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Global simulations are presented focusing on the atmosphere-ice-ocean (AIO) surface layer (SL) in the Arctic. Results are produced using an ocean model (NEMO) coupled to two different sea ice models: the Louvain-La-Neuve single-category model (LIM2) and the Los Alamos multicategory model (CICE4). A more objective way to adjust the sea ice-ocean drag is proposed compared to a coefficient tuning approach. The air-ice drag is also adjusted to be more consistent with the atmospheric forcing data set. Improving the AIO SL treatment leads to more realistic results, having a significant impact on the sea ice volume trend, sea ice thickness, and the Arctic freshwater (FW) budget. The physical mechanisms explaining this sensitivity are studied. Improved sea ice drift speeds result in less sea ice accumulation in the Beaufort Sea, correcting a typical ice thickness bias. Sea ice thickness and drag parameters affect how atmospheric stress is transferred to the ocean, thereby influencing Ekman transport and FW retention in the Beaufort Gyre (BG). Increasing sea ice-ocean roughness reduces sea ice growth in winter by reducing ice deformation and lead fractions in the BG. It also increases the total Arctic FW content by reducing sea ice export through Fram Strait. Similarly, increasing air-ice roughness increases the total Arctic FW content by increasing FW retention in the BG.

Recent increases in marine traffic in the Arctic have amplified the demand for reliable ice and marine environmental predictions. This article presents the verification of ice forecast skill from a new system implemented recently at the Canadian Meteorological Centre called the Global Ice Ocean Prediction System (GIOPS). GIOPS provides daily global ice and ocean analyses and 10-day forecasts on a 1/4°-resolution grid. GIOPS includes a multivariate ocean data assimilation system that combines satellite observations of sea-level anomaly and sea-surface temperature (SST) together with in situ observations of temperature and salinity. Ice analyses are produced using a 3D-Var method that assimilates satellite observations from SSM/I and SSMIS together with manual analyses from the Canadian Ice Service. Analyses of total ice concentration are projected onto the thickness categories used in the ice model using spatially and temporally varying weighting functions derived from ice model tendencies. This method may reduce deleterious impacts on the ice thickness distribution when assimilating ice concentration, as it can directly modulate (and reverse) nonlinear processes such as ice deformation. An objective verification of sea ice forecasts is made using two methods: analysis-based error assessment focusing on the marginal ice zone, and a contingency table approach to evaluate ice extent as compared to an independent analysis. Together the methods demonstrate a consistent picture of skilful medium-range forecasts in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres as compared to persistence. Using the contingency table approach, GIOPS forecasts show a significant open-water bias during spring and summer. However, this bias depends on the choice of threshold used. Ice forecast skill is found to be highly sensitive to the assimilation of SST near the ice edge. Improved observational coverage in these areas (including salinity) would be extremely valuable for further improvement in ice forecast skill.

In recent years, the demand for improved environmental forecasts in the Arctic has intensified as maritime transport and offshore exploration increase. As a result, Canada has accepted responsibility for the preparation and issuing services for the new Arctic MET/NAV Areas XVII and XVIII. Environmental forecasts are being developed based on a new integrated Arctic marine prediction system. Here, we present the first phase of this initiative, a short-term pan-Arctic 1/12° resolution Regional Ice Prediction System (RIPS). RIPS is currently set to perform four 48 h forecasts per day. The RIPS forecast model (CICE 4.0) is forced by atmospheric forecasts from the Environment Canada regional deterministic prediction system. It is initialized with a 3D-Var analysis of sea ice concentration and the ice velocity field and thickness distribution from the previous forecast. The other forcing (surface current) and initialization fields (mixed-layer depth, sea surface temperature and salinity) come from the 1/4° resolution Global Ice Ocean Prediction System. Three verification methods for sea ice concentration are presented. Overall, verifications over a complete seasonal cycle (2011) against the Ice Mapping System ice extent product show that RIPS 48 h forecasts are better than persistence during the growth season while they have a lower skill than persistence during the melt period. A better representation of landfast ice, oceanic processes (wave–ice interactions, upwelling events, etc.) in the marginal ice zone and better initializing fields should lead to improved forecasts.

Research in the area of emerging food science and technology is still often carried out in agri-food chain perspectives, as presented here in four different ways for dairy, meat, wine and cereal cases. The key focus is on the concept of food quality throughout the chain, and the meaning of added value and food functionalities for consumers. Technology innovation approaches essentially address ways to optimize and maintain food quality according to consumer preferences, needs and acceptances. However, they also strive to reduce the environmental impact of the transformation of agroresources into food products, via targeted and intensified processing schemes requiring minimal energy and water usage, as well as value-streaming co-products of used agroresources—which holds for all the chains presented. Another key area that emerges from the cases is protein science, which concerns agroresources rich in specific protein and, protein heterogeneity, structural changes, profiles, functionalities and nutritional value. This analysis further highlights the importance of linking food science and technology to agronomy, genetics, and socioeconomic sciences. Finally, knowledge management is becoming increasingly integral to food chain research in order to increase transparency and capitalize data in a consistent manner.

Biopreservation represents a complementary approach to traditional hurdle technologies for reducing microbial contaminants (pathogens and spoilers) in food. In the dairy industry that is concerned by fungal spoilage, biopreservation can also be an alternative to preservatives currently used (e.g. natamycin, potassium sorbate). The aim of this study was to develop antifungal fermentates derived from two dairy substrates using a sequential approach including an in vitro screening followed by an in situ validation. The in vitro screening of the antifungal activity of fermentates derivating from 430 lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (23 species), 70 propionibacteria (4 species) and 198 fungi (87 species) was performed against four major spoilage fungi (Penicillium commune, Mucor racemosus, Galactomyces geotrichum and Yarrowia lipolytica) using a cheese-mimicking model. The most active fermentates were obtained from Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus buchneri, Lactobacillus casei/paracasei and Lactobacillus plantarum among the tested LAB, Propionibacterium jensenii among propionibacteria, and Mucor lanceolatus among the tested fungi. Then, for the 11 most active fermentates, culture conditions were optimized by varying incubation time and temperature in order to enhance their antifungal activity. Finally, the antifungal activity of 3 fermentates of interest obtained from Lactobacillus rhamnosus CIRM-BIA1952, P. jensenii CIRM-BIA1774 and M. lanceolatus UBOCC-A-109193 were evaluated in real dairy products (sour cream and semi-hard cheese) at a pilot-scale using challenge and durability tests. In parallel, the impact of these ingredients on organoleptic properties of the obtained products was also assessed. In semi-hard cheese, application of the selected fermentates on the cheese surface delayed the growth of spoilage molds for up to 21 days, without any effect on organoleptic properties, P. jensenii CIRM-BIA1774 fermentate being the most active. In sour cream, incorporation of the latter fermentate at 2 or 5% yielded a high antifungal activity but was detrimental to the product organoleptic properties. Determination of the concentration limit, compatible with product acceptability, showed that incorporation of this fermentate at 0.4% prevented growth of fungal contaminants in durability tests but had a more limited effect against M. racemosus and P. commune in challenge tests. To our knowledge, this is the first time that the workflow followed in this study, from in vitro screening using dairy matrix to scale-up in cheese and sour cream, is applied for production of natural ingredients relying on a large microbial diversity in terms of species and strains. This approach allowed obtaining several antifungal fermentates which are promising candidates for dairy products biopreservation.

Milk is often subjected to technological treatments which have impacts on the structure of milk constituents and the characteristics of rennet curds. In this paper, the influence of the dairy fat structure on the biochemical and textural characteristics of curds coagulated by an extract of Calotropis procera leaves was studied. Standardized milks were reconstituted with the same contents in protein (35 g·kg− 1) and fat (35 g·kg− 1) but with different structures of fat i.e. homogenized anhydrous milk fat (HAMF), homogenized cream (HC) and non-homogenized cream (NHC). As expected, the size distributions of fat globules in the different milks were different. After their coagulations by the plant extract, the physico-chemical characteristics of the curds and respective wheys were determined. No difference was observed in the coagulation time between the three milks but the whey removed more quickly from HAMF and HC curds than NHC-curd. The biochemical analyses of curds revealed a lower content in dry matter and fat in the NHC-curd compared to HAMF- and HC-curds. Otherwise, the NHC-whey exhibited the highest amount of fat. Observations by confocal microscopy showed that the fat globules were homogenously distributed and well trapped in the protein networks of HAMF- and HC-curds. In the NHC-curd, the fat globules were located in whey pockets, with less connectivity with the protein network. The textural analysis showed that the NHC-curd was more elastic, soft and adhesive than HAMF- and HC-curds. Homogenization significantly reduced the loss of fat during cheese manufacturing and conferred specific textural characteristics to the curds coagulated by an extract of Calotropis procera.

L'Arctique est la région du globe qui s'est réchauffée le plus vite au cours des trente dernières années, avec une augmentation de la température de surface environ deux fois plus rapide que pour la moyenne globale. Le déclin de la banquise arctique observé depuis le début de l'ère satellitaire et attribué principalement à l'augmentation de la concentration des gaz à effet de serre aurait joué un rôle important dans cette amplification des températures au pôle. Cette fonte importante des glaces arctiques, qui devrait s'accélérer dans les décennies à venir, pourrait modifier les vents en haute altitude et potentiellement avoir un impact sur le climat des moyennes latitudes. L'étendue de la banquise arctique varie considérablement d'une saison à l'autre, d'une année à l'autre, d'une décennie à l'autre. Améliorer notre capacité à prévoir ces variations nécessite de comprendre, observer et modéliser les interactions entre la banquise et les autres composantes du système Terre, telles que l'océan, l'atmosphère ou la biosphère, à différentes échelles de temps. La réalisation de prévisions saisonnières de la banquise arctique est très récente comparée aux prévisions du temps ou aux prévisions saisonnières de paramètres météorologiques (température, précipitation). Les résultats ayant émergé au cours des dix dernières années mettent en évidence l'importance des observations de l'épaisseur de la glace de mer pour prévoir l'évolution de la banquise estivale plusieurs mois à l'avance. Surface temperatures over the Arctic region have been increasing twice as fast as global mean temperatures, a phenomenon known as arctic amplification. One main contributor to this polar warming is the large decline of Arctic sea ice observed since the beginning of satellite observations, which has been attributed to the increase of greenhouse gases. The acceleration of Arctic sea ice loss that is projected for the coming decades could modify the upper level atmospheric circulation yielding climate impacts up to the mid-latitudes. There is considerable variability in the spatial extent of ice cover on seasonal, interannual and decadal time scales. Better understanding, observing and modelling the interactions between sea ice and the other components of the climate system is key for improved predictions of Arctic sea ice in the future. Running operational-like seasonal predictions of Arctic sea ice is a quite recent effort compared to weather predictions or seasonal predictions of atmospheric fields like temperature or precipitation. Recent results stress the importance of sea ice thickness observations to improve seasonal predictions of Arctic sea ice conditions during summer.

The solution of a 10 year simulation of the Arctic Ocean, produced using a 6 km resolution coupled ocean and sea-ice model, is analyzed to understand the variability, control, and forcing mechanisms of the volume fluxes through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago (CAA) and Davis Strait (DS). The analysis focuses on variability at monthly time scales. Analysis confirms the “control” of volume fluxes through the CAA, proposed in previous studies, by (1) variations of sea surface height (SSH) in the “upstream” regions and the relationship of this control to alongshore wind in the Beaufort Sea and (2) by SSH in the “downstream” region in Baffin Bay that may be related to wind stress in Baffin Bay and the northern Labrador Sea. The effectiveness of these control and forcing mechanisms vary for fluxes through different sections and for different seasons. Variation of the southward flux through DS is directly influenced by fluxes through Nares Strait (NS) and Barrow Strait (BS) in summer, fall, and winter. In spring, variations of the southward and northward fluxes through DS are closely related to each other and correspond to changes in the SSH along pathways of the Irminger Current, and the East and West Greenland Currents.

All climate models predict a freshening of the North Atlantic at high latitude that may induce an abrupt change of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (hereafter AMOC) if it resides in the bistable regime, where both a strong and a weak state coexist. The latter remains uncertain as there is no consensus among observations and ocean reanalyses, where the AMOC is bistable, versus most climate models that reproduce a mono-stable strong AMOC. A series of four hindcast simulations of the global ocean at 1/12° resolution, which is presently unique, are used to diagnose freshwater transport by the AMOC in the South Atlantic, an indicator of AMOC bistability. In all simulations, the AMOC resides in the bistable regime: it exports freshwater southward in the South Atlantic, implying a positive salt advection feedback that would act to amplify a decreasing trend in subarctic deep water formation as projected in climate scenarios.

Ocean–sea ice reanalyses are crucial for assessing the variability and recent trends in the Arctic sea ice cover. This is especially true for sea ice volume, as long-term and large scale sea ice thickness observations are inexistent. Results from the Ocean ReAnalyses Intercomparison Project (ORA-IP) are presented, with a focus on Arctic sea ice fields reconstructed by state-of-the-art global ocean reanalyses. Differences between the various reanalyses are explored in terms of the effects of data assimilation, model physics and atmospheric forcing on properties of the sea ice cover, including concentration, thickness, velocity and snow. Amongst the 14 reanalyses studied here, 9 assimilate sea ice concentration, and none assimilate sea ice thickness data. The comparison reveals an overall agreement in the reconstructed concentration fields, mainly because of the constraints in surface temperature imposed by direct assimilation of ocean observations, prescribed or assimilated atmospheric forcing and assimilation of sea ice concentration. However, some spread still exists amongst the reanalyses, due to a variety of factors. In particular, a large spread in sea ice thickness is found within the ensemble of reanalyses, partially caused by the biases inherited from their sea ice model components. Biases are also affected by the assimilation of sea ice concentration and the treatment of sea ice thickness in the data assimilation process. An important outcome of this study is that the spatial distribution of ice volume varies widely between products, with no reanalysis standing out as clearly superior as compared to altimetry estimates. The ice thickness from systems without assimilation of sea ice concentration is not worse than that from systems constrained with sea ice observations. An evaluation of the sea ice velocity fields reveals that ice drifts too fast in most systems. As an ensemble, the ORA-IP reanalyses capture trends in Arctic sea ice area and extent relatively well. However, the ensemble can not be used to get a robust estimate of recent trends in the Arctic sea ice volume. Biases in the reanalyses certainly impact the simulated air–sea fluxes in the polar regions, and questions the suitability of current sea ice reanalyses to initialize seasonal forecasts.

Along with the increase in the fresh cheese production market, there is a concomitant increase in the volume of its by-product, lactic acid whey (LAW). This type of whey is especially rich in organic acids and ash content, making it more difficult to develop applications for human food. In view of its hygroscopicity, this type of whey is in fact clearly the most difficult to dry properly, and its high level of mineralization narrows its potential uses for nutritional reasons. The aim of this study was to evaluate the ability to use nanofiltration (NF) for the production of partially demineralized LAW powder with regard to the dryability of the concentrate and the quality of the powder at a semi-industrial scale. The strong selectivity of this demineralization process results in a 30% reduction in lactic acid content and a reduction of between 46 and 60% in monovalent ions. The dryability of the NF LAW concentrate is improved as well. Moreover, the energy cost of the overall process is reduced by 43%. These elements highlight the benefit of inserting an industrial NF step into the overall processing of LAW and should significantly contribute to the production of partially demineralized LAW powder.

International audience; An upward-looking Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler deployed from July 2007 to September 2008 in the Yermak Pass, north of Svalbard, gathered velocity data from 570 m up to 90 m at a location covered by sea-ice 10 months out of 12. Barotropic diurnal and semi-diurnal tides are the dominant signals in the velocity (more than 70% of the velocity variance). In winter, baroclinic eddies at periods between 5 and 15 days and pulses of one-to-two month periodicity are observed in the Atlantic Water layer and are associated with a shoaling of the pycnocline. Mercator-Ocean global operational model with daily and 1/12 degree spatial resolution is shown to have skills in representing low frequency velocity variations (>1 month) in the West Spitsbergen Current and in the Yermak Pass. Model outputs suggest that the Yermak Pass Branch has had a robust winter pattern over the last 10 years, carrying on average 31% of the Atlantic Water volume transport of the West Spitsbergen Current (36% in autumn/winter). However those figures have to be considered with caution as the model neither simulates tides nor fully resolves eddies and ignores residual mean currents that could be significant.

Since December 2010, the MyOcean global analysis and forecasting system has consisted of the Mercator Océan NEMO global 1/4° configuration with a 1/12° nested model over the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. The open boundary data for the nested configuration come from the global 1/4° configuration at 20° S and 80° N. The data are assimilated by means of a reduced-order Kalman filter with a 3-D multivariate modal decomposition of the forecast error. It includes an adaptive-error estimate and a localization algorithm. A 3-D-Var scheme provides a correction for the slowly evolving large-scale biases in temperature and salinity. Altimeter data, satellite sea surface temperature and in situ temperature and salinity vertical profiles are jointly assimilated to estimate the initial conditions for numerical ocean forecasting. In addition to the quality control performed by data producers, the system carries out a proper quality control on temperature and salinity vertical profiles in order to minimise the risk of erroneous observed profiles being assimilated in the model. This paper describes the recent systems used by Mercator Océan and the validation procedure applied to current MyOcean systems as well as systems under development. The paper shows how refinements or adjustments to the system during the validation procedure affect its quality. Additionally, we show that quality checks (in situ, drifters) and data sources (satellite sea surface temperature) have as great an impact as the system design (model physics and assimilation parameters). The results of the scientific assessment are illustrated with diagnostics over the year 2010 mainly, assorted with time series over the 2007–2011 period. The validation procedure demonstrates the accuracy of MyOcean global products, whose quality is stable over time. All monitoring systems are close to altimetric observations with a forecast RMS difference of 7 cm. The update of the mean dynamic topography corrects local biases in the Indonesian Throughflow and in the western tropical Pacific. This improves also the subsurface currents at the Equator. The global systems give an accurate description of water masses almost everywhere. Between 0 and 500 m, departures from in situ observations rarely exceed 1 °C and 0.2 psu. The assimilation of an improved sea surface temperature product aims to better represent the sea ice concentration and the sea ice edge. The systems under development are still suffering from a drift which can only be detected by means of a 5-yr hindcast, preventing us from upgrading them in real time. This emphasizes the need to pursue research while building future systems for MyOcean2 forecasting.

The recent decades have experienced changes in the characteristics of the El Nino phenomenon, with in particular an increased occurrence of so-called Modoki or Central Pacific El Ninos. Here the 2002/2003 El Nino, characterized as a Central Pacific El Nino, is studied from an Ocean General Circulation Model simulation. The focus is on the sequence of equatorial waves and their impact on zonal and vertical advection. The wave amplitude according to the most energetic baroclinic modes are first estimated, which allows inferring the sequence of the intraseasonal equatorial Kelvin (IKW) and Rossby (IRW) waves. It is shown that energetic downwelling IKWs, forced in the western-central Pacific, crossed the equatorial Pacific. Reflections of IKWs into IRWs onto the zonally varying thermocline and eastern boundary are also observed. A simplified heat budget of the surface layer is then carried out to infer the dominant processes at work during the evolution of this event focusing on the wave-induced advection terms. The results indicate that the warming phase (April-November 2002) is mainly controlled by zonal advection of mean temperature (accounted for by IKWs and locally wind-driven current) and by vertical advection in the eastern Pacific. The cooling phase (December 2002 to April 2003) is dominated by a reduction in solar radiation and the IRW-induced zonal advection of mean temperature respectively in the central and eastern equatorial Pacific. The recharge-discharge process is also showed to be at work with the recharge (discharge) process operating mainly through the second (first) baroclinic mode.

The Copernicus Marine Environment Monitoring Service (CMEMS) Ocean State Report (OSR) provides an annual report of the state of the global ocean and European regional seas for policy and decision-makers with the additional aim of increasing general public awareness about the status of, and changes in, the marine environment. The CMEMS OSR draws on expert analysis and provides a 3-D view (through reanalysis systems), a view from above (through remote-sensing data) and a direct view of the interior (through in situ measurements) of the global ocean and the European regional seas. The report is based on the unique CMEMS monitoring capabilities of the blue (hydrography, currents), white (sea ice) and green (e.g. Chlorophyll) marine environment. This first issue of the CMEMS OSR provides guidance on Essential Variables, large-scale changes and specific events related to the physical ocean state over the period 1993–2015. Principal findings of this first CMEMS OSR show a significant increase in global and regional sea levels, thermosteric expansion, ocean heat content, sea surface temperature and Antarctic sea ice extent and conversely a decrease in Arctic sea ice extent during the 1993–2015 period. During the year 2015 exceptionally strong large-scale changes were monitored such as, for example, a strong El Niño Southern Oscillation, a high frequency of extreme storms and sea level events in specific regions in addition to areas of high sea level and harmful algae blooms. At the same time, some areas in the Arctic Ocean experienced exceptionally low sea ice extent and temperatures below average were observed in the North Atlantic Ocean.

During the Global Ocean Data Assimilation Experiment (GODAE), seven international operational centers participated in a dedicated modeling system intercomparison exercise from February to April 2008. The objectives were: (1) to show GODAE global-ocean and basin-scale forecasting systems of different countries in routine interaction and continuous operation, (2) to assess the quality and perform scientific validation of the ocean analyses and the forecasting performance of each system, and (3) to learn from this exercise in order to increase interoperability and collaboration in real time. The validation methodology has steadily improved through several validation experiments and projects performed within the operational oceanography community. It relies on common approaches and standardization of outputs, with a set of diagnostics based on fully detailed metrics that characterize its strengths and weaknesses, but it also provides error levels for ocean estimates. The ocean forecasting systems provide daily fields of mesoscale water mass distribution and ocean circulation, with an option for sea-ice variations. We present a subset of the intercomparisons performed over different areas, showing general ocean circulation in agreement with known patterns. We also present some accuracy assessments through comparison with observed data.

The Mercator-Ocean eddy permitting (1/4) global ocean forecasting system assimilating satellite altimetry is the French contribution to the GODAE project and to the MERSEA project for operational systems. It has run operationally since October 2005 and is forced with daily surface fluxes from ECMWF operational analyses and forecasts. JASON, ERS and GFO altimetry measurements from AVISO were assimilated from January 2005 up to real time. The simulation results are compared with independent in-situ data of the Atlantic, Pacific and Antarctic Ocean basins in order to provide an estimation of the performance of the system. The results are also compared with the Levitus climatology, and with combinations of in-situ and satellite observations since 2005. In the Atlantic basin, the global system is also compared with Mercator-Ocean regional systems that assimilate SST (Sea Surface Temperature), SLA (Sea Level Anomalies) and in situ (temperature and salinity profiles) near real time observations

The Nordic Seas is a hotspot both in terms of climate related processes, such as Atlantic–Arctic heat exchange, and natural marine resources. A sustainable management of the marine resources within the Nordic Seas, including the co-existence between fisheries and petroleum industries, requires detailed information on the state of the ocean within an operational framework and beyond what is obtainable from observations only. Numerical ocean models applying data assimilation techniques are utilized to address this need. Subsequently, comprehensive comparisons between model results and observations are required in order to assess the model performance. Here, we apply a set of objective statistics to quantitatively assess the added value of data assimilation in numerical ocean models that are currently used operationally. The results indicate that the inclusion of data assimilation improves the model performance both in terms of hydrographic properties and volume and heat transports. Furthermore, we find that increasing the resolution towards eddy resolving resolution performs similarly to coarser resolution models applying data assimilation in shelf areas.

International audience; In contrast to a long-standing belief, observations in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) show that mean velocity vectors rotate with depth, thus suggesting a possible importance of the time-mean flow for the local poleward heat transport. The respective contributions of the eddy and mean flows to the heat flux across the ACC in Drake Passage (DP) are investigated using recently acquired and historical time series of velocity and temperature from a total of 24 current meter moorings and outputs of a high-resolution (1/12°) model with realistic topography. Only 11 out of the 24 depth-integrated eddy heat flux estimates are found to be significant, and they are poleward. Model depth-integrated eddy heat fluxes have similar signs and amplitudes as the in situ estimates at the mooring sites. They are mostly poleward or nonsignificant, with amplitude decreasing to the south. The cross-stream temperature fluxes caused by the mean flow at the moorings have a sign that varies with location and corresponds to the opposite of the vertical velocity estimates. The depth-integrated temperature fluxes due to the mean flow in the model exhibit small spatial scales and are of opposite sign to the bottom vertical velocities. This suggests that the rotation of the mean velocity vectors with depth is mainly due to bottom topography. The rough hilly topography in DP likely promotes the small-scale vertical velocities and temperature fluxes. Eddy heat fluxes and cross-stream temperature fluxes are integrated over mass-balanced regions defined by the model transport streamlines. The contribution of the mean flow to the ocean heat fluxes across the Southern ACC Front in DP (covering about 4% of the circumpolar longitudes) is about four times as large as the eddy heat flux contribution and the sum of the two represent on the order of 10% of the heat loss to the atmosphere south of 60°S.

International audience; The impact of intraseasonal coastal-trapped waves on the nearshore Peru ecosystem is investigated using observations and a regional eddy-resolving physical-ecosystem coupled model. Model results show that intraseasonal variability over the period 2000-2006 represents about one fourth of the total surface chlorophyll variance and one third of the carbon export variance on the Peruvian shelf. Evidence is presented that subsurface nutrient and chlorophyll intraseasonal variability are mainly forced by the coastally trapped waves triggered by intraseasonal equatorial Kelvin waves reaching the South American coast, and propagate poleward along the Peru shore at a speed close to that of high order coastal trapped waves modes. The currents associated with the coastal waves induce an input of nutrients that triggers a subsequent phytoplankton bloom and carbon export. The impact of the local wind-forced intraseasonal variability on the ecosystem is of a similar order of magnitude to that remotely forced in the northern part of the Peru shelf on [50-90] day time scales and dominates over the entire shelf on [20-30] day time scales.

Determining how the global mean sea level (GMSL) evolves with time is of primary importance to understand one of the main consequences of global warming and its potential impact on populations living near coasts or in low-lying islands. Five groups are routinely providing satellite altimetry-based estimates of the GMSL over the altimetry era (since late 1992). Because each group developed its own approach to compute the GMSL time series, this leads to some differences in the GMSL interannual variability and linear trend. While over the whole high-precision altimetry time span (1993–2012), good agreement is noticed for the computed GMSL linear trend (of \(3.1\pm 0.4\) mm/year), on shorter time spans (e.g., \({

Since December 2010, the global analysis and forecast of the MyOcean system consists in the Mercator Océan NEMO global 1/4° configuration with a 1/12° "zoom" over the Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea. The zoom open boundaries come from the global 1/4° at 20° S and 80° N. The data assimilation uses a reduced order Kalman filter with a 3-D multivariate modal decomposition of the forecast error. It includes an adaptative error and a localization algorithm. A 3D-Var scheme corrects for the slowly evolving large-scale biases in temperature and salinity. Altimeter data, satellite temperature and in situ temperature and salinity vertical profiles are jointly assimilated to estimate the initial conditions for the numerical ocean forecasting. This paper gives a description of the recent systems. The validation procedure is introduced and applied to the current and future systems. This paper shows how the validation impacts on the quality of the systems. It is shown how quality check (in situ, drifters) and data source (satellite temperature) impacts as much as the systems design (model physics and assimilation parameters). The validation demonstrates the accuracy of the MyOcean global products. Their quality is stable in time. The future systems under development still suffer from a drift. This could only be detected with a 5 yr hindcast of the systems. This emphasizes the need for continuous research efforts in the process of building future versions of MyOcean2 forecasting capacities.

The authors investigate the variability of salinity in the Arctic Ocean and in the Nordic and Labrador Seas over recent years to see how the freshwater balance in the Arctic and the exchanges with the North Atlantic have been affected by the recent important sea ice melting, especially during the 2007 sea ice extent minimum. The Global Ocean Reanalysis and Simulations (GLORYS1) global ocean reanalysis based on a global coupled ocean–sea ice model with an average of 12-km grid resolution in the Arctic Ocean is used in this regard. Although no sea ice data and no data under sea ice are assimilated, simulation over the 2001–09 period is shown to represent fairly well the 2007 sea ice event and the different components accounting for the ocean and sea ice freshwater budget, compared to available observations. In the reanalysis, the 2007 sea ice minimum is due to an increase of the sea ice export through Fram Strait (25%) and an important sea ice melt in the Arctic (75%). Liquid freshwater is accumulated in the Beaufort gyre after 2002, in agreement with recent observations, and it is shown that this accumulation is due to both the sea ice melt and a spatial redistribution of the freshwater content in the Canadian Basin. In the Eurasian Basin, a very contrasting situation is found with an increase of the salinity. The effect of the sea ice melt is counterbalanced by an increase of the Atlantic inflow and a modification of the circulation north of Fram Strait after 2007. The authors suggest that a strong anomaly of the atmospheric conditions was responsible for this change of the circulation.

A global eddy-admitting ocean/sea-ice simulation driven over 1958–2004 by daily atmospheric forcing is used to evaluate spatial patterns of sea level change between 1993 and 2001. In the present study, no data assimilation is performed. The model is based on the Nucleus for European Models of the Ocean code at the 1/4° resolution, and the simulation was performed without data assimilation by the DRAKKAR project. We show that this simulation correctly reproduces the observed regional sea level trend patterns computed using satellite altimetry data over 1993–2001. Generally, we find that regional sea level change is best simulated in the tropical band and northern oceans, whereas the Southern Ocean is poorly simulated. We examine the respective contributions of steric and bottom pressure changes to the total regional sea level changes. For the steric component, we analyze separately the contributions of temperature and salinity changes as well as upper and lower ocean contributions. Generally, the model results show that most regional sea level changes arise from temperature changes in the upper 750 m of the ocean. However, contributions of salinity changes and deep steric changes can be locally important. We also propose a map of ocean bottom pressure changes. Finally, we assess the robustness of such a model by comparing this simulation with a second simulation performed by MERCATOR-Ocean based on the same core model, but differing by its short length of integration (1992–2001) and its surface forcing data set. The long simulation presents better performance over 1993–2001 than the short simulation, especially in the Southern Ocean where a long adjustment time seems to be needed.

0148-0227; A medium-resolution ocean general circulation model (OGCM) simulation is used to investigate the subthermocline interannual variability in the eastern South Pacific. The focus is on isotherm vertical displacement variability associated with extratropical Rossby waves (ETRW) and their connection with equatorial Kelvin waves (EKW). The WKB theory is used to interpret the modeled subsurface variability. The analysis reveals vertical propagation of energy associated with the 1997-1998 El Nino near the coast at various latitudes. Consistent with theory, WKB raypaths are steeper southward and do not extend more than similar to 600 km from the coast at similar to 2000 m depth. A vertical mode decomposition of model variability showed that vertical propagation mostly involves the first three baroclinic modes. The vertical isotherm displacements along the raypaths, associated with the downwelling EKW of the 1997-1998 El Nino, are negative (rising isotherms) and peak (minimum isotherm) as El Nino reverses to La Nina conditions. The relationship between vertical propagation of ETRW and equatorial variability is interpreted in the light of EKW sequence. The evolution of the vertical isotherm displacements along the raypath at extratropical latitudes is controlled by the vertical structure of the EKW. As El Nino develops, high-order baroclinic mode contributions to the EKW progressively increase, leading to the dominance of finer vertical scales of variability along the coast, triggering the vertical propagation of ETRW. This mechanism of connection between equatorial variability and subsurface variability at the extratropical latitudes illustrates how sensitive the ETRW characteristics in the eastern South Pacific are to equatorial forcing.

International audience; In cheese production, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and propionic bacteria are key players in the production of metabolites that confer nutritional and organoleptic qualities. However, the contribution of each species to the final quality of cheeses is not fully elucidated. The objective was to determine which species contribute to acidify and produce flavour compounds, by which metabolic pathways, according to which temporality and also to investigate the bacterial metabolic interactions contributing to the functioning of the cheese ecosystem.We sequenced and annotated: Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis biovar diacetylactis CIRM-BIA1206 (LL), Lactiplantibacillus plantarum CIRM-BIA465 (LP), Propionibacterium freudenreichii CIRM-BIA122 (PF). We reconstructed the metabolic pathways and developed a community metabolic model. Four semi-hard cheeses were made with LL, LP and PF and were analyzed throughout manufacturing. Bacteria, sugars, organic acids and flavour compounds were quantified and RNA sequenced.The analysis of differentially expressed genes showed at which moment of the manufacturing process the genes involved in the catabolism of lactose and citrate and in the synthesis pathways of different flavour compounds: lactic, acetic, propionic, isovaleric (old cheese flavour), acetoin (cheesy flavour) acids were induced. Lactose catabolism was induced in LP and PF (Leloir pathway) during acidification and then in LL (tagatose pathway) during ripening. Acetoin production was induced in LL, LP and PF from the beginning of the manufacturing process to the beginning of ripening. The synthesis of propionic and isovaleric acids were attributed to PF and the corresponding metabolisms were induced from the beginning of the manufacturing then stably expressed during the first month of the ripening. Since the mixed fermentation pathways were induced during ripening, acetic acid was likely produced by LL, LP and PF at this stage. Implementation of the metabolic community model in the Smetana tool revealed the molecular basis of the previously discussed commensalism between LAB and PF. LAB produce lactic acid and potentially ribose, succinate, glycerol, serine and phenylalanine for the benefit of PF. These interactions, identified in silico, remain to be validated in vitro.All these results make metatranscriptomics associated with metabolic models, tools of choice to better understand and control the metabolisms and interactions governing the functioning of cheese ecosystems.

The Atlantic Water (AW) inflow is crucial for the heat and salt budget of the Arctic. This PhD thesis brings new insights to the inflow of AW in the area north of Svalbard.The IAOOS (Ice Atmosphere Ocean Observing System) platforms were deployed during the N-ICE2015 expedition which gathered the first winter hydrographic data in the area. They document shallow warm water over the Svalbard continental slope that melts sea ice with ice-ocean heat fluxes reaching up to 400W.m-2. Heat is brought from the AW layer up to the surface through near-inertial waves generated by winter storms, large barotropic tides over steep topography and/or geostrophic adjustments. Sea ice extent largely differs between winters 2015 and 2016. 1/12° operational model outputs from Mercator-Ocean suggest that convection-induced upward heat fluxes explain the differences. Model outputs are also used to examine the AW inflow pathways : besides the Svalbard Branch and the Yermak Branch, the model shows an AW winter pathway not much documented before : the Yermak Pass Branch across the Yermak Plateau. Finally, the model suggests an important mesoscale activity throughout the AW flow. The Yermak Pass Branch properties are examined using one-year (2007-2008) of moored ADCP data in the Yermak Pass. The flow is largely dominated by tides. In winter, baroclinic eddies of AW with a periodicity of 5 to 10 days and pulses of AW monthly/bimonthly are found, carrying AW eastward through the Pass. Model outputs suggest that the Yermak Pass Branch is a robust winter pattern over the last 10 years, carrying on average 31% of the volume transport of the West Spitsbergen Current.; Les Eaux Atlantiques (AW) sont cruciales pour le budget de sel et de chaleur de l'Arctique. Ce doctorat apporte de nouvelles informations sur l'entrée des AW dans la région du nord Svalbard. Les plateformes IAOOS ont collecté pendant la campagne N-ICE2015 les premières données hydrographiques d'hiver de la région. Elles ont documentées des eaux chaudes peu profondes sur le talus continental du Svalbard qui ont généré des flux de chaleur océan-glace atteignant 400 W/m2 et faisant fondre la glace. Cette chaleur est amenée des AW vers la surface par des ondes quasi-inertielles causées par des tempêtes hivernales, de grandes marées barotropes sur des pentes raides et/ou des ajustements géostrophiques. Les extensions de glace sont très différentes entre 2015 et 2016. Les sorties du modèle opérationnel de Mercator Ocean (1/12°) suggèrent que les flux de chaleur orientés vers la surface et induits par la convection expliquent ces différences. En plus de la Svalbard Branch et de la Yermak Branch, le modèle présente un chemin robuste l'hiver à travers le plateau du Yermak: la Yermak Pass Branch. Enfin, le modèle suggère une activité méso-échelle importante le long du courant des AW. Les propriétés de la Yermak Pass sont examinées avec un an de données ADCP (2007-2008) dans la Yermak Pass. Le courant est dominé par la marée. En hiver, des tourbillons baroclines d'AW avec une périodicité de 5-10 jours et des entrées sporadiques d'AW tous les un/deux mois sont observés, transportant les AW vers l'Est. Le modèle suggère que la Yermak Pass Branch est une structure robuste d'hiver les 10 dernières années et transporte en moyenne 31% du transport volumique du West Spitsbergen Current.

The Atlantic Water (AW) inflow is crucial for the heat and salt budget of the Arctic. This PhD thesis brings new insights to the inflow of AW in the area north of Svalbard.The IAOOS (Ice Atmosphere Ocean Observing System) platforms were deployed during the N-ICE2015 expedition which gathered the first winter hydrographic data in the area. They document shallow warm water over the Svalbard continental slope that melts sea ice with ice-ocean heat fluxes reaching up to 400W.m-2. Heat is brought from the AW layer up to the surface through near-inertial waves generated by winter storms, large barotropic tides over steep topography and/or geostrophic adjustments. Sea ice extent largely differs between winters 2015 and 2016. 1/12° operational model outputs from Mercator-Ocean suggest that convection-induced upward heat fluxes explain the differences. Model outputs are also used to examine the AW inflow pathways : besides the Svalbard Branch and the Yermak Branch, the model shows an AW winter pathway not much documented before : the Yermak Pass Branch across the Yermak Plateau. Finally, the model suggests an important mesoscale activity throughout the AW flow. The Yermak Pass Branch properties are examined using one-year (2007-2008) of moored ADCP data in the Yermak Pass. The flow is largely dominated by tides. In winter, baroclinic eddies of AW with a periodicity of 5 to 10 days and pulses of AW monthly/bimonthly are found, carrying AW eastward through the Pass. Model outputs suggest that the Yermak Pass Branch is a robust winter pattern over the last 10 years, carrying on average 31% of the volume transport of the West Spitsbergen Current.; Les Eaux Atlantiques (AW) sont cruciales pour le budget de sel et de chaleur de l'Arctique. Ce doctorat apporte de nouvelles informations sur l'entrée des AW dans la région du nord Svalbard. Les plateformes IAOOS ont collecté pendant la campagne N-ICE2015 les premières données hydrographiques d'hiver de la région. Elles ont documentées des eaux chaudes peu profondes sur le talus continental du Svalbard qui ont généré des flux de chaleur océan-glace atteignant 400 W/m2 et faisant fondre la glace. Cette chaleur est amenée des AW vers la surface par des ondes quasi-inertielles causées par des tempêtes hivernales, de grandes marées barotropes sur des pentes raides et/ou des ajustements géostrophiques. Les extensions de glace sont très différentes entre 2015 et 2016. Les sorties du modèle opérationnel de Mercator Ocean (1/12°) suggèrent que les flux de chaleur orientés vers la surface et induits par la convection expliquent ces différences. En plus de la Svalbard Branch et de la Yermak Branch, le modèle présente un chemin robuste l'hiver à travers le plateau du Yermak: la Yermak Pass Branch. Enfin, le modèle suggère une activité méso-échelle importante le long du courant des AW. Les propriétés de la Yermak Pass sont examinées avec un an de données ADCP (2007-2008) dans la Yermak Pass. Le courant est dominé par la marée. En hiver, des tourbillons baroclines d'AW avec une périodicité de 5-10 jours et des entrées sporadiques d'AW tous les un/deux mois sont observés, transportant les AW vers l'Est. Le modèle suggère que la Yermak Pass Branch est une structure robuste d'hiver les 10 dernières années et transporte en moyenne 31% du transport volumique du West Spitsbergen Current.