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Purpose: To investigate within-player effect, between-player effect, and individual response of external training load from player tracking devices on session rating of perceived exertion training load (sRPE-TL) in elite football players. Methods: The authors collected sRPE-TL from 18 outfield players in 21 training sessions. Total distance, high-speed running distance (>14.4 m/s), very high-speed running distance (>19.8 m/s), PlayerLoad™, PlayerLoad2D™, and high-intensity events (HIE > 1.5, HIE > 2.5, and HIE > 3.5 m/s) were extracted from the tracking devices. The authors modeled within-player and between-player effects of single external load variables on sRPE-TL, and multiple levels of variability, using a linear mixed model. The effect of 2 SDs of external load on sRPE-TL was evaluated with magnitude-based inferences. Results: Total distance, PlayerLoad™, PlayerLoad2D™, and HIE > 1.5 had most likely substantial within-player effects on sRPE-TL (100%–106%, very large effect sizes). Moreover, the authors observed likely substantial between-player effects (12%–19%, small to moderate effect sizes) from the majority of the external load variables and likely to very likely substantial individual responses of PlayerLoad™, high-speed running distance, very high-speed running distance, and HIE > 1.5 (19%–30% coefficient of variation, moderate to large effect sizes). Finally, sRPE-TL showed large to very large between-session variability with all external load variables. Conclusions: External load variables with low intensity-thresholds had the strongest relationship with sRPE-TL. Furthermore, the between-player effect of external load and the individual response to external load advocate for monitoring sRPE-TL in addition to external load. Finally, the large between-session variability in sRPE-TL demonstrates that substantial amounts of sRPE-TL in training sessions are not explained by single external load variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To compare the training-intensity distribution (TID) across an 8-week training period in a group of highly trained middle-distance runners employing 3 different methods of training-intensity quantification. Methods: A total of 14 highly trained middle-distance runners performed an incremental treadmill test to exhaustion to determine the heart rate (HR) and running speed corresponding to the ventilatory thresholds (gas-exchange threshold and respiratory-compensation threshold), as well as fixed rating of perceived exertion (RPE) values, which were used to demarcate 3 training-intensity zones. During the following 8 weeks, the TID (total and percentage of time spent in each training zone) of all running training sessions (N = 695) was quantified using continuous running speed, HR monitoring, and RPE. Results: Compared with the running-speed-derived TID (zone 1, 79.9% [7.3%]; zone 2, 5.3% [4.9%]; and zone 3, 14.7% [7.3%]), HR-demarcated TID (zone 1, 79.6% [7.2%]; zone 2, 17.0% [6.3%]; and zone 3, 3.4% [2.0%]) resulted in a substantially higher training time in zone 2 (effect size ± 95% confidence interval: −1.64 ± 0.53; P <.001) and lower training time in zone 3 (−1.59 ± 0.51; P <.001). RPE-derived TID (zone 1, 39.6% [8.4%]; zone 2, 31.9% [8.7%]; and zone 3, 28.5% [11.6%]) reduced time in zone 1 compared with both HR (−5.64 ± 1.40; P <.001) and running speed (−5.69 ± 1.9; P <.001), whereas time in RPE training zones 2 and 3 was substantially higher than both HR- and running-speed-derived zones. Conclusion: The results show that the method of training-intensity quantification substantially affects computation of TID. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sansone, P, Rago, V, Kellmann, M, and Alcaraz, PE. Relationship between athlete-reported outcome measures and subsequent match performance in teamsports: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res 37(11): 2302-2313, 2023--Athlete-reported outcome measures (AROMs; e.g., fatigue, stress, readiness, recovery, and sleep quality) are commonly implemented in team sports to monitor the athlete status. However, the relationship between AROMs and match performance indicators is unclear and warrants further investigation. This systematic review examined the relationship between precompetitive AROMs and subsequent match performances of team sport athletes. Following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 3 (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) databases were systematically searched to retrieve studies investigating the effects or association of AROMs and match: (a) technical-tactical performance (match-related statistics), (b) physical performance, (c) physiological and (d) perceptual demands, and (e) other measures of performance in adult team sport athletes. Quality assessment of included studies was performed using a modified Black and Downs checklist. Fifteen articles representing 289 team sport athletes were included. Mean quality of included studies was 7.661.0 (of 11). Across the included studies, 22 AROMs parameters were used, and 16 different statistical approaches were identified. Approximately 11 of 15 studies used nonvalidated AROMs. Overall, associations or effects of AROMs were found consistently for match-related statistics (7/9 studies), whereas results were unclear for physical performances (3/7 studies), perceptual demands (1/2 studies), or other measures of performance (2/4 studies). Considering the importance of keymatch-related statistics for success in teamsports, this reviewsuggests thatmonitoring precompetitive AROMs has potential to provide valuable information to coaches. However, it is indispensable to validate AROMs questionnaires and to uniform data collection and statistical procedures before substantiated indications to practitioners can be made. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the acute effects of graded hypoxia on external and internal loads during 60 min of endurance cycling at a clamped heart rate. Repeated measures. On separate visits, 16 trained males cycled for 60 min at a clamped heart rate corresponding to 80 % of their first ventilatory threshold at sea-level and 2500 m, 3000 m, 3500 m and 4000 m simulated altitudes (inspired oxygen fractions of 20.9 %, 15.4 %, 14.5 %, 13.6 % and 12.7 %, respectively). Markers of external (power output) and internal (blood lactate concentration, tissue saturation index, cardio-respiratory and perceptual responses) loads were measured every 15 min during cycling. Neuromuscular function of knee extensors was characterised pre- and post-exercise. Compared to sea-level (101 ± 22 W), there was a stepwise reduction in power output with increasing hypoxia severity (− 17.9 ± 8.9 %, − 27.1 ± 10.7 %, − 34.2 ± 12.0 % and − 44.6 ± 15.1 % at 2500 m, 3000 m, 3500 m, and 4000 m, respectively, all p < 0.05). Blood lactate and tissue saturation index were not different across hypoxia severities, and perceptual responses were exacerbated at 4000 m only, with increased breathing difficulty. Knee extensor torque decreased post-exercise (− 14.5 ± 9.0 %, p < 0.05), independent of condition. Increasing hypoxia severity reduces cycling power output and arterial oxygen saturation in a stepwise fashion without affecting exercise responses between sea-level and simulated altitudes up to 3500 m despite breathing difficulty being elevated at 4000 m. • Power output and arterial oxygen saturation decreased at every increment of simulated altitude. • All indices of internal load did not differ between sea-level and simulated altitudes ranging 2500-3500 m. • Compared to sea-level, 3500 m elicits the greatest reduction in external work (~ 34 %) without increasing breathing difficulty during heart rate clamped cycling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The aims of the study were to: (i) compare accumulated load and wellness between starters and non-starters of a European professional soccer team; (ii) analyze the relationships between wellness and load measures and; (iii) compare training/match ratio (TMr) of external and internal load between starters and non-starters. Methods: Ten players were considered starters while seven were classified as non-starters over a 16-week period in which six training sessions and match day (MD) were considered in each weekly micro-cycle. The following measures were used: wellness (fatigue, quality of sleep, muscle soreness, stress, and mood); load (rated of perceived exertion (RPE), session-RPE (s-RPE), high-speed running (HSR), sprinting, accelerations (ACC) and decelerations (DEC)). Accumulated wellness/load were calculated by summing all training and match sessions, while TMr was calculated by dividing accumulated training load by match data for all load measures and each player. Mann–Whitney U test was used for wellness variables, while independent T-test was used for the remaining variables to compare groups. Moreover, relationships among variables were explored using the Spearman's Rho correlation coefficient. Results: The main results showed that non-starters presented higher significant values for fatigue (p < 0.019; g = 0.24) and lower significant values for duration (p < 0.006; ES = 1.81) and s-RPE (p < 0.001; ES = 2.69) when compared to starters. Moreover, positive and very large correlation was found between quality of sleep and RPE, while negative and very large correlation were found between stress and deceleration, and mood and deceleration (all, p < 0.05). Finally, non-starters presented higher values in all TMr than starters, namely, RPE (p = 0.001; g = 1.96), s-RPE (p = 0.002; g = 1.77), HSR (p = 0.001; g = 2.02), sprinting (p = 0.002; g = 4.23), accelerations (p = 0.001; g = 2.72), decelerations (p < 0.001; g = 3.44), and duration (p = 0.003; g = 2.27). Conclusions: In conclusion, this study showed that non-starters produced higher TMr in all examined variables despite the lower match and training durations when compared with starters, suggesting that physical load was adjusted appropriately. Additionally, higher RPE was associated with improved sleep while higher number of decelerations were associated with decreased wellness, namely, stress and mood for non-starters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose was to examine relationships between external loads (ELs), perceived exertion, and soreness. Collegiate men soccer players (n = 19) were monitored for 72 sessions (training: n = 53; matches: n = 19). Likert scale assessments (0-6) of lower body soreness were collected prior to each session, and ELs were collected using positional monitoring technology. Session rate of perceived exertion (sRPE-load) was calculated by multiplying perceived exertion values (Borg CR-10 Scale) by respective session duration to determine internal load. Multiple analyses of variance were used to determine differences in ELs across seasons (preseason, in-season, post-season) and sessions (training, match). Bivariate Pearson correlation coefficients and linear regression analyses were used to evaluate relationships among soreness, ELs, and sRPE-load. Greatest ELs were observed during pre-season and post-season phases (p < 0.001). Sessions with high perceived exertion and low soreness were associated with higher ELs (p < 0.05). Duration (t = 16.13), total distance (t = 9.17), sprint distance (t = 7.54), player load (t = 4.22), top speed (t = 4.69), and acceleration (t = 2.02) positively predicted sRPE-load (F = 412.9, p < 0.001, R² = 0.75). Soreness was weakly and trivially correlated with ELs (p < 0.05). The very strong relationship between ELs and sRPE-load highlights the utility of sRPE-load as a practical means to estimate workload; however, more research into the relationship between soreness and workload is warranted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of the length of the microcycle (ie, training period from the day after the match to the following match) on the daily external load and perceived wellness of professional soccer players (Spanish LaLiga Smartbank). Hypothesis: The length of the microcycle has a significant effect on the daily external load and perceived wellness. Study Design: Longitudinal study. Level of Evidence: Level 3. Methods: Data were collected daily during a full season using perceived wellness questionnaires and electronic performance and tracking systems. Results: The length of the microcycle had a significant effect on volume- and intensity-related external load variables. There were differences between short, regular, and long microcycles depending on the day of the microcycle. These differences were observed in all external load variables. However, no significant differences between short, regular, or long microcycles were found on match day for any external load variable, except for high-intensity decelerations. Regarding the perceived wellness, the length of the microcycle had no effect on these variables, and there were no significant interactions between the length and the day of the microcycle. Conclusion: The length of the microcycle had a significant effect on volume- and intensity-related external load variables, but no significant effect on perceived wellness was observed. Clinical Relevance: These data may help strength and conditioning coaches understand that workload periodization should take this contextual variable into account, especially for external training load. In addition, this study may serve as a guide for practitioners to know the physical requirements of professional soccer players in Spanish LaLiga Smartbank, because the weekly external load profile and perceived wellness have been reported for different lengths of the microcycles. Thus, these data may be used for player load management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose was to examine relationships between external loads (ELs), perceived exertion, and soreness. Collegiate men soccer players (n = 19) were monitored for 72 sessions (training: n = 53; matches: n = 19). Likert scale assessments (0–6) of lower body soreness were collected prior to each session, and ELs were collected using positional monitoring technology. Session rate of perceived exertion (sRPE-load) was calculated by multiplying perceived exertion values (Borg CR-10 Scale) by respective session duration to determine internal load. Multiple analyses of variance were used to determine differences in ELs across seasons (preseason, in-season, post-season) and sessions (training, match). Bivariate Pearson correlation coefficients and linear regression analyses were used to evaluate relationships among soreness, ELs, and sRPE-load. Greatest ELs were observed during pre-season and post-season phases (p < 0.001). Sessions with high perceived exertion and low soreness were associated with higher ELs (p < 0.05). Duration (t = 16.13), total distance (t = 9.17), sprint distance (t = 7.54), player load (t = 4.22), top speed (t = 4.69), and acceleration (t = 2.02) positively predicted sRPE-load (F = 412.9, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.75). Soreness was weakly and trivially correlated with ELs (p < 0.05). The very strong relationship between ELs and sRPE-load highlights the utility of sRPE-load as a practical means to estimate workload; however, more research into the relationship between soreness and workload is warranted.

Abstract Background This study aimed to compare training load parameters, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and fatigue status between season periods (1st and 2nd halves) in U14 soccer players and to analyze the relationships between training load parameters based on season periods (1st and 2nd halves) with peak height velocity (PHV), DOMS, and fatigue status in under-14 (U14) young elite soccer players. Additionally, it was intended to analyze if fatigue, DOMS and PHV could explain training load parameters across the season. Methods Twenty U14 players that competed in the national league participated in this study. The players were monitored during the whole season (26 weeks), and evaluations were carried out at the end of the in-season. Anthropometric and body composition parameters and the maturity offset of each player were utilized to compute each player's age at PHV. Players reported their levels of DOMS and fatigue status using Hooper index questionnaires. The internal load was monitored using the rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Acute weekly internal load (AW), chronic weekly internal load (CW), acute: chronic workload ratio (ACWR), training monotony (TM), and training strain (TS) were also obtained. Results The main results showed that TM was higher in the 2nd half, while CW, AW and DOMS were higher in the 1st half of the season. Moreover, the main correlations showed a positive correlation between PHV and TS (2nd half of the season) and between fatigue and TM (1st half of the season). Conclusion In conclusion, variations in well-being status and PHV cannot explain the variations in internal training loads in elite U14 soccer players. In addition, internal training load indices during the first half of the competitive season can promote a fundamental base for progression loads during the second period of the competitive season.

In this research, we aimed to (1) describe the differences in internal and external load between playing positions and (2) characterize the training demands of the days before competitive events for professional handball players. Fifteen players (5 wings, 2 centre backs, 4 backs, and 2 pivots) were equipped with a local positioning system device during training and 11 official matches. External (total distance, high-speed running, player load) and internal loads (rating of perceived exertion) were computed. Substantial differences were recorded between the external load variables depending on each playing position and depending on whether it was a training day (high-speed running: effect size (ES) ≥ 2.07; player load: ES ≥ 1.89) or a match (total distance: ES ≥ 1.27; high-speed running: ES ≥ 1.42; player load: ES ≥ 1.33). Differences in internal load were not substantial. The rating of perceived exertion, at this competitive level, does not seem to discriminate the differences registered in the external load, probably due to the degree of adaptation to the specific effort of these players. The large differences observed in external load variables should be used to tailor practices and better adjust the training demands in professional handball settings.

IntroductionPadel's global growth highlights its technical complexity. The first publications focus on the physical aspects of padel, using methods that evaluate players’ endurance, strength, speed, and range of motion, while the quantification of load, using internal and external indicators, is crucial for performance optimization, whilst taking into account athletes’ profiles and levels. Therefore, the objective entailed analyzing the scientific literature about the conditional demands in competition within padel players from different levels.MethodsData was collected from various databases and after the selection process, the information was analyzed in mini review.ResultsThe mini review shows that the conditional demands are categorized into internal and external load to try to obtain reference values that may define the demands of padel based on the competitive level and sex. Regarding the internal load, the heart rate (HR)% of the padel players from different levels is around 70%–80% of the HR Max. Regarding the external load, in femalés categories, a greater number of strokes are made per point which entails a longer duration in the points.ConclusionsPadel research usually analyses physical demands using internal and external loading. HR% values (70%–80% HR Max) are consistent across studies. There is variation between variables such as strokes per point, and contextual factors affect the metrics. Further exploration is vital to obtain comprehensive benchmarks and understand the demands of this sport.

The purpose of this study was two-fold: (1) to determine the sensitivity of the sEMG shorts-derived training load (sEMG-TL) during different running speeds; and (2) to investigate the relationship between the oxygen consumption, heart rate (HR), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), accelerometry-based PlayerLoadTM (PL), and sEMG-TL during a running maximum oxygen uptake ( V ˙ O2max) test. The study investigated ten healthy participants. On day one, participants performed a three-speed treadmill test at 8, 10, and 12 km·h−1 for 2 min at each speed. On day two, participants performed a V ˙ O2max test. Analysis of variance found significant differences in sEMG-TL at all three speeds (p < 0.05). A significantly weak positive relationship between sEMG-TL and % V ˙ O2max (r = 0.31, p < 0.05) was established, while significantly strong relationships for 8 out of 10 participants at the individual level (r = 0.72–0.97, p < 0.05) were found. Meanwhile, the accelerometry PL was not significantly related to % V ˙ O2max (p > 0.05) and only demonstrated significant correlations in 3 out of 10 participants at the individual level. Therefore, the sEMG shorts-derived training load was sensitive in detecting a work rate difference of at least 2 km·h−1. sEMG-TL may be an acceptable metric for the measurement of internal loads and could potentially be used as a surrogate for oxygen consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntroductionThis study aims to (1) determine the average and most demanding passage (MDP) load of national-level female soccer matches and (2) evaluate the relationship between average and MDP load during small-sided games (SSGs), large-sided games (LSGs), and matches.MethodsA total of 37 national-level female soccer players from a single club senior team and the U18 team participated. The average and 1-, 3-, and 5-min MDP external (total, high-speed, and very-high-speed running distances, acceleration and deceleration distances, average metabolic power, and high-metabolic load distance) and internal loads (average heart rate, rate of perceived exertion) of the 29 league matches, ten 4 vs. 4 + goalkeepers SSGs, and six 8 vs. 8 + goalkeepers LSGs were analyzed by the Polar Team Pro player tracking system.ResultsIn matches, the external load variables during 1-, 3-, and 5-min MDPs were 167%–1,165%, 135%–504%, and 126%–359%, of match average values, respectively. In LSGs, all external load variables reached higher average values compared with those during matches, except for the very-high-speed running distance; however, no variable reached higher values of 1-min MDP compared with those during the matches. In SSGs, the average acceleration and deceleration distances were higher compared with those during the matches.DiscussionThe findings from the present study suggest that LSGs and SSGs can be used to overload the average values of the selected external load variables compared with those during the matches; however, other training options must be explored to overload 1-min match MDPs.

Introduction: Although previous research found that small-sided game (SSG) training was more enjoyable than high-intensity interval training (HIT) in various sports, no data were provided during longer training period in basketball. Furthermore, the comparison of internal loads between the two training approaches needs to be further examined. Thus, this study aimed to examine the acute physiological, perceived exertion and enjoyment responses during 4-week progressive basketball SSG or HIT programs. Methods: Nineteen female collegiate basketball players were randomly assigned to two groups that performed either HIT (n = 10) or SSG (n = 9) 3 times per week for 4 continuous weeks. Average and percentage of maximal heart rate (HRmean and %HRmax), rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and physical activity enjoyment (PACES) were determined during each training session. Results: There was a main group effect in PACES (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.44, moderate), and SSG had higher PACES than HIT in each week (p < 0.05). There were no significant interactions or main group effects in HRmean, %HRmax or RPE, but a main time effect was found in HRmean (p = 0.004; η²p = 0.16, minimum), %HRmax (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.25, minimum), and RPE (p < 0.001; η²p = 0.31, moderate), respectively. In the SSG group, although no significant differences were found in HR responses, %HRmax was below 90% in week 1 and week 2. Accompanied with changes in %HRmax, RPE in week 1 and week 2 was lower than that in week 3 and week 4 (p < 0.05). Conclusion: Our findings suggest that SSG and HIT elicit similar acute HR response and RPE level, but SSG is perceived as more enjoyable and therefore it is more likely to increase exercise motivation and adherence comparing to HIT. Moreover, it seems that half-court, 2 vs. 2 SS Gtraining format with modified rules and lasting ≥ 7.5 min should be prescribed as an enjoyable training alternative to provide optimal cardiovascular stimuli (> 90% of HRmax) for female basketball players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this research, we aimed to (1) describe the differences in internal and external load between playing positions and (2) characterize the training demands of the days before competitive events for professional handball players. Fifteen players (5 wings, 2 centre backs, 4 backs, and 2 pivots) were equipped with a local positioning system device during training and 11 official matches. External (total distance, high-speed running, player load) and internal loads (rating of perceived exertion) were computed. Substantial differences were recorded between the external load variables depending on each playing position and depending on whether it was a training day (high-speed running: effect size (ES) ≥ 2.07; player load: ES ≥ 1.89) or a match (total distance: ES ≥ 1.27; high-speed running: ES ≥ 1.42; player load: ES ≥ 1.33). Differences in internal load were not substantial. The rating of perceived exertion, at this competitive level, does not seem to discriminate the differences registered in the external load, probably due to the degree of adaptation to the specific effort of these players. The large differences observed in external load variables should be used to tailor practices and better adjust the training demands in professional handball settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The aim of this study was to apply a training plan to four different-length microcycles (MIC) in soccer and analyze (a) the load within the training weeks and (b) the short-term effect on the matches that were played at the end of each microcycle. An intervention training program applied to microcycles of five, six, seven and nine days during two seasons of the Cypriot Fist Division. The GPS technology and subjective (wellness, RPE) assessments were used to monitor the load throughout trainings and games. In weekly external load, there were differences between the four microcycles, with a lower load in MIC5 for all the parameters and higher on MIC9 in the most of them (p < 0.05). In RPE, MIC9 (229 ± 60 arbitrary units (au)) differed significantly from MIC5 (229 ± 60 au, p < 0.001), MIC6 (281 ± 67 au; p < 0.001) and MIC7 (297 ± 48 au, p = 0.009). MIC5 also differed from MIC6 (p = 0.001) and MIC7 (p < 0.001). In the game external load, the only differences found in GDEC2 (game decelerations) were between MIC7 (68 ± 10 number (n)), MIC5 (61 ± 11 n, p = 0.035) and MIC6 (60 ± 10 n, p = 0.002); in GSPEF (game speed efforts), between MIC5 (40 ± 17 n), MIC7 (48 ± 14 n, p = 0.004) and MIC9 (48 ± 16 n, p < 0.001) and between MIC6 (41 ± 14 n), MIC7 (p = 0.009), and MIC9 (p = 0.009); in GMPW5 (game metabolic power efforts), between MIC7 (1307 ± 271 n), MIC5 (1201 ± 340 n, p = 0.035) and MIC6 (1178 ± 261 n, p = 0.001). No differences were found for wellness and perceived exertion. It is important for performance coaches to adapt the training load to the length of the microcycle, applying a lower load to short training weeks and manage the load fluctuation on long training weeks in terms of volume, intensity and recovery. In our study, the results confirmed that this strategy could result in similar performance in the games, regardless of microcycle length. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Methods: Training impulse (TRIMP) is obtained through wearable technology and plays a direct role on the load management of soccer players. It is important to understand TRIMP to best prepare athletes for competition. A systematic search for articles was conducted using Google Scholar, with papers screened and extracted by five reviewers. The inclusion criteria were: the study was focused on collegiate or professional soccer, the use of training impulse (TRIMP), and the use of wearable technology to measure TRIMP. Of 10,100 papers, 10,090 articles were excluded through the systematic review process. Ten papers were selected for final review and grouped based on (1) training vs. match (N = 8/10), (2) preseason vs. in-season (N = 3/10), and (3) positional comparison (N = 3/10). Wearable technologies mainly track physical metrics (N = 10/10). Higher TRIMP data were noted in starters than reserves throughout the season in matches and slightly lower TRIMP for starters vs. reserves during training. TRIMP data change throughout the season, being higher in preseason phases compared to early-season, mid-season, and late-season phases. These findings help highlight the benefits of TRIMP in managing internal player load in soccer. Future research should focus on utilizing wearable-derived TRIMP and the impact on player performance metrics, and how TRIMP data vary across different positions in soccer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Insufficient recovery can lead to a decrease in performance and increase the risk of injury and illness. The aim of this study was to evaluate salivary cortisol as a marker of recovery in elite rugby union players. Method: Over a 10-wk preseason training period, 19 male elite rugby union players provided saliva swabs biweekly (Monday and Friday mornings). Subjective markers of recovery were collected every morning of each training day. Session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) was taken after every training session, and training load was calculated (sRPE x session duration). Results: Multilevel analysis found no significant association between salivary cortisol and training load or subjective markers of recovery (all P > .05) over the training period. Compared with baseline (wk 1), Monday salivary cortisol significantly increased in wk 4 (14.94 [7.73] ng/mL; P = .04), wk 8 (16.39 [9.53] ng/mL; P = .01), and wk 9 (15.41 [9.82] ng/mL; P = .02), and Friday salivary cortisol significantly increased in wk 5 (14.81 [8.74] ng/mL; P = .04) and wk 10 (15.36 [11.30] ng/mL; P = .03). Conclusions: The significant increase in salivary cortisol on certain Mondays may indicate that players did not physically recover from the previous week of training or match at the weekend. The increased Friday cortisol levels and subjective marker of perceived fatigue indicated increased physiological stress from that week's training. Regular monitoring of salivary cortisol combined with appropriate planning of training load may allow sufficient recovery to optimize training performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to assess the relationships between weekly changes in external and internal load considered separately and jointly and salivary hormonal responses during the pre-season phase in professional male basketball players. Twenty-one professional male basketball players (mean ± standard deviation, age: 26.2 ± 4.9 years; height: 198.7 ± 6.7 cm; body mass: 93.2 ± 10.0 kg) were assessed during 5 weeks of the pre-season phase. External load was measured using microsensors and reported as PlayerLoad (PL) and PL/ min. Internal load was calculated using the session rating of perceived exertion scale (sRPE-load), summated heart rate zones (SHRZ) and percentage of maximal heart rate (%HRmax). Salivary hormone responses were monitored weekly by measuring testosterone (T), cortisol (C), and their ratio (T:C). The relationships between weekly changes in load measures considered separately and jointly and hormonal responses were assessed using linear mixed model analysis. No significant (p > 0.05) relationships were evident between weekly changes in T, C or T:C with external and internal load measures considered separately (R²-conditional = < 0.001--0.027) or jointly (R²-conditional = 0.028--0.075). Factors other than measured loads might be responsible for weekly changes in hormonal responses and therefore external and internal load measures cannot be used to anticipate weekly hormonal responses during the pre-season phase in professional basketball players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of different time periods on the internal and external loads of soccer players during small-sided games (SSGs). Seventeen young soccer players performed a SSG of 5 vs. 5 + 5 with 2 floaters, where two teams had possession of the ball, and one had to recover it. With established periods of 30 s (SSG30), 1 min (SSG1) or 2 min (SSG2), teams participated in a defensive role for these periods of time. Total distance covered, moderate speed running distance, high speed running distance, sprint running distance, accelerations, decelerations and Player Load were monitored using global positioning systems devices. The maximal heart rate and modified training impulse were monitored using heart rate monitors. The rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was also measured. Data showed a small increase between SSG30 and SSG1 in Player Load (ES = -0.35; p < 0.01), and a small increase in high speed running (ES = -0.41; p < 0.05) and sprinting (ES = -0.47; p < 0.01) between SSG30 and SSG2. Also, SSG1 showed a small increase in sprinting (ES = -0.57; p < 0.01) and accelerations (ES = -0.37; p < 0.05) with respect to SSG2. In addition, SSG2 showed a small increase in the RPE with respect to SSG30 (ES = 0.46; p < 0.05). The results indicate that shorter defensive periods in SSGs increased high speed running, while longer defensive periods promoted greater perceived exertion. Manipulation of the duration of defensive periods in SSGs is a variable that should be considered in soccer training. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to identify differences between the external and internal loads on soccer players in small-sided games with different content orientations. We assumed that the way to score a goal (gain a point) significantly affects the movement characteristics and reaction of the circulatory system of players during the games. The research group consisted of 18 players (n = 18) from the junior team (age: 16.5 ± 0.21 years, VO2max 56.06 ± 2.84 ml.kg-1.min-1, HRmax 196.42 ± 5.31 b.min-1) from the football club in Slovakia who participate in the highest level competitions. Based on the data obtained using sports testers and software from Polar Team PRO, we evaluated the external and internal loads on the monitored players such as the total distance, distance covered during high-intensity run (17 km/hod <) and sprint (over 24 km/h<), number of accelerations (2 m·s-2<), number of decelerations (2 m·s-2<), time spent in HR zones 4 and 5, HRmax and HRavg. To determine statistical significance, we used the non-parametric statistical method, i.e., the Kruscal-Wallis H-test. We set the level of statistical significance at the 5% (1%) level. During the games, the HR values ranged from the submaximal to the maximum load intensity zones; however, we did not identify statistically significant differences in the time spent in the HR 4 and 5 bioenergetic zones, max heart rate and average heart rate. The players attained the highest accelerations in SSG3 (30.50 ± 6.19) and overcame the highest decelerations in SSG1 (30.83 ± 4.62); however, there were no significant differences in these indicators in the chosen games. The distance covered at high intensity (17 km/h<) was the largest in SSG1 (91.17 ± 14.72 m) and the smallest in SSG3 (48.83 ± 36.07 m), but not significant. The differences in total distance covered were not statistically significant. The obtained results suggest that the number of high-intensity accelerations and decelerations (2 m·s-2<) was not significantly affected by the way of scoring a goal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Purpose 3 × 3 basketball games are characterized by high-intensity accelerations and decelerations, and a high number of changes of direction and jumps. It is played in tournament form with multiple games per day. Therefore, optimal regeneration is crucial for maintaining a high performance level over the course of the tournament. To elucidate how load of a match affects the athletes' bodies (i.e., internal load), muscular responses to the load of 3 × 3 games were analyzed. We aimed to investigate changes in contractility of the m. rectus femoris (RF) and m. gastrocnemius medialis (GC) in response to the load of single 3 × 3 games and a 3 × 3 tournament. Methods Inertial movement analysis was conducted to capture game load in 3 × 3. Changes in contractility were measured using tensiomyography (TMG). During a two-day tournament, TMG measurements were conducted in the morning and after each game. Additionally, off-game performance analysis consisting of jump and change-of-direction (COD) tests was conducted the day before the tournament. Results Significant changes of the muscle contractility were found for GC with TMG values being higher in the baseline than in the post-game measurements. In contrast to athletes of the GC group, athletes of the RF group responded with either decreased or increased muscle contractility after a single 3 × 3 game. A significant correlation between external and internal load parameters could not be shown. Concerning off-game performance, significant correlations can be reported for COD test duration, CMJ height and ∆Vc as well as COD test duration and ∆Dm. No systematic changes in muscle contractility were found over the course of the tournament in RF and GC. Conclusion The athletes' external 3 × 3 game load and their performance level did not seem to affect muscular contractility after a single 3 × 3 game or a complete 3 × 3 tournament within this investigation. This might indicate that elite athletes can resist external load without relevant local muscular fatigue. With respect to the course of the tournament, it can therefore be concluded that the breaks between games seem to be sufficient to return to the initial level of muscle contractility.

Background and Study Aim. The aim of the research is to evaluate the 7x34.2 m Repeated Straight Sprint Test (RSST) and 7x34.2 m Repeated Change of Direction Sprint Test (RCST), which are used for improvement, measurement, and evaluation of repeated sprint ability, by using Global Positioning System (GPS). Material and Methods. Twenty-two professional soccer players participated in the research voluntarily. Internal and external load data were examined comparatively by using data as before and after the repeated sprint tests. External load data measured by 10 Hz GPS. Results. When the findings of the research are examined, it is seen that values of blood lactate concentrations which are taken after three and five minutes of the RCST are significantly higher than RSST protocol (p < 0.001***, p = 0.042*, respectively). In the study, the value of lactate which is taken five minutes after the RSST was measured as 9.60 ± 2.65 mM, while the value which is taken three minutes after RCST was measured as 9.75 ± 2.51 mM. Nevertheless, whereas there was a difference between the two tests in terms of lactate values, no significant difference was found in terms of perceived exertion. Conclusions. As a conclusion, according to the analyzes made after the RCST and RSST, we can say that the internal and external load performances of the athletes were very different. It has been observed that coaches, athletes, and practitioners can use two different test protocols for different objectives according to the purposes they set.

The aim of this study was to assess the relationships between weekly changes in external and internal load considered separately and jointly and salivary hormonal responses during the pre-season phase in professional male basketball players. Twenty-one professional male basketball players (mean±standard deviation, age: 26.2±4.9 years; height: 198.7±6.7 cm; body mass: 93.2±10.0 kg) were assessed during 5 weeks of the pre-season phase. External load was measured using microsensors and reported as PlayerLoad (PL) and PL/ min. Internal load was calculated using the session rating of perceived exertion scale (sRPE-load), summated heart rate zones (SHRZ) and percentage of maximal heart rate (%HRmax). Salivary hormone responses were monitored weekly by measuring testosterone (T), cortisol (C), and their ratio (T:C). The relationships between weekly changes in load measures considered separately and jointly and hormonal responses were assessed using linear mixed model analysis. No significant (p > 0.05) relationships were evident between weekly changes in T, C or T:C with external and internal load measures considered separately (R2-conditional = < 0.001–0.027) or jointly (R2-conditional = 0.028–0.075). Factors other than measured loads might be responsible for weekly changes in hormonal responses and therefore external and internal load measures cannot be used to anticipate weekly hormonal responses during the pre-season phase in professional basketball players.

Monitoring the demands on basketball referees is essential for optimizing their performance and reducing the risk of injuries. This study aimed to analyze the workload experienced by elite basketball referees during official games. Using a quasi-experimental empirical methodology, inertial devices (WIMUPRO) were used for four referees participating in the official tournament of the Spanish first-division basketball league. All the matches in the tournament were analyzed. Descriptive analysis and ANOVA were used to understand the referees’ demands. Moreover, a Mixed Linear Model was used to take into account the individuality of each referee in the analysis of the variables. The results indicate that the analyzed external and internal load variables are specific to each basketball referee. The variability in referees’ external and internal load demands was identified as low to moderate within performances, between matches, and between quarters. The external and internal load variables did not vary among the three analyzed games. The distance covered during the first quarter of the games was less than in the rest of the quarters, but it was performed at a higher intensity. Neuromuscular load (analyzed as Impacts, Player Load, and Power Metabolic) showed higher values in the first quarter of the games than in the rest. The referees’ response to competition is individual and can be influenced by situational variables such as the moment or type of game.

Purpose Self-regulation of exercise intensity with the Borg 6–20 scale seems a promising alternative, since the magnitude of effort is regulated by internal factors inherent to the individual and their perception of effort during the activity. In order to verify this hypothesis, some studies have tested the validity of the Borg 6–20 scale for prescribing exercise intensity. The study aim was to review the literature and verify the validity of the Borg 6–20 scale in aerobic exercise prescription. Methods The PICOS strategy was used to conduct the search for evidence concerning the objectives of the review as recommended by PRISMA-P. The level and quality of evidence were analysed by using the Cochrane Collaboration’s recommendation for systematic reviews. Results A total of 1434 references were found. After applying the criteria of inclusion, 15 studies were considered eligible for review. These studies generally tested the validity of intensity-regulated prescriptions with rating of perceived exertion (RPE) by comparing physiological and performance measures obtained in incremental tests or conventional prescriptions with the measures generated by prescriptions regulated with the Borg 6–20 scale. In addition, some studies evaluated the reliability and reproducibility of RPE-regulated prescriptions by comparing physiological and performance measures obtained from different intensity-regulated exercise sessions with the Borg 6–20 scale. Conclusions According to the studies investigated in this systematic review, the recommendation of the Borg 6–20 scale in exercise prescription is not yet a valid alternative to describe similar intensity magnitudes to physiological and performance variables.

Abstract Background The aim of this study was to describe and compare the in-season variations of acute: chronic workload ratio (ACWR) coupled, uncoupled, and exponentially weighted moving average (EWMA) through session rating of perceived exertion (s-RPE), total distance (TD), high-speed running distance (HSRD) and sprint distance (SPRINT) in three different periods of an elite soccer season according to player positions. Methods Twenty male elite players (age: 29.4 ± 4.4) from an Asian First League team were daily monitored for twenty consecutive weeks during the 2017–2018 in-season. Forty-seven trainings and twenty matches were monitored using global positioning system units (GPS) to collect TD, HSRD and SPRINT. Through the collection of s-RPE, TD, HSRD, and SPRINT by ACWR and EWMA were calculated for each training session. Results The results revealed that according to different periods of the season, workload measures observed in mid-season were meaningfully higher compared with early-season (g = ranging from 0.53 to 4.98) except for EWMASPRINT. In general, wingers and strikers tended to have greater scores in workload measures compared to the defenders and midfielders (g = ranging from 0.41 to 5.42). Conclusions These findings may provide detailed information for coaches and sports scientists regarding the variations of acute and chronic workload ratio and external loading in-season and between player positions in an elite soccer team.

Background: This study aimed to compare training load parameters, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and fatigue status between season periods (1st and 2nd halves) in U14 soccer players and to analyze the relationships between training load parameters based on season periods (1st and 2nd halves) with peak height velocity (PHV), DOMS, and fatigue status in under-14 (U14) young elite soccer players. Additionally, it was intended to analyze if fatigue, DOMS and PHV could explain training load parameters across the season. Methods: Twenty U14 players that competed in the national league participated in this study. The players were monitored during the whole season (26 weeks), and evaluations were carried out at the end of the in-season. Anthropometric and body composition parameters and the maturity offset of each player were utilized to compute each player's age at PHV. Players reported their levels of DOMS and fatigue status using Hooper index questionnaires. The internal load was monitored using the rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Acute weekly internal load (AW), chronic weekly internal load (CW), acute: chronic workload ratio (ACWR), training monotony (TM), and training strain (TS) were also obtained. Results: The main results showed that TM was higher in the 2nd half, while CW, AW and DOMS were higher in the 1st half of the season. Moreover, the main correlations showed a positive correlation between PHV and TS (2nd half of the season) and between fatigue and TM (1st half of the season). Conclusion: In conclusion, variations in well-being status and PHV cannot explain the variations in internal training loads in elite U14 soccer players. In addition, internal training load indices during the first half of the competitive season can promote a fundamental base for progression loads during the second period of the competitive season. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Objetive: Compare the internal load (ILO), external load (ELO) and wellness (WS) between official preparation friendly matches (FM) and France 2019 women world cup (WWC) matches in female soccer players. (2) Methods: Ten field players of the Chilean national football team (age 27 ± 3.4 years, height 162.8 ± 4.32 cm, weight 60.5 ± 4.6 kg, fat percentage 24.7 ± 1.62% and muscle percentage 49.2 ± 1.63%) participated in the study. Participants were compared across three FM before the world cup and three matches of the group stages in the WWC in June 2019. Both, ELO and ILO were recorded using GPS (Catapult Sports®, 10 Hz) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE), respectively. In addition, wellness was analyzed via personal questionnaire at 24 and 48 h after match. The intra subject difference was analyzed with a Student's t-test for related samples. (3) Results: Moderate differences were observed between WWC and FM for total and relative total distance covered [TD and TDr, respectively] (p = 0.025, ES = −0.74 and p = 0.017, ES = −0.6). In addition, a non-significant (p = 0.088; ES = −0.43) larger high-intensity distance (HSR) was also found for WWC. Likewise, greater RPE was observed in WWC (p = 0.001; ES = −1.50) when compared to FM. Finally, significantly better wellness scores were shown for FM at stress ST24h, fatigue FT48h, and muscle pain MS48h (p = 0.038; ES = 0.72, p = 0.066; ES = 0.71; and p = 0.63; ES = 0.77) when compared to WWC matches. (4) Conclusion: It was concluded that ELO and ILO were greater at WWC soccer matches, whereas WS scores were better for FM. Moreover, ILO measures (i.e., TD, HSR and TDr) were greater in WWC, which could be at least in part, be the reason behind the differences in the values reported in the wellness questionnaires at 24 and 48 h after the match. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose. Self-regulation of exercise intensity with the Borg 6-20 scale seems a promising alternative, since the magnitude of effort is regulated by internal factors inherent to the individual and their perception of effort during the activity. In order to verify this hypothesis, some studies have tested the validity of the Borg 6-20 scale for prescribing exercise intensity. The study aim was to review the literature and verify the validity of the Borg 6-20 scale in aerobic exercise prescription. Methods. The PICOS strategy was used to conduct the search for evidence concerning the objectives of the review as recommended by PRISMA-P. The level and quality of evidence were analysed by using the Cochrane Collaboration's recommendation for systematic reviews. Results. A total of 1434 references were found. After applying the criteria of inclusion, 15 studies were considered eligible for review. These studies generally tested the validity of intensity-regulated prescriptions with rating of perceived exertion (RPE) by comparing physiological and performance measures obtained in incremental tests or conventional prescriptions with the measures generated by prescriptions regulated with the Borg 6-20 scale. In addition, some studies evaluated the reliability and reproducibility of RPE-regulated prescriptions by comparing physiological and performance measures obtained from different intensity-regulated exercise sessions with the Borg 6-20 scale. Conclusions. According to the studies investigated in this systematic review, the recommendation of the Borg 6-20 scale in exercise prescription is not yet a valid alternative to describe similar intensity magnitudes to physiological and performance variables. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To characterize the weekly training load (TL) and well-being of college basketball players during the in-season phase. Methods: Ten (6 guards and 4 forwards) male basketball players (age 20.9 [0.9] y, stature 195.0 [8.2] cm, and body mass 91.3 [11.3] kg) from the same Division I National Collegiate Athletic Association team were recruited to participate in this study. Individualized training and game loads were assessed using the session rating of perceived exertion at the end of each training and game session, and well-being status was collected before each session. Weekly changes (%) in TL, acute-to-chronic workload ratio, and well-being were determined. Differences in TL and well-being between starting and bench players and between 1-game and 2-game weeks were calculated using magnitude-based statistics. Results: Total weekly TL and acute-to-chronic workload ratio demonstrated high week-to-week variation, with spikes up to 226% and 220%, respectively. Starting players experienced a higher (most likely negative) total weekly TL and similar (unclear) well-being status compared with bench players. Game scheduling influenced TL, with 1-game weeks demonstrating a higher (likely negative) total weekly TL and similar (most likely trivial) well-being status compared with 2-game weeks. Conclusions: These findings provide college basketball coaches information to optimize training strategies during the in-season phase. Basketball coaches should concurrently consider the number of weekly games and player status (starting vs bench player) when creating individualized periodization plans, with increases in TL potentially needed in bench players, especially in 2-game weeks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim was to compare the training characteristics of junior, under 23 and professional road cyclists. Training data collected during the 2019 competitive season of thirty male cyclists, divided into three age-related categories (JUN; U23; PRO), were retrospectively analyzed for training characteristics, external and internal training load. Higher duration per training session were observed in PRO (2.6±0.3 h) compared to both U23 (2.2±0.3 h; P <0.001) and JUN (2.0±0.2 h; P <0.001). Elevation gain per distance was higher in PRO (13.8±1.9 m·km−1) compared to U23 (10.6±0.9 m·km−1 ; P =0.001) and JUN (6.7±0.3 m·km-1 ; P <0.001), and in U23 compared to JUN (P <0.001). Annual total work was lower in JUN (3694±467 kJ·kg−1) compared to U23 (5268±746 kJ·kg−1 ; P =0.001) and PRO (5759±1103 kJ·kg−1 ; P <0.001). eTRIMP per hour was higher in JUN (151±40) compared to both U23 (115±23; P =0.003) and PRO (112±22; P =0.013). JUN spent more training time at medium and high heart rate intensity zones compared to U23 and PRO (P <0.05). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to compare physical and physiological demands in youth basketball players according to gender, playing positions, and match outcomes. 64 players (32 female and 32 male) from eight youth sub-elite basketball teams were monitored using an Ultra-Wide Band system and inertial measurement unit in three consecutive matches. The results showed some significant differences, although with magnitudes qualified as small. When the teams won, the guards covered a greater distance at 0-6 km/h than when they lost. When teams lost, the centers covered more distance at 12-18 km/h and 18-21 km/h. The winning female teams presented a lower maximal heart rate (HRmax) compared to the losing teams. The forwards of the winning teams performed greater efforts at 70-80% HRmax, while the forwards of losing teams performed more efforts at 90-95% HRmax. The greatest number of accelerations and decelerations were performed by the female guards and the male forwards. The number of jumps was higher in the male guards and forwards than in the female ones. HRmax was higher in the forwards of the female teams. Efforts at 80%-90% HRmax were higher in male centers. When the female teams won, they had a lower HRmax than when they lost. When efforts exceed 90% of HRmax the teams lost. In conclusion, despite the differences found, the effect of these contextual variables on physical and physiological demands is unclear. Nevertheless, knowing the game's requirements can help the design of training that enhances the performance of youth basketball players.

The study purpose. The purpose of the study is to analyze and understand the internal and external load in Large Sided Games (LSG) exercises carried out on fields of different sizes, defined as Small – Large Sided Games (SLSG) and Big – Large Sided Games (BLSG), according to the different square meters assigned to each player. Materials and methods. 22 professional soccer players (average age: 23.59 ± 4.87 years, weight: 77.8 ± 7.6 kg, height: 183.5 ± 7.5 cm, age training: 13.1 ± 1.7). The LSG exercises were carried out on a 60 x 54 m field (270 m2/player), defined as "small" (SLSG) and on a 65 x 60 m field (325 m2/player) defined as "big" (BLSG). During the two LSG exercises, the internal load and the external load were analyzed. LSG exercises were performed with 4 sets of 5 minutes each, with 2 minutes of passive recovery between each set. Results. The results of the internal load analysis show how the LSG carried out on a SLSG field provides higher and more significant HR values (p < 0.0005) than those emerged during the exercise carried out on a BLSG field. The RPE value is also higher during the SLSG, although statistically no significant difference appears. The analysis of the external load in relation with the observed parameters shows higher values in the BLSG, except for the number of accelerations. Conclusions. In terms of external and internal load, the results of this study showed how the difference of 55 m2/player can radically change the configuration of the two exercises. These differences allow to use both dimensions within a micro-cycle, but in sessions with different goals. The most appropriate sessions for LSGs are the first post-match session in which the rest day is not gone and the fourth session 3 days before the match.

Study purpose. This study aimed to describe, analyze and compare the high intensity in internal and external load deriving from Large-Sided Games (LSG) exercises during the 4vs4 and 5vs5 formats, with goalkeepers. Materials and methods. The study participants were 22 professional soccer players (average age: 23.59±4.87 years, weight: 77.8±7.6 kg; height: 183.5±7.5 cm). The 4vs4 + 2 goalkeepers format was performed on a 60x54 m field (324 m2per player), while the 5vs5 + 2 goalkeepers format was performed on a 65 x 60 m field (325 m2 per player). During the two LSG exercises, the internal load and the external load were analyzed. The LSG exercises were performed in 4 sets of 5 minutes each, with 2 minutes of passive recovery between each set. Results. The data obtained show that the 4vs4 is the LSG exercise that succeeds in ensuring high exercise intensity: the time spent between 90-100% of the Heart Rate (HR) is significantly higher than in the 5vs5 (p

In order to study the load-bearing failure characteristics of a RPCCP under internal load, a field prototype test was designed, and a finite element model was established. An internal load was applied up to 2.0 MPa step by step and the force variation law of each part was obtained. During the production of the RPCCP, by wrapping prestressed steel bars around the concrete core with a cylinder, the core was subjected to an initial precompression stress. In the loading process, the protective cover cracked first, from where the concrete core gradually changed from the initial compression state to a tension state, finally cracking from the inner and outer diameter. The stresses of the cylinder and steel bars increased steadily with the internal load and did not yield. The finite element calculation results were in good agreement with the test results, and the influence characteristics of the tension control stress of the steel bar and the concrete strength on the failure of the RPCCP under internal load were discussed. The results showed that the internal load of the protective cover was independent of the tension control stress, but decreases with a decrease in concrete strength, while the load corresponding to the concrete core entering plasticity is related to the tension control stress and the concrete strength, and the relationships were basically linear. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In intermittent team and racquet sports, metabolic loads are rarely investigated as they are difficult to examine, e.g., by portable metabolic carts and lactate measures. However, determining the instantaneous metabolic power of intermittent running from acceleration and speed data is possible. Recently, this potential has gained more interest in research and practice due to the development of player tracking technologies that allow easy access to the required data. The aim of this review was to systematically investigate the validity and point out the evidence of this new approach for estimating metabolic loads in intermittent sports. To provide an in-depth understanding of this approach and its validity, the fundamental aspects of the underlying concept were also considered. Methods: PubMed®, Cochrane Library, Web of Science™, and BISp-surf databases were included in the search conducted on March 1, 2021. Studies assessing physiological and methodological validation as well as conceptual studies of the metabolic power approach in intermittent sports players without diseases or injuries were deemed eligible. The quality assessment was implemented using a modified 12-item version of the Downs and Black checklist. Additionally, a best-evidence synthesis of the validation studies was performed to clarify the direction and strength of the evidence. Results: Of 947 studies that were identified, 31 met the eligibility criteria of which 7 were physiological, 13 methodological validation, and 11 conceptual studies. Gold standards for validating the metabolic power approach were predominantly oxygen uptake with 6 and traditional running speed analysis with 8 studies for physiological and methodological validation, respectively. The best-evidence synthesis showed conflicting to strong and moderate to strong evidence for physiological and methodological validity of the approach, respectively. The conceptual studies revealed several modifications regarding the approach that need to be considered. Otherwise, incorrect implementation can occur. Conclusions: Evidence of the physiological validity of the metabolic power approach ranged from conflicting to strong. However, this should be treated with caution as the validation studies were often partially implemented incorrectly as shown by the underlying concept studies. Moreover, strong evidence indicated that the approach is valid from a methodological perspective. Future studies must consider what the metabolic power approach can and cannot actually display. Key Points: A lack of research exists in studies concerning children, females, and team and racquet sports besides soccer and the application of more profound physiological approaches for the validation and assessment of metabolic power estimated by acceleration and speed data is needed. Previous physiological validation studies are outdated as there have been adaptations concerning the metabolic power approach for estimating metabolic loads over recent years, and methodological validation studies revealing its superiority over the traditional running speed approach. Distinction between walking and running, different terrains, as well as aerobic and anaerobic energy supply should be considered when assessing metabolic power in team and racquet sports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: Velocity loss can help to determine neuromuscular fatigue after carrying out an exercise protocol with a load that is initially moved at a mean propulsive velocity of 1 m·s−1. Few studies have measured the time required to recover the pre-exercise velocity values after performing an exercise, with the aim of knowing the optimal recovery times. Therefore, the aim of this study was to analyse muscular fatigue and metabolic stress during the 15 min that follow the execution of a bench press exercise protocol. The results show that mean propulsive velocity was recovered from minute 10 of rest; however, the blood lactate levels were still high (>5 mmol·L−1). Therefore, although the capacity to apply a maximum mean propulsive velocity peak was recovered, the same could not be said for the capacity to maintain those strength levels to reproduce another exercise protocol involving the same muscle groups. Moreover, analysing the velocities and metabolic stress before and after the exercise protocol by different strength level groups, similar results were obtained. Background: Velocity loss (VL) at 1 m·s−1 can help to determine neuromuscular fatigue after performing an exercise protocol. The aim of this study was to analyse muscle fatigue and metabolic stress during the 15 min that follow the execution of a bench press (BP) exercise protocol. Methods: Forty-four healthy male students of sports science performed two exercise sessions separated by one week of rest. In the first week, the participants carried out a test with progressive loads in the (BP) exercise until reaching the one-repetition maximum (1RM) in order to obtain the load–velocity relationship of each participant. In the second week, each participant conducted three BP exercise sets at an intensity of 70% of 1RM, determining this load through the mean propulsive velocity (MPV) obtained from the individual load–velocity relationship, with the participants performing the maximum number of repetitions (MNR) to muscle failure. Two minutes of rest were allocated between sets. MPV at 1 m·s−1 and blood lactate concentrations were recorded before executing the exercise and at minute 0, 5, 10 and 15 after performing the exercise protocol. Results: A two-factor repeated measures ANOVA was performed. MPV at 1 m·s−1 in minute 0 post-exercise was −33.3% (p < 0.05), whereas in minute 10 and 15 post-exercise, it was ≈−9% (p > 0.05). Regarding the blood lactate levels, significant differences were observed in all measurements before and after the exercise protocol (p < 0.001), obtaining ≈7 mmol·L−1 at minute 10 post-exercise and 4.3 mmol·L−1 after 15 min of recovery. Conclusions: MPV with medium or moderate loads shows a certain recovery from minute 10 of rest. However, the blood lactate levels are still high (>5 mmol·L−1). Therefore, although there seem to be certain conditions to reach a similar maximum MPV peak, the residual fatigue at the neuromuscular level and the non-recovery of metabolic homeostasis would hinder the reproduction of these protocols, both at the level of applied stimulus and from a methodological perspective, since a long recovery time would be required between sets and exercises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was intended to investigate the associations between session Ratings of Perceived Exertion (sRPE) and Edwards' training load (TL) and Banister training impulse (TRIMP) in order to determine the validity of the sRPE method for TL assessment in karate kata discipline. Eight elite karate kata athletes, members of the national karate team, took part in this study. A multistage 20 m shuttle run test was performed to determine maximal heart rate (HRmax). Subsequently, the subjects performed 3 different kata training sessions separated by minimally 48 hours. To calculate Edwards TL, Banister TRIMP and sRPE, heart rate (HR) was continuously monitored during the sessions and RPE of the entire session was collected 30 minutes after each training session. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was used for determining associations between TL variables. Edwards TL (p = 0.064) and Banister TRIMP (p = 0.102) were not, but sRPE was significantly different between each training session (p < 0.001). There were no significant correlations between sRPE and Edwards TL (r = 0.53, p = 0.18) or Banister TRIMP (r = 0.13, p = 0.77) when data from all training sessions were pooled. A significant correlation was obtained between sRPE and Edwards TL (r = 0.71, p = 0.04) in situational training session, whereas in technical training session sRPE was significantly correlated with Banister TRIMP (r = 0.82, p = 0.01). HR-based methods for TL assessment are not able to discriminate between kata training sessions and, therefore, sRPE may be more useful for coaches to monitor TL in karate kata athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose. The study aim was to analyse 1 × 1 small-sided games (SSGs) with and without floating players, in different pitch sizes. Methods. Ten U-12 soccer players were divided into 2 groups. Group 1 (n = 4) performed 1 × 1 SSG and group 2 (n = 6) performed 1 × 1 + 1 SSG. Field sizes of 5 × 10 m (SSG1), 10 × 15 m (SSG2), and 15 × 20 m (SSG3) were used, all with small goals. The studied variables were heart rate (HR), total distance, explosive distance (> 12 km/h), accelerations, decelerations, maximum sprint, player load (PL) intensity and volume. The data were collected through WIMU PROTM and analysed with IBM SPSS Statistics. Descriptive analyses and comparisons between the effects of internal and external PL and SSG were performed with the Mann-Whitney U test. Results. Increasing the pitch size in 1 × 1 and 1 × 1 + 1 SSGs led to raised total distance, maximum sprint, and PL. In 1 × 1 and 1 × 1 + 1 SSGs, the time practice was predominantly associated with HRmax intervals above 90%. Statistically significant differences were observed between 1 × 1 and 1 × 1 + 1 SSGs in explosive distance (SSG2: 46.40 ± 5.07 / 28.99 ± 4.93, p = 0.02, ES(r) = 0.82), PL intensity (SSG2: 2.03 ± 0.11 / 1.78 ± 0.12, p = 0.02, ES(r) = 0.82), HRmax (SSG1: 189.50 ± 1.91 / 199.50 ± 2.38, p = 0.01, ES(r) = 0.82), and HRmean (SSG1: 174.50 ± 3.31 / 181.75 ± 2.21, p = 0.01, ES(r) = 0.82). Floating players' physical and physiological demands were lower compared with the other athletes. Conclusions. The pitch size influences the physiological and physical response of young soccer players in SSGs. The demand of 1 × 1 SSG is higher compared with 1 × 1 + 1. Floating player participation could result in a fruitful strategy to adjust the training intensity of specific soccer players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study used analytics to examine the effect of Home Field Advantage (HFA) on the Internal Load (Session Rate of Perceived Exertion (sRPE)), External Load (from GPS trackers) and wellness (based on surveys) for a Division III women's soccer team in Home and Away matches. First the home advantage (HFA) in the Southern California Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (SCIAC) that the team plays in was quantified using conference games only for all nine teams for three seasons. A multiple regression analysis was used to analyze the relationship between Goal Difference and sRPE, External Load variables and Wellness variables at the team, position, and athlete level based on 12 athletes. The results showed the league had an adjusted HFA of 57%. The analysis showed that Defenders were impacted more by away matches based on the medium effect sizes of the difference between their home and away measures for sRPE and sleep quality, and small effect sizes for Distance in high-speed zones and stress. One athlete, a forward, had different mean sRPE in home and away matches. A regression mediation analysis was carried out to test the mediating effect of game location on the relationship between internal load and goal difference. Results showed that game location does mediate this relationship. These findings validated the existence of HFA in sports and the findings of differences in the impact of HFA to athletes in specific positions can be used as a guide in analyzing and acting on the performance and well-being of players at each position. The study demonstrated the value of analytics in gaining insights about players' performance and well-being. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Montini, M and Rocchi, JE. Monitoring training load in soccer: The Relation of Ongoing Monitored Exercise in Individual model. J Strength Cond Res 36(9): 2566–2572, 2022. For a training organization, monitoring training load (TL) is of paramount importance. Despite this, a conclusive response on such topic is yet to be reported. The aims of this study were to investigate the relationship between TL indicators and to propose a new method for monitoring TL response and physical fitness. Twenty professional soccer players were retrospectively evaluated. The first phase of data analysis included 34 in-season training sessions. Subsequently, three microcycles (T1-T2-T3) of pre-season training were processed. A regression model was used to examine the relationships between internal TL (session rating of perceived exertion [s-RPE]) and external TL (energy expenditure, EE). The standard error of the regression equation was used to propose a new model called "ROMEI" (Relation of Ongoing Monitored Exercise in Individual). The level of statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. During the competitive season and the pre-season training camp, the average TL values were 65.8 ± 22 and 58.2 ± 22 minutes; 336 ± 204 and 228 ± 101 AU of s-RPE; and 29 ± 13 and 25 ± 9 kJ kJ−1 of EE, respectively. In the competitive season, the collective and average individual correlation coefficients between s-RPE and EE were r = 0.888 and r = 0.892 ± 0.05, respectively. Considering slope values (m) of the regression line, data highlighted a significant increase of +34.4 ± 15.9% in T2 vs. T3 (p < 0.001) and +38.2 ± 15.2% in T1 vs. T3 (p < 0.001). Data shown in this investigation support the use of an individualized analysis to better understand the TL administered to soccer players rather than a collective analysis. This may be accomplished with the proposed ROMEI model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to investigate the external (ETLs; 15-Hz GPS unit coupled with a 100 Hz tri-axial accelerometer) and internal training loads (ITLs; session-RPE method) of 18 elite U20 soccer players (19 ± 1.0 years, 178 ± 8 cm, 71 ± 7 kg) undertaking a tactical-conditioning training program with special reference to small-sided games (SSGs). The SSGs used in this program were either extensive (SSG-extensive) or intensive (SSG-intensive) training sessions, that were alternated within the assessed weeks. Tactical principles of the game influenced the aim of the technical-tactical content. Total distance (TDR; ES: 1.17), and a very high-speed running distance (HSR; ES: 0.96) were greater in SSG-extensive vs. SSG-intensive. However, no meaningful difference was found for accelerations (ACC; ES: 0.12) and decelerations (DEC; ES: 0.08). However, a higher perceived intensity (session-RPE; ES: 0.62) and greater ITLs (ES: 0.27) were found for SSG-intensive. These findings suggest that coaches should prescribe SSG training sessions not only considering the usual variables (rules, player numbers, etc.). The current data indicate that the tactical objective of SSGs in relation to exercise bout duration and rest intervals should be considered, while implementing a multi-dimensional training monitoring program during SSG tactical-conditioning training sessions, integrating ETL and ITL variables to gain a better understanding of training responses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was intended to investigate the associations between session Ratings of Perceived Exertion (sRPE) and Edwards’ training load (TL) and Banister training impulse (TRIMP) in order to determine the validity of the sRPE method for TL assessment in karate kata discipline. Eight elite karate kata athletes, members of the national karate team, took part in this study. A multistage 20 m shuttle run test was performed to determine maximal heart rate (HRmax). Subsequently, the subjects performed 3 different kata training sessions separated by minimally 48 hours. To calculate Edwards TL, Banister TRIMP and sRPE, heart rate (HR) was continuously monitored during the sessions and RPE of the entire session was collected 30 minutes after each training session. The Pearson correlation coefficient (r) was used for determining associations between TL variables. Edwards TL (p = 0.064) and Banister TRIMP (p = 0.102) were not, but sRPE was significantly different between each training session (p

Purpose: To examine the effect of recall timing on training-session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) in a population of athletes well familiarized with the method and procedures during a 5-d training microcycle. Methods: Fifty-one top-class field referees (FRs) (age 38.4 ± 3.3 y, height 181 ± 5.6 cm, body mass 76.8 ± 6.8 kg, body-mass index 23.4 ± 1.7 kg/m2, body fat 20.4% ± 3.6%, international refereeing experience 5 ± 3.5 y) from 43 national football associations worldwide, preselected by the FIFA refereeing department for officiating during the FIFA World Cup 2014 Brazil, volunteered for this study. The FRs were randomly allocated into 3 assessment groups (n = 17 each), defined according to the timing of the sRPE, ie, immediately at the end of or 30 min or 7 h after the training sessions' end. The CR10 Borg scale was used to rate the training sessions (n = 5). All FRs again rated each training session of the 5-d training microcycle on the next morning (~20 h after) for confirmation (absolute and relative reliability). Results: No significant timing effect was found between or within groups. Relative reliability ranged from large to very large with trivial within- and between-groups differences. Conclusions: This study showed no effect of recall timing on postexercise RPE when well-familiarized athletes are submitted to training during a weekly microcycle. Posttraining RPE was reported to be a reliable subjective measure; however, specific timing is advisable to reduce difference in RPE values. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The need to quantify aspects of training to improve training prescription has been the holy grail of sport scientists and coaches for many years. Recently, there has been an increase in scientific interest, possibly due to technological advancements and better equipment to quantify training activities. Over the last few years there has been an increase in the number of studies assessing training load in various athletic cohorts with a bias toward subjective reports and/or quantifications of external load. There is an evident lack of extensive longitudinal studies employing objective internal-load measurements, possibly due to the cost- effectiveness and invasiveness of measures necessary to quantify objective internal loads. Advances in technology might help in developing better wearable tools able to ease the difficulties and costs associated with conducting longitudinal observational studies in athletic cohorts and possibly provide better information on the biological implications of specific external-load patterns. Considering the recent technological developments for monitoring training load and the extensive use of various tools for research and applied work, the aim of this work was to review applications, challenges, and opportunities of various wearable technologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Training quantification is basic to evaluate an endurance athlete's responses to training loads, ensure adequate stress/recovery balance, and determine the relationship between training and performance. Quantifying both external and internal workload is important, because external workload does not measure the biological stress imposed by the exercise sessions. Generally used quantification methods include retrospective questionnaires, diaries, direct observation, and physiological monitoring, often based on the measurement of oxygen uptake, heart rate, and blood lactate concentration. Other methods in use in endurance sports include speed measurement and the measurement of power output, made possible by recent technological advances such as power meters in cycling and triathlon. Among subjective methods of quantification, rating of perceived exertion stands out because of its wide use. Concurrent assessments of the various quantification methods allow researchers and practitioners to evaluate stress/ recovery balance, adjust individual training programs, and determine the relationships between external load, internal load, and athletes' performance. This brief review summarizes the most relevant external- and internal-workload-quantification methods in endurance sports and provides practical examples of their implementation to adjust the training programs of elite athletes in accordance with their individualized stress/recovery balance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]