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Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been widely applied in many different sectors, but the marine products and seafood segment have received relatively little attention in the past. In recent decades, global fish production experienced sustained growth and peaked at about 179 million tonnes in 2018. Consequently, increased interest in the environmental implications of fishery products along the supply chain, namely from capture to end of life, was recently experienced by society, industry and policy-makers. This timely review aims to describe the current framework of LCA and its application to the seafood sector that mainly focused on fish extraction and processing, but it also encompassed the remaining stages. An excess of 60 studies conducted over the last decade, along with some additional publications, were comprehensively reviewed; these focused on the main LCA methodological choices, including but not limited to, functional unit, system boundaries allocation methods and environmental indicators. The review identifies key recommendations on the progression of LCA for this increasingly important sustaining seafood sector. Specifically, these recommendations include (i) the need for specific indicators for fish-related activities, (ii) the target species and their geographical origin, (iii) knowledge and technology transfer and, (iv) the application and implementation of key recommendations from LCA research that will improve the accuracy of LCA models in this sector. Furthermore, the review comprises a section addressing previous and current challenges of the seafood sector. Wastewater treatment, ghost fishing or climate change, are also the objects of discussion together with advocating support for the water-energy-food nexus as a valuable tool to minimize environmental negativities and to frame successful synergies. This work was supported by the EAPA_576/2018 NEPTUNUS project. The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of Interreg Atlantic Area. Ana Cláudia Dias and Paula Quinteiro acknowledge FCT/MCTES for the financial support to CESAM (UIDB/50017/2020+UIDP/50017/2020), through national funds, and to the research contracts CEECIND/02174/2017 and CEECIND/00143/2017, respectively. peer-reviewed 2022-12-14

Menus served at public services can be considered as a good opportunity for consumers to demand a service that ensures healthy and environmentally friendly food. It is especially in the sector of nurseries and schools, where these demands make the most sense since they call for the protection of particularly vulnerable population: children. The purpose of this study is to analyze the biweekly menus served at a public Spanish nursery canteen considering the link with the two most recognized environmental indicators: the consumptive water footprint (WF) and the carbon footprint (CF). The WF and CF of the menus vary considerably between menus (619–1359 L·menu−1 and 0.75–2.95 kg CO2eq·menu−1). The assessment has identified non-dairy sources of protein and dairy-based products as the key food categories in all menus. Menus with more meat (mostly beef) and dairy products (mainly cheese) were associated with higher impacts. That is, the average impact of menus with beef is about 2 times greater than the one of all other menus. The distribution and cooking stages presented negligible contributions in terms of greenhouse gases emissions, mainly due to the consumption of local/regional products and low-energy intensive cooking techniques. The most important strategy for reducing environmental impacts is based on reducing the frequency of consumption of beef, so that poultry and lean pork are consumed alternately. This reduction should not compromise the necessary protein intake for toddlers. Attention should also be paid to afternoon snacks that are rich in cold meat and dairy products. Considering these issues, significant reductions in WF and CF indicators could be achieved, up to 550 L·menu−1 and 0.70 kg CO2eq·menu−1. Since eating habits introduced at an early stage are more likely to develop into adult behaviour, children canteen services are an excellent opportunity to promote healthy eating habits in children and their families This research has been partially supported by a project granted by Xunta de Galicia (project ref. ED431F 2016/001 and by a project granted by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Proyectos de Investigación en Salud-ISCIII (project ref. PI16/01301). S.G-G. would like to express her gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for financial support (Grant reference RYC-2014-14984). S.G.-G., X.E-Ll., G.F. and M.T.M. belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC 2013-032. All these programs are co-funded by Xunta de Galicia and FEDER (EU) SI

Rutin is a flavonol glycoside that is found in greater proportion in asparagus stalks. Considering the possibility of valorization of solid waste from the food industry, this research aims to evaluate and compare the environmental profile of the different schemes of rutin asparagus extraction. Specifically, Soxhlet, pressurized liquid and supercritical fluid extractions, all of them using ethanol as the extracting agent. The environmental analysis is conducted according to the Life Cycle Assessment methodology under a mass and economic allocation. The results, under economic allocation, show that the scenario based on pressurized liquid extraction have the best environmental profile. However, when mass allocation is considered, the pressurized liquid-based scenario is the worst choice. Consequently, the choice of the solvents will influence the Soxhlet extraction performance. In this regard, ethanol, methanol and ethyl acetate are selected. The solvent comparison identifies ethyl acetate as the extraction agent with the worst environmental profile This research has been partially supported by the SENSE project granted by FEDER/Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities, Spanish National Research Agency (CTQ2016-75136-P) and by the project Enhancing diversity in Mediterranean cereal farming systems (CerealMed) funded by PRIMA Programme and FEDER/Ministry of Science and Innovation – Spanish National Research Agency (PCI2020-111978). B. Santiago thanks to the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities for financial support (Grant reference BES-2017-081715). Dr. S. González-Garcia would like to express her gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for financial support (Grant reference RYC-2014-14984). The authors belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC 2013-032 and to CRETUS Strategic Partnership (AGRUP2015/02). All these programmes are co-funded by Xunta de Galicia and FEDER (EU) SI

Chemical and heat treatments are traditionally used to preserve the quality of food products. An alternative is based on the use of antimicrobials such as nisin to ensure food safety. Traditionally, nisin is produced by microbial fermentation in the exponential growth phase of Lactococcus lactis, which is a recognized starter culture in dairy products. However, its production process entails a high cost compared to its chemical-based counterparts, which reduces its competitiveness in the market. This study addresses the economic feasibility and environmental impacts of biotechnological co-production of nisin and lactic acid from three food-associated industrial waste streams: cheese whey (CW), sugar beet pulp (SBP) and corn stover (CS). To carry out the conceptual design of a process at an early stage of development, SuperPro Designer® is used as simulation tool for developing the process alternatives within an industrial approach. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology will be applied to identify the main environmental impacts associated with the production process. Based on the economic and environmental evaluation, SBP proved to be the best carbon source for the nisin production process, followed by CW. Regarding CS, this alternative should overcome the drawbacks associated with enzyme consumption and limited nisin production yield This research has been financially supported by the European project iFermenter (Grant Agreement 79057. Ifermenter is a project funded under the "Bio-Based Industries Joint Undertaking under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme". The authors belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group (GRC ED431C 2017/29) and to the Cross-disciplinary Research in Environmental Technologies (CRETUS Research Center, ED431E 2018/01) SI

The partnership for sustainable and healthy food is a challenge shared by governments, food industry, environmental science, and the health service. At the European level, the application of policies based on the Mediterranean-style eating pattern is recommended. In this regard, attention is being paid to the New Nordic Diet (NND), which shares many similarities with the Mediterranean one but comprises typical foods from Nordic countries. Therefore, it could be transferred to anywhere in the world, including Spain, where it would coexist with the recommendations of the Mediterranean Diet (MD) and the southern European Atlantic Diet (SEAD). The main objective of this study is to propose the modelling of the health, economic, environmental and nutritional indicators of the southern version of NND (SNND) and to compare, when possible, the results with those of the alternatives. The environmental metrics for SNND, carbon footprint (CF) and water footprint (WF), were estimated at 3.58 kg CO2·person−1·day−1 and 3528 L·person-1·day-1 respectively, a slightly worse environmental profile than for MD. In relation to economic metrics, the updated cost index to 2019 was 4.30 €·person−1·day−1, similar to MD and lower than for SEAD. The overall dietary quality score was 126, a higher result than the baseline (100), but worse than those identified for SEAD and MD. In terms of health outcomes, NND showed benefits that reduce non-communicable diseases such as the risks of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) by 31%, colorectal cancer (CRCA) by 35% and cardiovascular disease (CVD) by 7%. Compliance with the NND was also associated with a weight loss of 1.83 kg per person following the diet. Epidemiological evidence supported greater weight loss when following the NND, but greater reductions in the CVD risk when adhering to MD. The dissemination through educational campaigns of these recommended dietary patterns and the incorporation in the dietary guidelines of simple indicators of nutritional quality, environmental impacts and health, easily understood by a wide audience, is one of the most important challenges of public and environmental health C.C–F would like to show her gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities (Grant reference FPU 19/06648). S.G-G. would also give thanks to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (Grant reference RYC-2014-14984). C.C., S.G.-G., G.F. and M.T.M. belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC 2013–032 and to Cross-disciplinary Research in Environmental Technologies (CRETUS Research Center, ED431E 2018/01). All these programs are co-funded by Xunta de Galicia and FEDER (EU) SI

In recent years, the application of magnetic nanoparticles as alternative catalysts to conventional Fenton processes has been investigated for the removal of emerging pollutants in wastewater. While this type of catalyst reduces the release of iron hydroxides with the treated effluent, it also presents certain disadvantages, such as slower reaction kinetics associated with the availability of iron and mass transfer limitations. To overcome these drawbacks, the functionalization of the nanocatalyst surface through the addition of coatings such as polyacrylic acid (PAA) and their immobilization on a mesoporous silica matrix (SBA15) can be factors that improve the dispersion and stability of the nanoparticles. Under these premises, the performance of the nanoparticle coating and nanoparticle-mesoporous matrix binomials in the degradation of dyes as examples of recalcitrant compounds were evaluated. Based on the outcomes of dye degradation by the different functionalized nanocatalysts and nanocomposites, the nanoparticles embedded in a mesoporous matrix were applied for the removal of estrogens (E1, E2, EE2), accomplishing high removal percentages (above 90%) after the optimization of the operational variables. With the feasibility of their recovery in mind, the nanostructured materials represented a significant advantage as their magnetic character allows their separation for reuse in different successive sequential batch cycles This research was funded by HP-NANOBIO Project (PID2019-111163RB-I00) and MAGDEMON Project (PID2020-112626RB) granted by Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation SI

15 p.-6 fig.-4 tab., The use and integration of enzymatic processes for the biotransformation of biomass within the biorefinery framework creates the need to confirm whether these novel production systems are in the route to environmental sustainability. In this study, the environmental profiles of the production of two oxidative enzymes, hydroxymethylfurfural oxidase (HMFO) from Methylovorus and unspecific peroxygenase (UPO) from Chaetomium globosum (CglUPO) for the enzymatic production of FDCA as precursor of bioplastics were analyzed. Laboratory-scale experiments allowed the identification of the consumption of energy, with over 80% share in every impact category for HMFO and chemicals and energy in CglUPO as primary hotspots of the systems. The results are transposed for HMFO when laboratory inventories were extrapolated to full scale processing, showing that impacts are attributed not only to energy demand but also to the use of chemicals required for the formulation of the culture medium. In terms of process units, the fermenter, where enzyme production takes place, corresponds to the stage that contributes the most to the environmental impacts, with a 57% share, followed by the downstream separation scheme (37%). Extrapolation of laboratory data to full-scale also represented a change in the relative difference of the impact per functional unit of 45% for CgIUPO. The endpoint damage categories showed a significant reduction in their full-scale impacts to about half the burden. The analysis of the outcomes of the uncertainty analysis showed that the resource depletion category had the least dispersion of data, while the level of uncertainty is more relevant for human health, as it takes into account the combined effect of a larger number of impact categories and the processes involved. This study shows that, although being bio-based catalysts, the production of enzymes involves several steps which may incur in environmental impact. Thus, it is recommended that enzymes are carefully included within the system boundaries for their evaluation, since they could be the major hotspot in the biorefinery value chain. De-fossilization of the plastic industry will be possible with thoroughly optimized bio-transformations, with carbon-based media from residual resources, minimized use of chemicals and the implementation of energy integration measures., This research was supported by the European EnzOx2 BBI JU-Project (H2020-BBI-PPP-2015-2-1-720297). S. Bello, G. Feijoo and M.T. Moreira belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC ED431C 2017/29 and to the CRETUS Strategic Partnership (ED431E 2018/01). All these programmes are co-funded by FEDER (EU).

It is no secret that the world is facing the challenge of transitioning to healthy diets, which link human and planetary health and the economy. Among the wide variety of diets, Palaeolithic diet has become so popular in social media. The main goal of this study is to evaluate the environmental and health sustainability of the Paleo diet, incorporating the health dimension to the economic, nutritional, and environmental indicators. Results were compared with those of the other dietary patterns in Spain: Mediterranean Diet (MD), Southern European Atlantic Diet (SEAD) and the Spanish Dietary Guidelines (NAOS). It was concluded that the Paleo diet is a diet low in carbohydrates (24.5% of energy intake) and high in protein (29.6% of energy intake), cholesterol (835 mg·day−1) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (15.3% of energy intake). The diet quality score was 260, a result above the recommended. Regarding the health assessment of the food categories that contribute most to the Paleo diet, vegetables and fruits were associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD), type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), colorectal cancer (CRCA), obesity and stroke. The opposite result was observed for red meat. Fish and seafood, as well as poultry, were associated with a relative risk higher than one for T2D and obesity, but not for CVD, CRCA or stroke. Based on the economic assessment, a higher dietary cost was estimated for Paleo diet (8.6 €·person−1·day−1). The environmental metrics in terms of carbon footprint (CF) and water footprint (WF) were estimated in 5.44 kg CO2·person−1·day−1 and 3499 L·person−1·day−1 respectively, a worse environmental profile than that of MD, SEAD and NAOS. Environmental and health sustainability assessments can help policy makers set targets for improving dietary guidelines at national level. They are recognized as a very useful tool to guide citizens towards the most appropriate diet C.C.-F. would like to express her gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities for financial support (Grant reference FPU 19/06648). S.G.-G. would like to express her gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for financial support (Grant reference RYC-2014-14984). C.C-F, S.G.-G., G.F. and M.T.M. belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC 2013-032 and to CRETUS Strategic Partnership (AGRUP2015/02). All these programs are co-funded by FEDER (EU) SI

The environment is a very complex and fragile system in which multiple factors of different nature play an important role. Pollution, together with resource consumption, is one of the main causes of the environmental problems currently affecting the planet. In the search for alternative production processes, the use of renewable resources seeks a way to satisfy the demands of resource consumption based on the premises of lower environment impact and less damage to human health. In the wood sector, the panel manufacturing process is based on the use of formaldehyde-based resins. However, their poor moisture resistance leads to hydrolysis of amino-methylene bonds, which induces formaldehyde emissions throughout the lifetime of the wood panel. This manuscript investigates the environmental profile associated with different wood bioadhesives based on starch functionalization as a renewable alternative to formaldehyde resins. Considering that this is a process under development, the conceptual design of the full-scale process will be addressed by process modeling and the environmental profile will be assessed using life cycle assessment methodology. A comparative study with synthetic resins will provide useful information for modify their development to become real alternatives in the wood-based panel industry. The results obtained show the enormous potential of starch bioadhesives, as their environmental impact values are lower compared to those based on petrochemicals. However, certain improvements in the energy process requirements and in the chemical agents used could be developed to provide even better results This research has been financially supported by ERA-CoBIOTECH project (PCI2018-092866) Programación Conjunta Internacional 2018—WooBAdh project. The authors belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group (GRC ED431C 2017/29) and to CRETUS Strategic Partnership (ED431E 2018/01). SI

The development of natural-based adhesives is a key aspect in reducing the consumption of fossil resources, in adapting to legislation on the use of formaldehyde and in ensuring the sustainability of the wood panel industry. This study focuses on five alternatives for tannin-based adhesives (tannin-paraformaldehyde, tannin-glyoxal, tannin-hexamine, tannin non-isocyanate polyurethane (NIPU) with ammonium hydroxide and tannin NIPU with HDMA bio-adhesives) as potential proposals for the substitution of synthetic adhesives currently used: Urea-formaldehyde (UF), Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) and melamine urea formaldehyde (MUF). Modeling and simulation tools were used for the conceptual design of the reaction stage of the bio-adhesives due to the lack of real data from industrial scale production systems. The life cycle assessment methodology was used to identify the environmental impacts associated with the production processes of these bio-adhesives. The results obtained showed that tannin NIPU bio-adhesive with ammonium hydroxide has the best environmental profile, although the other alternative bio-adhesives also show good environmental profiles compared to synthetic adhesives. Sensitivity analyses have been carried out after evaluating the main hot spots in the production processes. In all of them, reductions of the environmental impacts have been observed, with the replacement of DMC by EC and the reduction of energy consumption being the options that showed the greatest improvements This research was financially supported by ERA-CoBIOETCH project (PCI2018-092866) Programación Conjunta Internacional 2018 – WooBAdh project. Sara González García thanks the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for financial support (Grant reference RYC-2014-14984). The authors belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group (GRC ED431C 2017/29) and to CRETUS Strategic Partnership (ED431E 2018/01) SI

Interest in the development of biorefineries and biotechnological processes based on renewable resources has multiplied in recent years. This driving force is the result of the availability of lignocellulosic biomass and the range of applications that arise from its use and valorization. The approach of second-generation sugars from lignocellulosic biomass opens up the possibility of producing biotechnological products such as enzymes as a feasible alternative in the framework of biorefineries. It is in this context that this manuscript is framed, focusing on the modelling of a large-scale fermentative biotechnological process to produce the enzyme manganese peroxidase (MnP) by the fungus Irpex lacteus using wheat straw as a carbon source. The production scheme is based on the sequence of four stages: pretreatment of wheat straw, seed fermenters, enzyme production and downstream processes. For its environmental assessment, the Life Cycle Assessment methodology, which allows the identification and quantification of environmental impacts associated with the process, was utilized. As the main finding, the stages of the process with the highest environmental burdens are those of pretreatment and fermentation, mainly due to energy requirements. With the aim of proposing improvement scenarios, sensitivity analyses were developed around the identified hotspots. An improvement in the efficiency of steam consumption leads to a reduction of environmental damage of up to 30%.

The restrictions imposed on the use of formaldehyde in wood panel adhesives have been the driving force behind the development of formaldehyde-free resins for the manufacture of wood products. Considering as a boundary condition the idea that the use of fossil-based raw materials should be replaced by biological options, there is growing interest in the environmental assessment of different alternatives for soy-based adhesives, as possible options to replace commonly used synthetic resins. This report includes the environmental profiles of soy-based adhesives taking into account the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. In addition, in order to increase their potential to replace synthetic resins, a sensitivity analysis of the main contributors to environmental damage was performed, thus giving an open guide for further research and improvement. This study aims to provide innovative alternatives and new trends in the field of environmentally friendly bio-adhesives for the wood panel industry.

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been developed as multifunctional systems that aim to eliminate pollutants present in wastewater, manage the sludge produced and improve energy efficiency. Specifically, sludge management accounts for the largest share in operational costs. Considering the relevant role of sludge treatment within the overall management scheme, this study aims to evaluate different alternatives and strategies for sludge management and treatment from the perspective of life cycle analysis, with special emphasis on those options that reduce environmental impacts and economic costs. Two pre-treatments (chemical or thermal) and two post-treatments (composting unit followed by land application or incineration) were evaluated to improve the eco-balance of the anaerobic digestion (AD) process in terms of operational (biogas production and digested sludge), environmental and economic indicators. According to the results obtained, both sludge pre-treatment alternatives proved to be an adequate alternative to improve biogas production without negatively affecting environmental and economic impacts. Finally, if the final disposal of the digestate is analysed, its application to the soil as a biofertiliser is recommended, since it presents a better environmental profile than incineration.

The pressure on natural water resources associated with increasing water scarcity highlights the value of using reclaimed water through the development of efficient and environmentally friendly treatment technologies. In this work, the use of magnetic nanoparticles in photo-Fenton catalysis for water disinfection was considered to inactivate natural enteric bacteria present in municipal wastewater effluents under white light and neutral pH. The most recommended ranges were evaluated in key variables such as the loading and composition of nanoparticles (NPs), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) concentration, the light source (UV and visible) and treatment time were evaluated in wastewater disinfection expressed in terms of total coliforms and Escherichia coli colony forming units (CFU). The magnetic separation of NPs allowed the disinfection process to be carried out in different cycles, facilitating the recovery of the nanocatalyst and avoiding its discharge with the treated effluent.

The European seafood and aquaculture sectors are facing important challenges in terms of environmental threats (climate change, marine debris, resources depletion), social development (worker rights, consumer's awareness) or economic growth (market and nonmarket goods and services, global competitiveness). These issues are forcing all stakeholders, from policy-makers to citizens and industries, to move to more sustainable policies, practices and processes. Consequently, an improvement in collaborations among different parties and beyond borders is required to create more efficient networks along the supply chain of seafood and aquaculture sectors. To achieve this, a â nexus thinkingâ approach (i.e. the analysis of actions in connected systems) combined with a life cycle thinking appears as an excellent opportunity to facilitate the transition to a circular economy. This work was supported by the EAPA_576/2018 NEPTUNUS project. The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support of Interreg Atlantic Area. A.C. Dias and P. Quinteiro acknowledge FCT/MCTES for the contracts CEECIND/02174/2017 and CEECIND/00143/2017, respectively, and for the financial support to CESAM (UID/AMB/50017/2019), through national funds. The Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) for supporting the contract of A. Marques in the framework of the IF2014 program (IF/00253/2014). peer-reviewed 2022-02-11

A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) with focus on carbon footprint, followed by Life Cycle Costing (LCC) of municipal solid waste (MSW) management were conducted in a residential area of a medium-sized European city of 80,000 inhabitants. The initial results showed high environmental impacts and lack of economic sustainability, due to the high amounts of waste landfilled, the low extent of separate collection, low performance of mechanicalbiological treatment as well as absence from alternatives to landfilling of non-recyclable materials. Taking this result as a baseline scenario, three improvement.s were tested with the aim of turning the carbon footprint of the local MSW management system into a neutral value: (i) increased separate collection of recyclables, (ii) enhanced biogas production and (iii) refuse-derived fuel (RDF) production. Successively adding the improvements, three alternative improved scenarios were defined, until reaching a negative carbon footprint, meaning that an optimised system would avoid GHG emissions. The proposed changes were sufficient to achieve carbon neutrality, as well as reduce overall environmental impacts, but were not enough for achieving economic sustainability due to the great influence of collection costs, especially for separate collection. It was concluded that by using an adequate combination of several treatment options and increasing the separate collection of recyclable materials it is possible to turn MSW management into a carbon neutral activity as well as improve its economic balance. The authors acknowledge the financial support of LIFE+, the financial instrument of the EU for the environment, for funding the LIFE PAYT project (LIFE 15/ENV/PT/000609). The authors would also like to acknowledge the Aveiro Municipal Council and MSW management company ERSUC for the data they kindly provided for this work, as well as CERNAS Research Centre for the material support which made this work possible (UIDB/00681/2020). info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

The retrofitting of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) should be addressed under sustainability criteria. It is well known that there are two elements that most penalize wastewater treatment: (i) energy requirements and (ii) sludge management. New technologies should reduce both of these drawbacks to address technical efficiency, carbon neutrality and reduced economic costs. In this context, the main objective of this work was to evaluate two real plants of different size in which major modifications were considered: enhanced recovery of organic matter (OM) in the primary treatment and partial-anammox nitrification process in the secondary treatment. Plant-wide modelling provided an estimate of the input and output flows of each process unit as well as the diagnosis of the main performance indicators, which served as a basis for the calculation of environmental and economic indicators using the LCA methodology. The combination of high-rate activated sludge (HRAS) + partial nitrification Anammox can decrease the environmental impacts by about 70% in the climate change (CC) category and 50% in the eutrophication potential (EP) category. Moreover, costs can be reduced by 35–45% depending on the size of the plant. In addition, the enhanced rotating belt filter (ERBF) can also improve the environmental profile, but to a lesser extent than the previous scenario, only up to 10% for CC and 15% for EP. These positive results are only possible considering the production of energy through biogas valorization according to the waste-to-energy scheme This research was supported by the UE project: Pioneer_STP (PCIN-2015-22 (MINECO)/ID199 (WaterJPI). The authors (A. Arias, G. Feijoo and M.T. Moreira) belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group (GRC ED431C 2017/29) and to the CRETUS Strategic Partnership (ED431E 2018/01). Other authors (C.R. Behera and G. Sin) belongs to Process and Systems Engineering Center (PROSYS), DTU Chemical Engineering 2022-06-20 SI

Scientific research is currently underway to demonstrate that nanostructured materials can emerge as a highly competent technology for soil remediation. Nanotechnology provides new types of materials that have size ranges from 1 to 100 nm, which implies unique physical and chemical properties. The increase in reactivity associated with their higher surface/volume ratio suggests that these systems can improve the results obtained using a macroscale approach. Among the different types of nanomaterials, nano zero-valent iron (nZVI) is undoubtedly the most widely used, even on a full scale. Other alternatives include metallic oxides, as well as silica nanoparticles or carbon-based nanomaterials, among others. This chapter presents the main groups of nanomaterials applied for the recovery of contaminated soils and sediments, within the framework of the most relevant technologies developed to date, from the most basic research at laboratory level to their development on a real scale.

The planning and construction of large-scale wastewater infrastructure, such as sewerage networks and wastewater treatment plants, is undertaken by the public sector or by publicly regulated monopolies. Only on smaller scales can infrastructure be managed by private companies or through local collective initiatives. Within this framework of water cycle management, there is an increasing movement of the population towards cities where economic activity is concentrated. This scenario is particularly pronounced in certain regions of the world and makes it necessary to rethink whether decentralised treatment offers a way of ensuring the servicing of wastewater treatment in new urban developments, alleviating pressure on facilities that are at the limit of their capacity. In this study four systems were evaluated: two centralised and two decentralised configurations, from an environmental and economic perspective, posing as working hypothesis how different wastewater treatment schemes influence the carbon footprint of the population living in a neighbourhood. The analysis of the results identifies that the decentralised systems present a reduction in the carbon footprint of residents of around 20–23 % depending on the technology considered. In addition, reclaimed water can meet the water quality requirements for irrigation of the green areas in the neighbourhood. Although decentralised systems have higher construction costs, they can be amortised due to lower energy consumption, so the payback time is estimated to be 8–9 years, lower than that of centralised systems. Considering the problems associated with changing and replacing existing networks, decentralised wastewater treatment systems is especially recommended for new dwelling developments, based on its environmental and economic indicators This research was supported by the EU project: Run4Life (GA no 730285-1). The authors belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC ED431C 2017/29) and to the CRETUS Strategic Partnership (ED431E 2018/01). Dr. S. González-Garcia would like to express her gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for financial support (Grant reference RYC-2014-14984). All these programs are co-funded by FEDER (EU) 2022-06-28 SI

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been developed as multifunctional systems responsible for the management and treatment of wastewater prior to its discharge into the aquatic environment. Improving the energy efficiency of WWTPs is a key factor for their sustainability performance; however, it is also crucial that their design is based on the combination of technologies capable of maintaining a balance between the desired quality of final streams (i.e., effluent, sludge, and gas emissions) and the recovery of resources (reclaimed water, fertilizers, and bioenergy). Within this framework, one of the central processes of the WWTPs within the water-energy nexus is the anaerobic digestion (AD) process, ideally suitable for the management of wastewater and solid waste with a high organic load. The objectives of AD are rooted in the underlying principle of circular economy in such a way that waste is valorized to produce bioenergy and biofertilizers.

Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) is gaining broad interest as an effective strategy to go beyond carbon neutrality. So far, most of the work on BECCS focused on power systems, while its application to the transport sector has received much less attention. To contribute to filling this gap, this work investigates the potential of BECCS as a carbon-negative strategy in the transport sector by applying process modelling and life cycle assessment (LCA) to bioethanol production from lignocellulosic waste. The process was analyzed following a cradle-to-wheel approach, i.e., from biomass growth to the combustion of biofuel in the cars, assuming that the CO2 emitted in the fermentation and cogeneration units is captured, compressed and transported to be stored permanently in geological sites. Several scenarios differing in the bioethanol-gasoline blends (10–85% bioethanol) were considered for a functional unit of 1 km of distance travelled, comparing with fossil-based gasoline. Our results show that blends above 85% (ethanol/gasoline) could have the potential to deliver a net-negative emissions balance of −2.74 kg CO2 eq per 100 km travelled and up to −5.05 kg CO2 eq per 100 km using a low carbon electricity source. The final amount of net CO2 removal is highly dependent on the carbon intensity of the electricity and the heating utilities. Biofuels blends could, however, lead to burden-shifting in eutrophication, ozone depletion and formation, toxicity, land use, and water consumption. This work highlights the potential of BECCS in the transport sector, and the need to analyze impacts beyond climate change in future studies to avoid shifting burdens to other categories This contribution was supported by the European project iFermenter (Grant Agreement 790507). S. Bello, G. Feijoo and M.T. Moreira belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC ED431C 2017/29 and to the CRETUS Strategic Partnership (ED431E 2018/01). All these programs are co-funded by FEDER (EU) SI

Growing pressure on water resources has led to new alternatives to conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), including decentralized systems. In this study, three decentralized plants were evaluated: (i) one conventional (activated sludge) and, (ii) two membrane bioreactors (one aerobic and the other anaerobic) from an environmental and economic perspective. The Anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) technology proved to be the most advisable alternative due to energy recovery, lower electricity consumption, and effluent quality. However, the implementation of the decentralized schemes and choosing one or another technology such as AnMBR, membrane bioreactor (MBR), or Conventional Activated Sludge (CAS) systems depends on local conditions, the social perception of the benefits associated with the treatment, compliance with wastewater treatment regulations, and the quality of the treated effluent.

10 pages, 2 tables, 4 figures, Overfishing contributes to the depletion of fish stocks. Among fishing practices, discarding fish is a waste of valuable resources and results in lost income that is associated with its effects on future stock growth. This practice depends on several factors, although trawl fisheries account for the highest quantity of discards. In this work, the effects of a specific section of the Galician (Northwestern Spain) bottom trawl fishery were evaluated by using the ecological footprint, focusing on the contribution of the rate of discards. We selected fishing grounds and carbon footprints as the categories for the analysis. The results showed that 11.6 global hectares (gha) per metric ton of catch were required for an average fishing trip, ranging between 2.2 and 27.1 gha per metric ton. Discards represented 55% of this value, while the carbon footprint only represented 11%. Therefore, measures are needed to reduce the significant effects of discards, especially in these fisheries. The findings indicate that the discard ban promoted by the Common Fisheries Policy could reduce the ecological footprint of these fisheries by 3.4 gha per metric ton of catch landed on average, The authors acknowledge the financial support received from the European Union through the LIFE Environment Program of the European Union (LIFE13 ENV/ES/000131-iSEAS). Amaya Franco-Uría, Mª 400 Teresa Moreira and Gumersindo Feijoo belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC 2013-032, a program that is cofunded by ERDF, and to CRETUS AGRUP2015/02). Luis T. Antelo wants to thank the economic support of Programa Pleamar 2018 (cofunded by the European Maritime and Fisheries Fund of the European Union) of Fundación Biodiversidad (2018/1972-SICAPTOR).

Nowadays, cities host most of the world population. As a result of human activities within their boundaries, most greenhouse gases emissions, natural resources consumption and waste generation are concentrated in urban areas. For these reasons, studies focusing on assessing the sustainability of cities have increased in recent decades. Bearing in mind the three pillars of sustainability (social, economic and environmental), this study aims to evaluate the level of sustainability of 31 representative Spanish cities through multiple sustainability indicators, which have been aggregated into a composite sustainability indicator that is reported by a three-letter code. Thus, each pillar of sustainability is represented by a letter A, B or C in the three-letter code, so that the letter A corresponds to the best rate and C to the worst. Within the geographical and socio-demographic framework of Spain, the results show considerable differences between the cities in the south and the north of the country. Accordingly, most of the cities with the best sustainability scores according to the award of at least two A in the three-letters code are located in the north of the country. Examples of this category are Pamplona and L’Hospitalet de Llobregat (both ranked as AAA). Cities such as Murcia, Gijon, Badajoz and Huelva obtained the worst ranking with the CCC rating. For this group of cities, actions for the improvement of sustainability have been identified This research was supported by a project granted by the Spanish Government and FEDER/Ministry of Science and Innovation – Spanish National Research Agency (CTQ2016-75136-P) and by a project granted by Xunta de Galicia (project ref. ED431F 2016/001). Dr. S.G.-G. would like to express her gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for financial support (Grant reference RYC-2014-14984). The authors belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC ED431C 2017/29 and to the CRETUS Strategic Partnership (ED431E2018/01). All these programs are co-funded by FEDER (UE) SI

The search for more efficient and sustainable processes has become the cornerstone of any production system. It is within this framework that it is highly relevant to propose improvement actions based on a detailed eco-efficiency analysis of different facilities so that roadmaps for more sustainable processes are considered. The joint use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) appears to be an appropriate methodology to assess the eco-efficiency of multiple units, providing targets and benchmarks for inefficient ones. This work advances in this direction by integrating both analysis methodologies in the calculation of environmental indicators associated with milk production for a large group of farms, nearly 100 decision-making units. Twenty-one dairy farms were identified as efficient, and the average efficiency score of the inefficient farms was 0.58. Based on the comparison of current operation levels with target levels, it was possible to quantify average reductions of up to 53% for input consumption levels, resulting in average impact reductions of 49% in carbon footprint and 55% in water footprint. Comparing the outcomes of this study with those reported in 2011 for Galician farms (Northwest Spain), a slight decrease in eco-efficiency was noted in the dairy sector. This study shows how the Galician dairy sector must address sustainable development objectives, especially those established in Agenda 2030 to achieve constant improvement and sustainable and efficient production This research was founded by CEPES (118.831059.02). A. Cortés, M.T. Moreira and G. Feijoo belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC (ED431C 2017/29) as well as to CRETUS Strategic Partnership (ED431E 2018/01), co-founded by FEDER (EU) 2022-10-29 SI

Succinic acid (SA) is a top biobased chemical with numerous opportunities in the field of circular economy for climate neutrality. The objective of this work is to environmentally analyze the bio-production of SA from residual sugar-based streams from the pulp and paper industry (SSL). In this study we have complemented Attributional life cycle assessment (A-LCA) with Consequential life cycle assessment (C-LCA) analyzing the effect of mass versus economic allocation in the first method, and the potential of net reductions of carbon emissions in the chemical industry in the latter. The results present an analysis of the environmental effects of producing SA with two operation modes: fed-batch and continuous fermentation as well as the influence of assuming different geographical locations of the bio-SA production plant through the assessment of the effect of the electricity mix. On the other hand, utilizing the facultative anaerobic and capnophilic bacterium Basfia succiniciproducens in the fermentation and thus being CO2 an input, brings up the opportunity of assessing the carbon capture and utilization potential of the bio-SA value chain. An assessment of the upstream section and origin of CO2 was performed by studying the effect of capturing CO2 from industrial static point sources (cement industry and bioethanol production from fermentation). The carbon footprint attributional results suggest that SA from SSL provides a reasonable substitution for the SA fossil alternative although not reaching the same results when comparing against first generation SA produced from sorghum, which is 62% better. From the consequential perspective, substituting the current market of SA (fossil and 1st generation SA) by SA from SSL will provide improvements of up to 1465% by 2060.

In this research, a new sequential batch reactor (SBR) coupled to an internal magnetic separator was developed. The separator consists of a set of axially magnetized permanent toroidal magnets, distributed along a non-magnetic steel rod, uniformly spaced with alternate polarity, which provide an external magnetic field of up to 1.2 T. The feasibility of magnetic separation was assessed for the retention of the nanobiocatalyst based on laccase immobilized on silica-coated MNPs. The proof of concept was evaluated for the enzymatic decolorization of the methyl green (MG) dye and the oligomerization of rutin, with virtually complete recovery of the nanobiocatalyst (99%) and high biotransformation efficiency of both compunds. The characterization of the reaction products of MG by laccase was conducted by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a diode array detector (DAD) coupled to mass spectrometry (MS) using the electrospray ionization source (ESI) (HPLC-DAD-ESI-MS). Moreover, the biotransformation products showed less microtoxicity than the parent compound and increased biodegradability. Beyond laboratory scale experiments, the reactor proposed here was scaled-up to a volume of 100 L and the environmental performance and cost analysis were estimated.

Fresh pasteurized milk consumption is evaluated from environmental and socio-economic perspectives. Two different supply chains are analysed: traditional supply chain and vending machines—a circular business model based on a short supply chain. Milk vending machines show that consuming milk in proximity, eliminating intermediaries between producers and consumers and, therefore, reducing the use of resources and energy (packaging and transportation), has environmental advantages. Hence, milk distribution, electricity consumption and consumer transport caused the largest impacts. When the environmental profiles of pasteurized milk consumption in supermarkets and vending machines are benchmarked, the vending machine has a considerable lower impact. The sensitivity analysis emphasizes the latter findings, highlighting the relevance of consumer choices upon the environmental profile of milk consumption. Despite the environmental benefits, vending supply chain unexpectedly failed in Spain from a socioeconomic point of view due to several factors: the farmers’ lack of processing and marketing capacities, the difficulty of networking and collaboration with other key stakeholders, the necessity to raise consumer awareness of the benefits of pasteurized milk and the limited range of dairy products offered. The development of a close short supply chain can bring significant environmental and socio-economic benefits. Notwithstanding, the case analysed in this paper indicates that the isolated entrepreneurship is not sufficient and the transformation of the food system towards a circular model requires political and societal commitment.

The general framework of the Chemical Engineering studies in Spain includes the Bachelor's Degree (4 years), Master's Degree (the most common duration is 1.5 years) and Doctorate (3-4 years). In 2008, the Conference of Directors and Deans of Chemical Engineering (CODDIQ) was constituted with the main objective of promoting and improving the quality of Chemical Engineering studies in Spain. Currently, Faculties and Schools of 29 Spanish universities are members of CODDIQ. An analysis of the most characteristic indicators provides a representative radiography of the Chemical Engineering Studies in Spain, whose most outstanding data are: (i) 7,396 undergraduate students, 1,014 Master students and 556 PhD students, (ii) according to the gender profile of undergraduates and graduates, the percentage of women is similar to that of men, while for faculty staff, the percentage of women is 43% and 46% for Associate and Assistant Professor (respectively) and 23% for the category of Full Professor category; (iii) after completing the Bachelor studies, most of them continue their training in the MSc in Chemical Engineering, (iv) the employability after obtaining the Master's degree is very high (>75%), which in the case of PhDs is close to 100%. The studies of Chemical Engineering in Spain have a very direct relationship with society, especially in the chemical, environmental, biotechnological and energy fields. The companies that collaborate in the training of future professionals are distributed throughout the national territory, which allows a strong connection with the socioeconomic environment.

The conception of urban metabolism has considered the perspective of environmental sustainability in the framework of cities. In this context, cities can be regarded complex entities driven by material and energy flows that entail consumption of resources and production of waste materials in the pursuit of economic welfare and social progress. According to a sustainability perspective, environmental, social and economic indicators must also be integrated into urban planning processes. However, methodological advances regarding the definition and development of sustainable cities are required since a consensus of indicators, weighting and data management is still lacking. In this paper, a multi-criteria approach that combines three methodologies: Material Flow Analysis (MFA), Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) has been developed and applied to a sample of 26 representative Spanish cities with different characteristics (i.e., population, location, demands, economy, topography and culture). The combined approach allows identifying the non-sustainable cities considering an offset of indicators from the three pillars of sustainability. With this purpose, the mentioned items are implemented in a DEA model of efficiency, being the inefficient cities with an efficiency score lower than 100% defined as non-sustainable ones. Finally, this multi-criteria method allows setting the target values for the assessed indicators (benchmarked values), which become objectives for the non-sustainable cities to evolve toward a more sustainable performance. The outcomes from the analysis have identified six cities that ranked worse, with efficiency scores ranging from 57.9% to 85.8%. According to the targets of socio-economic indicators, attention should be paid to AROPE rate (people at risk of poverty and social exclusion), unemployment rate and number of crimes, meanwhile lower levels of electricity consumption, municipal solid waste and on-site greenhouse gases emissions are desirable from an environmental perspective. These outcomes are of potential interest for politicians, governments and inhabitants to aid in the identification of the metabolic flows and social/economic indicators to be optimized in search of sustainability.

Creating an ideal environment to develop creativity and innovation in engineering education is a real challenge. One alternative approach can be based in the application of Gamestorming methodology that considers the use of games in the process of brainstorming. Presenting the problem in a game format eludes the conventional lecturing and frees the participants to think creatively to solve problems. In this contribution, the adaptation of the Gamestorming methodology was applied in different Bachelor and Master courses of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Engineering in the University of Santiago de Compostela (Spain). The aim of this initiative was to develop students’ creativity and teamwork, where the class divided in working groups propose and assess alternatives in the Conceptual Design of Products and Processes. Specifically, two examples of the application of the methodology are provided: (i) a wood box for wine storage was remodeled according to a number of requisites: functionality, savings of energy consumption and reduction of environmental impact; (ii) the conceptual design of a treatment system for the removal of pollutants present in a gaseous stream to accomplish the targets of wide applicability and efficiency as well as reduced cost and environmental impact. A total of 129 students from 4 different academic years participated and the survey performed after completing the activity rated this methodology as a mechanism to foster their creativity in the progress of teamwork toward decision making process.

The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of one versatile peroxidase and the biocatalytically generated complex Mn(III)-malonate to polymerize coniferyl alcohol (CA) to obtain dehydrogenation polymers (DHPs) and to characterize how closely the structures of the formed DHPs resemble native lignin. Hydrogen peroxide was used as oxidant and Mn2+ as mediator. Based on the yields of the polymerized product, it was concluded that the enzymatic reaction should be performed in aqueous solution without organic solvents at 4.5 ≤ pH ≤ 6.0 and with 0.75 ≤ H2 O2 :CA ratio ≤ 1. The results obtained from the Mn3+ -malonate-mediated polymerization showed that the yield was almost 100%. Reaction conditions had, however, effect on the structures of the formed DHPs, as detected by size exclusion chromatography and pyrolysis-GC/MS. It can be concluded that from the structural point of view, the optimal pH for DHP formation using the presently studied system was 3 or 4.5. Low H2 O2 /CA ratio was beneficial to avoid oxidative side reactions. However, the high frequency of β-β linkages in all cases points to dimer formation between monomeric CA rather than endwise polymerization. © 2017 American Institute of Chemical Engineers Biotechnol. Prog., 34:81-90, 2018.

The water footprint profile was analyzed for grape used in vinification in the Ribeiro appellation (Spain) for the period 2000–2009. The ISO 14046 framework was followed to address the quantitative —freshwater scarcity— and qualitative —degradation— water-related impacts from a life cycle perspective. The timeline perspective allowed the analysis of the fluctuation of impacts for this kind of product. For the quantitative blue water-related impacts, the Available WAter REmaining (AWARE) method was implemented to assess the freshwater scarcity impacts, being the selection of characterization factors (CFs) essential to establish the main impact contributors, especially for direct water consumption at spatial scale. Blue water scarcity impact results varied considerably during the period assessed, mainly due to changes in the harvest yield. The impact results obtained from the AWARE method were compared with the results obtained with other water-related impact assessment methods —water stress index and water depletion. The results for both share the same trends as the AWARE method, with direct water consumption representing 30%–40% of the total contributions throughout the assessed period. The green water scarcity footprint was also evaluated, showing that there are perturbations in the production of surface blue water and green moisture recycled to the atmosphere. The sensitivity analysis on green water CFs showed high variations in green water scarcity footprint results, highlighting the relevance of deriving spatially differentiated and crop-specific green water CFs to assess real water consumption impacts on crop fields properly. On-field emissions were the primary responsible for water degradation impacts; in particular, those resulting from fuel consumption, pesticides application and fertilization. The sensitivity analysis conducted for pesticides emissions highlighted the necessity of a consensus dispersion model to address them.

Globally, human society faces the challenge of providing food to a growing population, at the same time that the effects of climate change and resource depletion must be addressed. Aquaculture allows to ensure a safe supply of different marine species and is a major technological and biological undertaking. Taking into account that in Sonora (Mexico), there are more than 200 aquaculture plants, the analysis of this sector implies a joint and harmonized assessment, considering not only life cycle assessment (LCA), but also data envelopment analysis (DEA). This study focuses on the application of LCA + DEA methodology to assess the ecoefficiency of 38 semi-intensive shrimp farms located in the state of Sonora. LCA results showed that feed management and electricity consumption are the main critical points in almost all the impact categories. Further improvement actions were evaluated, the replacement of wheat meal for Dried Distiller Grains with Solubles (DDGS) resulted in environmental impact reductions ranged from 2% to 57%, depending on the impact category. On the other hand, the installation of photovoltaic panels in the area was evaluated, looking for a shift towards a less carbon-intensive energy production. Overall, the implementation of these improvement measures will contribute to increased environmental protection and resource efficiency This research was supported by the Comité de Sanidad Acuícola del Estado de Sonora (COSAES). A. Cortés, C. Cambeses Franco, G. Feijoo and M.T. Moreira belong to CRETUS and the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC (ED431C 2017/29), co-founded by Xunta de Galicia and FEDER (EU) SI

The sustainable and continued production of enough food to feed the entire world's population is one of the main concerns in the food industry. Spain, and in particular Galicia, which is an eminently fishing region characterised by the consumption of large quantities of fish, both fresh and processed, must face the challenge of shifting its seafood productive fabric towards a circular economy. To achieve this objective, the first task is to demonstrate that circular economy principles allow to reduce the environmental impacts associated with seafood production. In this sense, this study proposes the environmental evaluation of the skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelamis) value chain within a canning industry located in Galicia through the LCA methodology from an attributional perspective, including the valorisation processes for biowaste (edible and inedible by-products). Results indicate that the main crucial subsystems of the value chain are tuna fishing and the canning process, as it was expected considering other similar studies on seafood products. Moreover, this specific case study demonstrates that the multi-product strategy applied to the canning sector is environmentally viable. Thus, although the environmental impacts of the entire system are increased by including further valorisation operations, the environmental loads assigned to the main product (canned tuna) decrease compared to the one-product system by assigning environmental burdens to other value-added products (tuna pâté, fishmeal, and fish oil) This research was supported by the EAPA_576/2018 NEPTUNUS project, supported by Interreg Atlantic Area. S.G-G would like to express her gratitude to the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness for financial support (Grant reference RYC-2014-14984). The authors belong to CRETUS and the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC ED431C 2017/29 co-founded by Xunta de Galicia and FEDER (EU) 2023-06-05 SI

Urban population has exponentially growth in the last decades and as consequence, cities concentrate part of global environmental burdens among other impacts. Therefore, the use of indicators to evaluate the cities in order to achieve their better and more sustainable future was receiving special attention in the last years. Accordingly, the considered indicators would reflect the traditional three pillars of sustainability: social, economic and environmental. In the present study, Classification And Regression Trees (CART) and Random Forest, were applied over a case study in which the sustainability of 31 Spanish cities was evaluated considering 38 indicators. The main goals were to identify the key indicators and to quantify the corresponding thresholds to define a sustainable city. The key indicators identified were: “woman unemployed rate”, “city unemployment rate” and “Municipal Solid Waste collected” and the corresponding thresholds are 14 %, 16 % and 423 kg inhabitant-1 year-1 respectively. In addition, the sustainability of 32 different Spanish cities was evaluated with these three indicators and thresholds to validate the achievements. According with the results, urban sustainability could be evaluated considering only three indicators with a high degree of accuracy, providing information to policy makers without the requirement of compiling a large amount of data.

Drift net fishing activities have undergone a thorough revision at a European Union level, since authorities argue that several loopholes still exist in the legislation that allow small-scale fisheries to use these gears. High incidental catches, or the lack of selectivity, are some of the primary scientific criteria behind this discussion. This new framework is of particular interest in the region of Galicia (NW Spain) due to the social importance of small-scale fishing vessels using drift nets. In fact, over 400 vessels have a licence to capture European pilchard (Sardina pilchardus) with a fishing gear called xeito, which is a small-scale drift net. The main goal of this article is to provide stakeholders in the fishing sector with environmentally relevant results regarding the life cycle impacts linked to fishing practices performed by small-scale vessels using the xeito gear to target European pilchard. We hypothesize that environmental impacts computed with LCA will provide additional insights to the sustainability of the pilchard small-scale fishery in NW Spain, adding a series of criteria that may be useful for policy-makers to determine the consequences of forbidding this type of drift netting in the future. Results show that environmental impacts across impact categories and operational activities do not differ much from that of other similar fishing fleets examined in recent years, with fuel for propulsion being the main environmental burden in most impact categories. When conducting a statistical analysis, no significant difference in energy use was identified between this small-scale fleet and purse seiners targeting pilchard in Galicia. Moreover, the results obtained demonstrate, in line with previous studies, that European pilchard is still an energy-efficient source of animal protein option as compared to demersal fish alternatives, crustaceans, or livestock. The results do not indicate that European pilchard landed with small-scale drift nets generates higher environmental life cycle impacts than pilchard landed by purse seiners in NW Spain. However, longer time frames for the analysis should be performed to attain results with lower uncertainty.

International audience; Microalgae are promising natural resources for biofuels, chemical, food and feed products. Besides their economic potential, the environmental sustainability must be examined. Cultivation has a significant environmental impact that depends on reactor selection and operating conditions. To identify the main environmental bottlenecks for scale-up to industrial facilities this study provides a comparative life cycle assessment (LCA) of open raceway ponds and tubular photobioreactors at pilot scale. The results are based on experimental data from real pilot plants operated in summer, fall and winter at AlgaePARC (Wageningen, The Netherlands). The energy consumption for temperature regulation presented the highest environmental burden. The production of nutrients affected some categories. Despite limited differences compared to the vertical system, the horizontal PBR was found the most efficient in terms of productivity and environmental impact. The ORP was, given the Dutch climatic conditions, only feasible under summer operation. The results highlight the relevance of LCA as a tool for decision-making in process design. Weather conditions and availability of sources for temperature regulation were identified as essential factors for the selection of geographic locations and for microalgal cultivation systems based on environmental criteria. Simulation of large-scale reactors with optimized temperature regulation systems lead to environmental improvements and energy demand reductions ranging from 17% up to 90% for systems operated in favorable summer conditions.

The main objective of this study is the evaluation of the capability of laccase from Myceliophthora thermophila immobilized on fumed silica microparticles (fsMP) for the removal of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) in two enzymatic reactor configurations. This type of support can also be magnetized to allow the straightforward separation of the biocatalyst under a magnetic field. The support exhibited excellent biocompatibility with the enzyme, superior tolerance to pH and temperature as well as improved stability in comparison with the free enzyme, even in the presence of organic solvents and enzyme inhibitors. The technical feasibility of the removal of EDCs by immobilized laccase was assessed in two types of enzymatic reactors operated in sequential mode: a membrane reactor using fsMP-laccase and a reactor with magnetic separation using magnetized fsMP-laccase. The extent of transformation for the target compounds: bisphenol A (BPA) and 17β-estradiol (E2) was high and comparable to free laccase in both systems (up to 80%). The possibility of reusing the immobilized enzyme, especially for magnetized supports, offers an interesting approach in the development of enzyme based processes for the biotransformation of emerging pollutants.

Enzymatic treatments based on oxidative enzymes, such as peroxidases, laccases and tyrosinases, have been proposed as an alternative to conventional methods to remove a broad range of contaminants present in wastewater. The aim of this study is to discuss existing technologies for the removal of pollutants based on the use of oxidative enzymes, including a discussion on the most important factors affecting the efficiency of the proposed systems. Factors involved in the catalytic cycle of the enzyme (biocatalyst, substrates and mediators), the addition of certain components to the reaction medium (additives, surfactants or solvents) as well as operational parameters (temperature, pH or agitation) will be discussed. Finally, two types of reactors: one-stage and two-stage enzymatic membrane reactors, especially designed for the treatment of micropollutants present in secondary effluents, will be described in detail.

Life cycle assessment (LCA) and data envelopment analysis (DEA) have been combined in numerous occasions in order to identify the environmental efficiency of multiple units. In many cases, important differences in environmental performance have been identified among the units, referred to as decision-making units (DMUs). However, most studies have been limited to 1 year of assessment, preventing the study from identifying if efficiency values were linked to a specific trend of each DMU through time or to random annual changes. Therefore, the current study delves into the temporal variations in efficiency using DEA. A DEA window analysis is applied to a set of wastewater treatment plants for a 4-year interval between 2009 and 2012 with the aim of understanding the annual behaviour of WWTPs in terms of environmental sustainability. A set of 47 WWTPs located in different regions of Spain were analysed using a window of 4 years of operation, to account not only for the differences in eco-efficiency between plants but also for changes due to the numerous temporal factors that may affect individual plants. Results extracted from the assessment suggested that for the vast majority of the facilities, the efficiency standards tended to remain constant through time. Statistical tests (i.e. ANOVA and Friedman’s test) confirmed there were no significant differences between years in the different group sizes. This finding, confirmed that the use of the slacks-based measure of efficiency (SBM) model for one single year of operation is a good proxy for the evaluation of the environmental efficiency of these systems. In addition, the scale factor was confirmed as a significant driving force regarding environmental efficiency and significant differences in efficiency values were identified between large and medium WWTPS, on the one hand, and smaller plants, on the other. Significant differences were detected among plants with different legislation thresholds for their effluent withdrawal. WWTP discharging to nonsensitive water bodies appeared to be able to repeatedly attain efficiency values near the benchmark, whereas facilities with stricter thresholds (i.e. sensitive water bodies) struggled to achieve those values, especially in the case of the smaller plants.

Nanotechnology is the manufacture and use of functional structures that have at least one characteristic dimension measured in nanometers. Among the wide range of applications nanoparticles (NPs) may present, they can be used as a catalyst or as carrier to immobilize biological catalysts, such as enzymes. The use of magnetic nanoparticles (mNPs) presents as main advantage over other alternatives the fact that they can be easily separated by the application of a magnetic field, facilitating their recovery from the reaction medium. In parallel with the increasing interest in the production of nanomaterials, there is a general consensus about their potential health and environmental risks associated. This paper aims to perform the evaluation of different synthesis routes considered for the production of mNPs from a life cycle assessment (LCA) perspective. Specifically, different approaches of mNPs synthesis were evaluated; from simple forms such as sterically-stabilized magnetite and oleic-acid mNPs to production schemes that consider the coating of a shell on the preformed nanoparticles such as PEI-coated mNPs and silica-coated mNPs for the increased stability of the nanoparticle. When merely assessing the outcomes from the LCA study, we observed that the manufacturing stage is dominated by the environmental impacts associated to energy and chemical use, especially relevant for the type of silica-coated mNPs. However, the selection of the optimal support for enzyme immobilization must comply with additional requirements such high immobilization yield. According to the results, a compromise solution for the selection of the support is obtained for PEI-coated mNPs, with satisfactory results in the indicators of enzyme immobilization and limited environmental impact. Moreover, this work highlights two main challenges currently encountered with the application of LCA to nanoproducts: lack of comparable reports and data availability, both imply uncertainties associated with the estimation of the environmental impacts of NPs.

This paper aims at quantifying the most relevant technological and environmental indicators associated with the operation of organic and inorganic packed biofilters treating diffuse methane emissions. The use of different packing materials including a mixture of pine bark, perlite and compost for the organic biofilter and polyurethane foam for the inorganic one was evaluated. The influence of other major variables on the removal efficiency such as nutrient requirements, operational conditions and long-term stability were also assessed in both configurations. The analysis of the biofilters operation proved that both configurations provided a feasible and stable performance in the treatment of diffuse methane emissions. Once the operational feasibility of both systems was proved, the environmental assessment was performed. The main hotspots found in the analysis were attributed to the requirement of nutrients, infrastructure, waste disposal and direct emissions to the atmosphere. A sensitivity analysis was performed in terms of nutrient supply and infrastructure material which revealed that special attention needs to be paid to the formulation of the nutrient solution in terms of concentration and source of nitrogen.

This study provides an overview of the environmental impacts associated with the production of different magnetic nanoparticles (NPs) based on magnetite (Fe3O4), with a potential use as heterogeneous Fenton or photo-Fenton catalysts in wastewater treatment applications. The tendency of Fe3O4 NPs to form aggregates in water makes necessary their decoration with stabilizing agents, in order to increase their catalytic activity. Different stabilizing agents were considered in this study: poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), polyethylenimine (PEI) and silica (SiO2), as well as the immobilization of the magnetite-based catalysts in a mesoporous silica matrix, SBA-15. In the case of photo-Fenton catalysts, combinations of magnetite NPs with semiconductors were evaluated, so that magnetic recovery of the nanomaterials is possible, thus allowing a safe discharge free of NPs. The results of this study suggest that magnetic nanoparticles coated with PEI or PAA were the most suitable option for their applications in heterogeneous Fenton processes, while ZnO-Fe3O4 NPs provided an interesting approach in photo-Fenton. This work showed the importance of identifying the relevance of nanoparticle production strategy in the environmental impacts associated with their use This research was supported by two projects granted by Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation: MODENA Project CTQ2016-79461-R and CLUSTERCAT Project MAT2015-67458-P, and Fundación Ramón Areces, Spain (Project CIVP18A3940). The authors belong to the Galician Competitive Research Groups ED431C-2017/22 and ED431C-2017/29 and CRETUS Institute SI

The integrated evaluation of the valorization of wine lees to produce value-added products was carried out in this study from a life-cycle perspective. The consumption of steam has been demonstrated as the main hot spot, reaching 85.7% of the impact on Fossil Depletion and 85.3% on Climate Change. Bearing in mind that four different value-added products are produced, a sensitivity analysis was carried out in order to ascertain the influence of the functional unit and the allocation method on the environmental outcomes. The performance of this system was compared to other processes that produce antioxidants from different raw materials. These processes were phycocyanin recovery from Spirulina platensis cyanobacterium, the production of the red antioxidant astaxanthin by microalgae and the valorization of the macroalgae Sargassum muticum. Wine lees valorization showed a better environmental profile throughout the entire life cycle, due to the fact that most of the operations performed are physical (solid/liquid separations, distillations, evaporations, etc.) and do not involve a large consumption of electricity or chemicals. However, there is still room for improvement, and future research should focus on optimizing the extraction of antioxidants from wine lees using two-stages aqueous systems, ultrasonic or microwave assisted extraction, in the pursuit of better performance and lower environmental impact This research was supported by the European Project STAR-ProBio (Grant Agreement Number 727740). The authors belong to the Galician Competitive Research Group GRC ED431C 2017/2019 and to the CRETUS Strategic Partnership (ED431E 2018/01). All these programmes are co-funded by FEDER (EU) SI