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Der Nahe und Mittlere Osten ist lange als eine Ausnahme von breiteren sozialen und politischen Trends gesehen worden, und diese Ausnahmestellung ist meist auf seine kulturelle und religiose Identitat und Pragung zuruckgefuhrt worden (beides ganz offenkundig problematische Begriffe).

For a number of years, public debate has distinguished more clearly between Islam and Islamism than was formerly the case, and quite rightly so: Islam is a world religion with well over a billion followers, who live and experience their religion in a wide variety of ways. Sunnis differ in certain respects from Shiites, traditionalist Muslims from liberal ones; some seek a spiritual path to God, others want nothing to do with mysticism; some lead an ascetic lifestyle, others enjoy life to the full; many see politics as an important aspect of their religion, while others reject politics in the name of Islam. Different ways of understanding and living Islam stretch far back into history; in the present era, they have taken on distinctive, specifically modern aspects. Overall, Islam is certainly as plural and diversified as Christianity, and it has been so from the very beginning, particularly with respect to how Muslims have imagined community and society, the good life and good government. Islamism, which receives so much attention today, is therefore just one possible way among several of applying Islamic teachings to individual conduct and the social order. The boundary between Islam and Islamism is, however, not always easy to draw. In many fields, Islamists now dominate to such an extent that one might think that they are in fact the only legitimate representatives of Islam (and this is, of course, how they view themselves).

The present volume – grown out of an international symposium at the Free University, Berlin in 2002 – is concerned with religious authorities, men and women claiming, projecting and exerting religious authority within a given context. The volume focuses on Middle Eastern Muslim majority societies in the period from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries, and the papers collected therein highlight the scope and variety of religious authorities in present and past Muslim societies.

The search for guidance and for certainty highlights the issue of religious authority that has been of great relevance to Muslim communities from a very early date, always controversial and contested, and never fully resolved. One of the prime concerns of religious authority is to define correct belief and practice. Yūsuf 'Abd Allah al-Qaraḍāwī is a major presence on the stage, who has been able to hold his place over several decades, omnipresent and yet not as easy to define as one might think. Qaraḍāwī turns to the main issue: apostasy in its various manifestations. He launches into a critique of the agents of apostasy, from Christian missionary activities to the dual onslaught of communism and secularism Qaraḍāwī looks at apostasy from the perspective of Muslim society, not the individual believer. Keywords: apostasy; Christian missionary activities; Muslims; Yūsuf 'Abd Allah al-Qaraḍāwī

Religious authority is an elusive concept and difficult to define. The present volume is concerned with religious authorities, men and women claiming, projecting and exerting religious authority within a given context. The status of the sunna, the collection of reports on the sayings, deeds and practices of Muhammad as a source of religious authority is less clearly defined and more controversial. There is little argument concerning the crucial importance of the Qur'an to Islam and the Islamic tradition. Indeed, Islam may be considered the scriptural religion par excellence. The study of women in Islamic scholarship narrowly defined is slowly developing. The volume has a strong focus on Middle Eastern Muslim majority societies in the period from the eighteenth to the twentieth centuries; one paper deals with a Sufi network of Middle Eastern origin operating in the United States of America and Western Europe. Keywords: Islam; Middle Eastern muslims; Qur'an; religious authorities; sunna; women in Islamic scholarship

One of the most salient features of the Zahiri or literalist, school of law is its total rejection of qiys: reasoning by analogy. The Zhir madhhab, which is now extinct, originated in 3rd/9th century Baghdad, where it was initiated by Ab Sulaymn Dawud b. 'Al al-Isfahn. Dawuds teachings were also exported to the Islamic West. Although several of them contributed to the spread of Zahiri scholarship in their writings, we remain entirely dependent on the works of their compatriot, the wellknown polymath Ibn Hazm of Cordoba. This chapter examines this mans views on religious authority, and especially his uncompromising rejection of taqld. It presents some of the arguments that were advanced by the advocates of taqld, and Ibn azms refutation of them. The chapter also briefly discusses the alternative to taqld that was advanced by Ibn azm, viz. ijtihd for everyone. Keywords: Dawud; Ibn Hazm; Islam; religious authority; zahiri conception

Wie in vielen Teilen der Welt, wird auch im arabischen Nahen und Mittleren Osten seit der Mitte der 80er Jahre die Frage nach den politischen Rahmenbedingungen okonomischer und gesellschaftlicher Entwicklung, Effizienz und Leistung neu gestellt. Auch hier findet der Ruf nach Schutz und Achtung der Menschenrechte, nach verantwortlicher Regierung (good governance, accountable government) ein starkes Echo, auch hier werden Theorie und Praxis der parlamentarischen Demokratie und deren Ubertragbarkeit auf ausereuropaische Kulturen und Gesellschaften debattiert, Ansatzpunkte und Entfaltungsmoglichkeiten einer Zivilgesellschaft erortert. Die Forderung nach Schutz der Menschenrechte, verantwortlichem Regieren und Partizipation kommt aus allen Teilen des politischen Spektrums, aus nationalistischen, linken und liberalen Kreisen ebenso wie aus dem islamischen Lager, das sich seit den ausgehenden 70er Jahren zur tonangebenden Stromung im intellektuellen und politischen Leben der Region entwickelt hat. Sie ist in Parteiprogrammen festgeschrieben und findet breite Unterstutzung bei den Berufsverbanden und Vereinigungen der stadtischen Mittelschicht. Zweifellos hat der demokratische Umbruch in Osteuropa arabische Intellektuelle und Aktivisten in ihren Forderungen bestarkt. Ausschlaggebend durften aber eigene Erfahrungen mit Repression, Korruption und Ineffizienz gewesen sein.

Penseurs islamiques et islamistes elaborent aujourd’hui un discours plus moral que politique sur l’ordre islamique ideal. En distinguant avec force les droits de Dieu, intangibles et irrevocables, des droits de l’homme, flexibles et modulables, ils operent bien la distinction entre sacre et profane. En s’eloignant de l’ideal du califat et en faisant leurs, a travers la notion de shura (consultation), les normes et les mecanismes de la democratie representative, ils s’ouvrent a l’espace de la pensee politique contemporaine. Mais en assimilant les gestes du politique (l’acte de voter, la responsabilite de l’interet general devolue au croyant-citoyen) a des obligations religieuses, ils gardent encore un pied dans une « theodemocratie » ideale, soustraite aux conflits entre interets opposes. Ils n’ont pas encore acheve le passage au politique comme mode de regulation des passions humaines et des oppositions entre groupes sociaux. Reconnaitre l’inachevement de la gestion de la cite sur ce mode serait detruire leur projet de reconstruire une communaute ideale unifiee par l’adhesion aux normes prescrites et negociees par la shari’a.