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Although numerous studies explore the diffusion and innovation of collective action tactics, very few examine the transformation from the traditional to the modern repertoire. Tilly and Tarrow, the leading scholars who analyze this transformation, do so primarily within a Western European and North American context. They argue that the consolidation of the nation-state, along with urbanization, new workplace grievances, increasing literacy and expanding media contribute to new mobilization tactics, and ultimately lead to the transition in repertoire. In this paper, I argue that these causal explanations are limited by their contingency on geographical location, historical development, and gender neutrality. Using cases from Nigeria, Cameroon, and Kenya, I demonstrate that tactics used by women in sub-Saharan Africa do not follow the trajectory suggested by Tilly and Tarrow. Urbanization, workplace grievances, literacy and media are not central to their mobilization, and elements of the traditional are maintained while elements of the modern are incorporated. I provide an alternative framework that reconsiders the factors of geography, history, and gender. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we use the case study of Ghana to argue that examining the domestic terrain is central to larger transnational organization or contention. Specifically, we explore how cultural framing reshapes both national and transnational movements. Current analyses of transnational activism or organization constitute the domestic terrain or culture only as extensions of larger transnational movements. In this case, however, feminist activists in Ghana initiated a campaign to enact domestic violence legislation in the context of a transnational campaign to end violence against women. In response, the government ultimately framed the issue as a form of cultural imperialism and, as a result, restricted the activists to domestic coalitions and domestic frames. Ultimately, this transformed the national movement and increased the support for the transnational movement by strengthening domestic ties and activists' resolve. ..PAT.-Unpublished Manuscript [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the women's movements in the transitioning countries of Ghana and El Salvador. The process of democratization eliminates the formal barriers to political participation and allows women to participate at national level. El Salvador and Ghana share a history of colonization and repressive authoritarian rule, as well as a struggle with poverty and economic underdevelopment. Ghanaian women did not generate much international support as they gained access to new political space under democratization. In contrast, Salvadoran women were militant participants in a 12-year-war leading to a democratic transition, and were well supported by the international community. Both countries saw a transformation in the intensity and form of women's mobilizations which provided them capability to influence the legislation. However the women's organizations appear to flourish with democratization but their influence does not.