new species of Asellaria are described, Asellaria dactylopus and A. jatibonicua, both found in the hindgut of terrestrial isopods. The presence of spherical zygospores in the latter species represents a novelty for the order. The related gut-fungi Harpellales were known to produce sexual spores, characteristically conical or biconical. Order Asellariales is emended to include the description of zygospores. An undetermined species of Orchesellaria also is reported from the Caribbean. Comments are provided for each of the species as well as drawings and photographs to illustrate each taxon.

Pointed, rod-shaped bacteria colonizing the cuticular surface of the hindgut of the terrestrial isopod crustacean Porcellio scaber (Crustacea: Isopoda) were investigated by comparative 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis and electron microscopy. The results of phylogenetic analysis, and the absence of a cell wall, affiliated these bacteria with the class Mollicutes, within which they represent a novel and deeply branched lineage, sharing less than 82.6% sequence similarity to known Mollicutes. The lineage has been positioned as a sister group to the clade comprising the Spiroplasma group, the Mycoplasma pneumoniae group, and the Mycoplasma hominis group. The specific signature sequence was identified and used as a probe in in situ hybridization, which confirmed that the retrieved sequences originate from the attached rod-shaped bacteria from the hindgut of P. scaber and made it possible to detect these bacteria in their natural environment. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed a spherically shaped structure at the tapered end of the rod-shaped bacteria, enabling their specific and exclusive attachment to the tip of the cuticular spines on the inner surface of the gut. Specific adaptation to the gut environment, as well as phylogenetic positioning, indicate the long-term association and probable coevolution of the bacteria and the host. Taking into account their pointed, rod-shaped morphology and their phylogenetic position, the name "Candidatus Bacilloplasma" has been proposed for this new lineage of bacteria specifically associated with the gut surface of P. scaber.

We determined the 16S rRNA gene sequences of three crustacean "Rickettsiella armadillidii" strains. Rickettsiella bacteria overall appear to form a monophyletic group that diverged from Coxiella bacteria approximately 350 million years ago. Therefore, the genus Rickettsiella as a whole (not just Rickettsiella grylli) should be classified among the Gammaproteobacteria instead of the Alphaproteobacteria.

Wolbachia are maternally inherited endosymbiotic alpha-Proteobacteria infecting a wide range of arthropods. Wolbachia induce feminization in many terrestrial isopod species, particularly in the genus Armadillidium (Crustacea, Oniscidea). The diversity of Wolbachia strains infecting Armadillidium species was examined. Results reveal that natural populations of A. vulgare contain three different Wolbachia strains (wVulC, wVulM and wVulP). The wsp gene and its 3'-adjacent region show evidence that two recombination events have occurred between two of these strains. In both cases, multiple statistical analyses suggest that a small gene fragment of a strain closely related to wVulM (minor parent) is inserted into the genome of another strain closely related to wVulC (major parent). Although multiple infections in a single individual have never been demonstrated in natural population, the existence of recombination between feminizing strains suggests that bi-infections are possible, or at least that bi-infections can be maintained sufficiently long enough to allow recombination. Recombination events increase genetic diversity of Wolbachia found in Armadillidium species and may play a role in the ability of Wolbachia strains to invade new hosts.

The midgut glands (hepatopancreas) of terrestrial isopods contain bacterial symbionts. We analysed the phylogenetic diversity of hepatopancreatic bacteria in isopod species from various suborders colonizing marine, semiterrestrial, terrestrial and freshwater habitats. Hepatopancreatic bacteria were absent in the marine isopod Idotea balthica (Valvifera). The symbiotic bacteria present in the midgut glands of the freshwater isopod Asellus aquaticus (Asellota) were closely related to members of the proteobacterial genera Rhodobacter, Burkholderia, Aeromonas or Rickettsiella, but differed markedly between populations. By contrast, species of the suborder Oniscidea were consistently colonized by the same phylotypes of hepatopancreatic bacteria. While symbionts in the semiterrestrial isopod Ligia oceanica (Oniscidea) were close relatives of Pseudomonas sp. (Gammaproteobacteria), individuals of the terrestrial isopod Oniscus asellus (Oniscidea) harboured either 'Candidatus Hepatoplasma crinochetorum' (Mollicutes) or 'Candidatus Hepatincola porcellionum' (Rickettsiales), previously described as symbionts of another terrestrial isopod, Porcellio scaber. These two uncultivated bacterial taxa were consistently present in each population of six and three different species of terrestrial isopods, respectively, collected in different geographical locations. However, infection rates of individuals within a population ranged between 10% and 100%, rendering vertical transmission unlikely. Rather, feeding experiments suggest that 'Candidatus Hepatoplasma crinochetorum' is environmentally transmitted to the progeny.

Prokaryotes are of high importance in the assessment of environmental pollution effects. Due to fast responsiveness of bacterial communities to environmental physicochemical factors, it is difficult to compare results of bacterial community investigations on the temporal and spatial scale. To reduce the effects of variable physicochemical environmental conditions on bacterial microbiota when investigating the specific impact of contaminants on bacterial communities, we investigated the bacterial community in the gut of terrestrial isopods (Porcellio scaber, Isopoda, Crustacea) from clean and metal-polluted environments. Animals were collected from a chronically mercury-polluted site, a chronically multiple metal-(Cd, Pb, Zn) polluted site, and two reference sites. In addition, animals from an unpolluted site were laboratory exposed to 5 microg Hg/g food in order to compare the effect of acute and chronic Hg exposure. The bacterial gut microbiota was investigated by temporal temperature gradient gel electrophoresis (TTGE) and clone library construction based on polymerase chain reaction amplified 16S rRNA genes. The major bacterial representatives of the emptied gut microbiota in the animals from the chronically polluted environments seemed not affected when analyzed by TTGE. The detailed bacterial community structure investigated by 16S rRNA clone library construction, however, showed that the community from the Hg-polluted site also was affected severely (242.4 operational taxonomic units [OTU] in the polluted and 650.6 OTU in the unpolluted environment). When animals were acutely exposed to mercury, changes of bacterial community structures already were seen on TTGE profiles and no additional analysis was needed. We suggest the use of P. scaber gut bacterial community structure as a measure of effects caused by both long- and short-term exposure to pollution.

Soil invertebrates harbour a complex microbial community in their intestinal system. The total number of microbes in the hindgut of soil invertebrates can reach a titre of 10(11) ml(-1). The gut microbes play an indispensable role in the digestion of food and are of ecological importance in the global carbon cycle. The gut microbiota can include a variety of micro-organisms from the three domains Bacteria, Archaea and Eucarya. The bacterial groups from the intestinal systems are mainly affiliated to the proteobacteria, the gram-positive groups Firmicutes and Actinobacteria, the Bacteroides/Flavobacterium branch and the spirochetes. The Archaea are represented by methanogens. The eukaryotic groups consist of protozoa, yeasts and fungi. Intestinal bacteria are involved in the degradation of cellulose, hemicellulose and aromatic compounds as well as nitrogen fixation. They also contribute to the redox status of the gut. Bacilli form a significant portion of the intestinal microbial community of soil invertebrates, especially among cellulose degraders. The diversity and function of bacilli in soil invertebrates will be discussed in this paper.

Although Bacillus cereus sensu lato are important both from an ecological and an economical point of view, little is known about their population structure, ecology, and relationships with other organisms. In the present work, the genotypic similarity of arthropod-borne B. cereus s.l. isolates, and their symbiotic relationship with the host are assessed. Bacilli of this group were recovered from the digestive tracts of sow bugs (Porcellio scaber) collected in three closely located sites. Their genotypic diversity was investigated using pulse-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) following the whole-genome DNA digestions with NotI and AscI, and PCR amplification of virulence genes. The majority of the sow-bug Bacillus cereus sensu stricto isolates originating from the same but also from different sites displayed identical PFGE patterns, virulence gene content and enterotoxicity, indicating strong genetic and genomic relationships. The sow-bug Bacillus mycoides/Bacillus pseudomycoides strains displayed a higher diversity. The isopod-B. cereus s.l. relationship was also evaluated using antibiotic-resistant derivatives of B. cereus s.s., B. mycoides/B. pseudomycoides and Bacillus thuringiensis reintroduced into sow bugs. Both spores and vegetative cells of B. cereus s.l. were recovered from sow bugs over a 30-day period, strongly suggesting that these bacteria are natural residents of terrestrial isopods.

Symbioses profoundly affect the diversity of life, often through novel biochemical services that symbionts provide to their hosts. These biochemical services are typically nutritional enhancements and less commonly defensive, but rarely both simultaneously. On the coral reefs of Papua New Guinea, we discovered unique associations between marine isopod crustaceans (Santia spp.) and episymbiotic microbes. Transmission electron microscopy and pigment analyses show that episymbiont biomass is dominated by large (20-30 microm) cyanobacterial cells. The isopods consume these photosymbionts and "cultivate" them by inhabiting exposed sunlit substrates, a behaviour made possible by symbionts' production of a chemical defence that is repulsive to fishes. Molecular phylogenetic analyses demonstrated that the symbiotic microbial communities are diverse and probably dominated in terms of population size by bacteria and small unicellular Synechococcus-type cyanobacteria. Although largely unknown in the oceans, defensive symbioses probably promote marine biodiversity by allowing niche expansions into otherwise hostile environments.

We report the isolation and the characterization of a novel antibacterial peptide from hemocytes of the woodlouse Armadillidium vulgare, naturally infected or uninfected by Wolbachia, an intracellular Gram-negative bacterium. This molecule displays antibacterial activity against Gram-positive bacteria despite its composition which classes it into the glycine-rich antibacterial peptide family, usually directed against fungi and Gram-negative bacteria. The complete sequence was determined by a combination of Edman degradation, mass spectrometry and cDNA cloning using a hemocyte library. The mature peptide (53 residues) has a 5259 Da molecular mass and is post-translationally modified by a C-terminal amidation. This peptide is characterized by a high level of glycine (47%) and a fivefold repeated motif GGGFH(R/S). As no evident sequence homology to other hitherto described antibacterial peptides has been found out, this antibacterial peptide was named armadillidin. Armadillidin is constitutively expressed in hemocytes and appears to be specific of A. vulgare.

Uncultivated bacteria that densely colonize the midgut glands (hepatopancreas) of the terrestrial isopod Porcellio scaber (Crustacea: Isopoda) were identified by cloning and sequencing of their 16S rRNA genes. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these symbionts represent a novel lineage of the Mollicutes and are only distantly related (<82% sequence identity) to members of the Mycoplasmatales and Entomoplasmatales. Fluorescence in situ hybridization with a specific oligonucleotide probe confirmed that the amplified 16S rRNA gene sequences indeed originated from a homogeneous population of symbionts intimately associated with the epithelial surface of the hepatopancreas. The same probe also detected morphotypically identical symbionts in other crinochete isopods. Scanning and transmission electron microscopy revealed uniform spherical bacterial cells without a cell wall, sometimes interacting with the microvilli of the brush border by means of stalk-like cytoplasmic appendages, which also appeared to be involved in cell division through budding. Based on the isolated phylogenetic position and unique cytological properties, the provisional name "Candidatus Hepatoplasma crinochetorum" is proposed for this new taxon of Mollicutes colonizing the hepatopancreas of P. scaber.

A number of parasites are vertically transmitted to new host generations via female eggs. In such cases, host reproduction is an intimate component of parasite fitness and no cost of the infection on host reproduction is expected to evolve. A number of these parasites distort host sex ratios towards females, thereby increasing either parasite fitness or the proportion of the host that transmit the parasite. In terrestrial isopods (woodlice), Wolbachia bacteria are responsible for sex reversion and female-biased sex ratios, changing genetic males into functional neo-females. Although sex ratio distortion is a powerful means for parasites to increase in frequency in host populations, it also has potential consequences on host biology, which may, in turn, have consequences for parasite prevalence. We used the woodlouse Armadillidium vulgare to test whether the interaction between Wolbachia infection and the resulting excess of females would limit female fertility through the reduction in sperm number that they receive from males. We showed that multiple male mating induces sperm depletion, and that this sperm depletion affects fertility only in infected females. This decrease in fertility, associated with male mate choice, may limit the spread of Wolbachia infections in host populations.

The midgut glands (hepatopancreas) of terrestrial isopods are densely colonized by hitherto uncultivated bacteria. In the case of the Common Woodlouse, Porcellio scaber (Crustacea: Isopoda), the symbionts represent a novel lineage in the alpha-subdivision of Proteobacteria. Based on comparative sequence analysis of their 16S rRNA genes, their closest (albeit distant) relatives were among the Rickettsiales, which are intracellular symbionts or pathogens of many animals. Transmission electron microscopy and in situ hybridization with fluorescently labeled oligonucleotide probes revealed a homogeneous population of symbionts intimately associated with the endothelium of the hepatopancreas, which apparently interact with the microvilli of the brush border by means of a stalk-like cytoplasmic appendage. Based on isolated phylogenetic position and unique cytological properties, the provisional name ' Candidatus Hepatincola porcellionum' is proposed to classify this new taxon of Rickettsiales colonizing the hepatopancreas of P. scaber.

Intracellular bacteria were observed in the hepatopancreas of the terrestrial isopod Porcellio scaber. Comparative 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis and electron microscopic observations were used to determine the taxonomic position of these intracellular bacteria. Phylogenetic analysis and a complex developmental cycle affiliate these bacteria to the order Chlamydiales, within which they form a distinctive lineage, close to the family Simkaniaceae. They share <92 % 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with their closest relative and <88 % similarity with other members of the order Chlamydiales. A specific signature oligonucleotide sequence was identified and used as a probe, enabling the identification of intracellular bacteria in infected hepatopancreatic tissue. According to the distinctive morphology of their elementary bodies, which are rod-shaped rather than spherical and contain translucent oblong structures, their genomic properties and their crustacean host, the name 'Candidatus Rhabdochlamydia porcellionis' is proposed for intracellular bacteria in the hepatopancreas of P. scaber.

Anaerobic bacteria from Porcellio scaber hindgut were identified and, subsequently, isolated using molecular approach. Phylogenetic affiliation of bacteria associated with the hindgut wall was determined by analysis of bacterial 16S rRNA gene sequences which were retrieved directly from washed hindguts of P. scaber. Sequences from bacteria related to obligate anaerobic bacteria from genera Bacteroides and Enterococcus were retrieved, as well as sequences from 'A1 subcluster' of the wall-less mollicutes. Bacteria from the genus Desulfotomaculum were isolated from gut wall and cultivated under anaerobic conditions. In contrast to previous reports which suggested the absence of anaerobic bacteria in the isopod digestive system due to short retention time of the food in the tube-like hindgut, frequent renewal of the gut cuticle during the moulting process, and unsuccessful attempts to isolate anaerobic bacteria from this environment our results indicate the presence of resident anaerobic bacteria in the gut of P. scaber, in spite of apparently unsuitable, i.e. predominantly oxic, conditions.

Numerous animals are known to harbour intracytoplasmic symbionts that gain transmission to a new host generation via female eggs and not male sperm. Bacteria of the genus Wolbachia are a typical example. They infect a large range of arthropod species and manipulate host reproduction in several ways. In terrestrial isopods (woodlice), Wolbachia are responsible for converting males into females (feminization (F)) in some species, or for infertility in certain host crosses in other species (cytoplasmic incompatibility (CI)). Wolbachia with the F phenotype impose a strong excess of females on their host populations, while Wolbachia expressing CI do not. Here, we test the possibility that male mating capacity (MC) is correlated with Wolbachia-induced phenotype. We show that males of isopod hosts harbouring F Wolbachia possess a strong MC (i.e. are able to mate with several females in a short time), while those of species harbouring CI Wolbachia possess a weaker MC. This pattern may be explained either by the selection of high MC following the increase in female-biased sex ratios, or because the F phenotype would lead to population extinction in species where MC is not sufficiently high. This last hypotheses is nevertheless more constrained by population structure.