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Even though effects of emotion and motivation on cognition are well documented, the interaction of all three factors is rarely investigated. Here, we used electroencephalography (EEG) to examine the effects of self-determined choice--as an experimental manipulation of intrinsic motivation - and emotional stimulus content on task preparation and engagement in a temporal production task. Behavioral results indicated a modulation of time processing depending on choice and emotional content. Underlying EEG signals revealed differential modulations by choice on the contingent negative variation (CNV) during task and response preparation and by emotional content on the late positive potential (LPP) in response to the onset of an emotional picture during temporal production. Also, we obtained preliminary evidence for interaction effects of choice and emotional content on the LPP. The feedback-related negativity (FRN) in response to information regarding temporal production success was also affected by interactions of choice and emotional content. These findings indicate that besides separate effects of motivation and emotion, there may be time windows during task engagement in which both factors jointly affect cognitive processing. These results are interpreted as dynamic modulations of attentional resource allocation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Social comparison occurs when individuals evaluate themselves in comparison with others. Social distance can influence the effect of social comparison. Using event‐related potentials, this study examined how social distance affects the time course of outcome processing when individuals compare themselves with others in terms of ability. Participants were asked to perform a dot estimation task with a friend and a stranger. The results showed the effect of social distance on the N1, feedback‐related negativity (FRN), and P300, such that the N1 and P300 were greater for the outcome when pairing with the stranger than when pairing with the friend, whereas the FRN was more negative for the outcome when pairing with the friend than when pairing with the stranger, suggesting that participants allocated more attention resources to the stranger's outcome during the early, automatic (the N1) and later, controlled processing stage (the P300). In addition, the FRN was sensitive to the valence of both self‐ and other‐outcomes, and the FRN valence effect of self‐outcome was modulated by friends' outcomes but not by strangers' outcomes, indicating that at the semi‐automatic processing stage, closer social distance increases the likelihood of individuals being affected by the comparison targets. These results suggest that when comparing with others in the ability dimension, social distance plays a different role in different stages of outcome processing. At the primary stage of outcome processing, individuals are more likely to compare with close others in the ability dimension. Our research clarifies how social distance affects the time course of outcome processing in social comparison, specifically when individuals compare themselves with others in terms of ability. We found an interaction between social comparison and social distance on the FRN. Our findings extend the selective accessibility model and enrich our understanding of the effect of social distance on outcome processing in the social comparison context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The iterated prisoner's dilemma (iPD) game is a well-established model for testing how people cooperate, and the neural processes that unfold after its distinct outcomes have been partly described. Recent theoretical models suggest evolution favors intuitive cooperation, which raises questions on the behavioral but also neural timelines involved. We studied the outcome/feedback stage of iPD rounds with electroencephalography (EEG) methods. Results showed that neural signals associated with this stage also relate to future choice, in an outcome-dependent manner: (i) after zero-gain "sucker's payoffs" (unreciprocated cooperation), a participant's decision thereafter relates to changes to the feedback-related negativity (FRN); (ii) after one-sided non-cooperation (participant wins at co-player's expense), by the P3; (iii) after mutual cooperation, by late frontal delta-band modulations. Critically, faster reciprocation behavior towards a co-player's choice to cooperate was predicted, on a single-trial basis, by players' P3 and frontal delta modulations at the immediately preceding trial. Delta-band signaling is discussed in relation to homeostatic regulation processing in the literature. The findings relate the early outcome/feedback stage to subsequent decisional processes in the iPD, providing a first neural account of the brief timelines implied in heuristic modes of cooperation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We found earlier that performance‐contingent rewards lead to faster performance than equivalent losses [Carsten, Hoofs, Boehler, & Krebs, 2019. Motivation Science, 5(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/mot0000117]. Here, we further tested the hypothesis that motivation to gain rewards is higher than to avoid losses, even when incentive values are matched. As implicit markers of motivation, we assessed electroencephalography (EEG) focusing on the P3 after target and feedback onset, and the Feedback‐Related Negativity (FRN), as well as simultaneously recorded pupil size. Comparing only reward and loss prospect trials in Experiment 1, we found no consistent differences in behavior and electrophysiological markers of motivation, although pupil data suggested higher arousal after feedback in potential‐loss trials. Including additional no‐incentive trials in Experiment 2, we found consistent evidence that motivation to gain rewards was higher than to avoid losses: In line with behavior, the target‐P3 was most pronounced for reward‐related stimuli, followed by loss and no‐incentive ones. This same ranking was found in the P3 and the FRN after positive outcomes (i.e., reward, avoided loss, and correct feedback in no‐incentive trials). Negative outcomes featured a different pattern in line with the pupil response, which suggests that losses are emotionally salient events, without invigorating behavior proportionally. In sum, these findings suggest that the motivation to gain rewards is more pronounced than motivation to avoid equivalent losses, at least in tasks promoting transient increases in attention triggered by incentive prospect. These motivational differences may arise as avoided losses are not profitable in the long term, in contrast to gained rewards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study employed a modified gambling task, in which probabilistic cues were provided to elicit positive or negative expectations. Event-related potentials (ERPs) to ‘‘final outcome’’ and ‘‘probabilistic cues’’ were analyzed. Difference waves between the negative condition and the corresponding positive condition were examined. The results confirm that feedback related negativity (FRN) amplitude is modulated by the interaction of outcome valence and expectancy by showing larger FRN difference waves for unexpected than expected outcomes. More interestingly, the difference wave between ERPs elicited by positive and negative expectations showed a negative deflection, with a frontal midline source density around 280 ms after onset of the predictive cue. Negative expectations were associated with larger FRN amplitudes than positive expectations. This suggests that FRN is elicited by probabilistic cues to pending outcomes.

Feedback signaling the success or failure of actions is readily exploited to implement goal-directed behavior. Two event-related brain potentials (ERPs) have been identified as reliable markers of evaluative feedback processing: the Feedback-Related Negativity (FRN) and the P3. Recent ERP studies have shown a substantial reduction of these components when the feedback’s goal relevance (in terms of goal informativeness) was decreased. However, it remains unclear whether this lowering of evaluative feedback processing at the FRN and P3 levels (i) reflects a common regulation process operating across them or (ii) indirectly and mostly depends on valence processing. To address these questions, 44 participants performed a time estimation task wherein the perceived goal relevance of the feedback following each decision was manipulated via instructions in different blocks. We recorded 64-channel EEG and collected subjective ratings of feedback valence and relevance, separately for goal-relevant and irrelevant conditions. ERP results showed a substantial reduction of the FRN and P3 components for irrelevant than relevant feedback, despite the balanced task relevance between them. Moreover, a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that these two successive ERP effects had dissociable spatiotemporal properties. Crucially, a multivariate multiple regression analysis revealed that goal relevance per se, but not valence, was the unique significant predictor of the amplitude reduction of the FRN and P3 when the feedback was goal irrelevant. Our results suggest that although these ERP components exhibit non-overlapping spatiotemporal properties and performance monitoring effects, they can both be modulated by a common, valence-unspecific process related to goal relevance.

In this report, we provide the first evidence that mood and anxiety dimensions are associated with unique aspects of EEG responses to reward and punishment, respectively. We reanalyzed data from our prior publication of a categorical depiction of depression to address more sophisticated dimensional hypotheses. Highly symptomatic depressed individuals ('N' = 46) completed a probabilistic learning task with concurrent EEG. Measures of anxiety and depression symptomatology were significantly correlated with each other; however, only anxiety predicted better avoidance learning due to a tighter coupling of negative prediction error signaling with punishment-specific EEG features. In contrast, depression predicted a smaller reward-related EEG feature, but this did not affect prediction error coupling or the ability to learn from reward. We suggest that this reward-related alteration reflects motivational or hedonic aspects of reward and not a diminishment in the ability to represent the information content of reinforcements. These findings compel further research into the domain-specific neural systems underlying dimensional aspects of psychiatric disease.

Punishment in economic games has been interpreted as "altruistic." However, it was shown that punishment is related to trait anger instead of trait altruism in a third‐party dictator game if compensation is also available. Here, we investigated the influence of state anger on punishment and compensation in the third‐party dictator game. Therefore, we used movie sequences for emotional priming, including the target states anger, happy, and neutral. We measured the Feedback‐Related Negativity (FRN) and midfrontal theta band activation, to investigate an electro‐cortical correlate of the processing of fair and unfair offers. Also, we assessed single‐trial FRN and midfrontal theta band activation as a predictor for punishment and compensation. We found that punishment was linked to state anger. Midfrontal theta band activation, which has previously been linked to altruistic acts and cognitive control, predicted less punishment. Additionally, trait anger led to enhanced FRN for unfair offers. This led to the interpretation that the FRN depicts the evaluation of fairness, while midfrontal theta band activation captures an aspect of cognitive control and altruistic motivation. We conclude that we need to redefine "altruistic punishment" into "costly punishment," as no direct link of altruism and punishment is given. Additionally, midfrontal theta band activation complements the FRN and offers additional insights into complex responses and decision processes, especially as a single trial predictor. In the literature about third‐party dictator games, punishment, and compensation were considered altruistic. Here, we show that punishment is linked to trait and state anger and less midfrontal theta‐band activation indicating less cognitive control. Thus, we extend the literature and proclaim the term "costly punishment" instead of altruistic punishment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The framing effect, which is one of the cognitive biases, can play a major role in changing preferences and the decision-making process. However, whether the gain and loss frames modulate the evaluation of feedback during decision-making is still unclear. In this study, we used event-related potentials (ERPs) with a Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) paradigm to examine the effects of a gain and loss frame on the evaluation of feedback during the decision-making process of the brain. Behavioral data showed an increased uncertainty-aversion, especially after receiving negative feedback (balloon explosion) during the completion of the BART in the gain frame relative to the loss frame. The ERP data demonstrated a more negative feedback-related negativity (FRN) after receiving negative feedback in the gain frame relative to the loss frame. Additionally, the FRN amplitude elicited by the negative feedback correlated with the future decision-making behavior in both the gain and loss frames. These findings demonstrated that, in comparison to the loss frame, the gain frame increased behavior and brain sensitivity to the failure of decision-making under uncertainty. • Gain frame enhances uncertainty-aversion to the failure of decision-making. • Gain frame enhances brain sensitivity to the failure of decision-making. • Brain activity can be used to predict future decision-making behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study evaluated the effect of task difficulty on feedback processing as measured by the feedback related event related potentials (ERPs) in 7–11-years-old children. Children completed two declarative learning tasks that differed in the number of object-name pairs they were required to learn, deeming the task with twice as many pairs as more difficult. EEG was recorded during the tasks, and event related potentials time-locked to the feedback presentation were analyzed. Additionally, Accuracy was measured in test block at the end of each task. Behaviorally, children achieved better accuracy on the easy task than on the difficult task. In line with previous findings in adults, the FRN was not found sensitive to task difficulty. However, a feedback-related P300 and a fronto-central positivity that followed the FRN were found sensitive to task difficulty such that their amplitudes were larger in the easy task. This pattern is opposite to that reported previously in adults and may reflect the effect of motivation on attention allocation in children. • The FRN was found sensitive to feedback valence, but not to task difficulty in children. • The FCP was found sensitive to valence and task difficulty, with large FCP following negative feedback in the easy task. • The P300 was found sensitive to feedback valence and to task difficulty (larger in the easy task). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a basic principle within the economics of decision-making, reinforcement learning dictates that individuals strive to repeat behaviour that elicits reward, and avoid behaviour that elicits punishment. Neuroeconomics aims to measure reinforcement learning physically in the brain through the use of reward prediction errors: the difference between expected outcome value and actual outcome value following decision-making behaviour. Two electrophysiological components, the frontocentral feedback-related negativity and the more parietal P3, are implicated in outcome processing, but whether these components encode a reward prediction error has been unclear. A source of the unclear literature is likely to be inconsistent quantification of the components. A recent meta-analysis that directly quantified published waveforms rather than using reported effect sizes found strong evidence that the feedback-related negativity encodes a reward prediction error. In the current study, such a meta-analysis was performed on parietal waveforms to establish whether the P3, or parietal areas generally, are sensitive to reward prediction errors. A strong effect was found, both of reward prediction error encoding and simple valence sensitivity at a latency associated with the P3. • A frontocentral component, the FRN, is believed to code reward prediction error. • The P3 has also been implicated in reward prediction error but findings are mixed. • A meta-analysis using great grand averages addressed this question. • Evidence was found for a separate parietal encoding of reward prediction error. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The near-miss effect in gambling refers to a losing situation that is (or perceived to be) close to a win by the gambler. This effect is one of the many cognitive distortions that can occur during gambling games. The main objective of the present study was to analyze the electrophysiological correlates of the near-miss effect via an event-related potential (ERP) study examining four distinct gambling outcomes: win, full miss, near-miss before the payline, and near-miss after the payline. This study comprised 23 healthy voluntary participants (10 women) with ages ranging between 19 and 34 years (M = 22.5; SD = 3.65). All participants completed the South Oaks Gambling Screen and played a computerized slot machine, programed to induce the near-miss effect and specifically designed for an ERP study. By splitting the near-miss effect in two subtypes (before and after the payline), increased feedback-related negativity (FRN) was found for the near-misses after the payline in comparison to losses and also to near-misses before the payline. Results also indicated an increased P300 amplitude for the near-misses before the payline compared both with losses and with near-misses after the payline. The results suggest that both FRN and P300 present different sensitivities to near-miss subtypes, suggesting a payline effect that is not demonstrated when the data of near-misses before and after the payline are analyzed together. This is the first study to analyze the effect of the near-miss subtype in an ERP study and confirms the findings of previous behavioral studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Effective behavior monitoring, including internal monitoring/error detection and external monitoring/feedback, is very pivotal for reinforcement learning. However, less attention has been paid to internal monitoring and the dynamic learning performance in reinforcement learning, and there is still a heated debate on which kind of external feedback is relied on in the reinforcement learning. In order to address these questions, an adaption probabilistic selection task was used to examine the effect of the internal monitoring, external feedback and the relationship between them for approach learners and avoidance learners during dynamic learning process of reinforcement learning and behavior adaption. Error-related negativity (ERN), feedback-related negativity (FRN) and feedback-related P300 are three ERPs components, which can be used as the indexes of internal monitoring, external feedback and behavior adaption. For our results, the ERN effect of avoidance learners become large in block 3, which is earlier than approach learners (block 4). This phenomenon suggests that avoidance learners learned faster than approach learners. In addition, the FRN amplitude of avoidance learners in block 4 was significantly smaller than the other three blocks. The aforementioned results demonstrated a tradeoff relationship between the ERN and FRN effects. • ERN and FRN effects are investigated between avoidance learners and approach learners. • ERN and FRN effects suggest avoidance learners learned faster than approach learners. • ERN and FRN effects show tradeoff relationship during the reinforcement learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reinforcement learning – to adjust behaviors in response to feedback regarding reward and punishment – is pivotal to our survival. The present work investigated whether and how reinforcement learning is affected by thoughts of mortality that endanger one's survival. We recorded electroencephalographic while adults performed a probabilistic learning task that required a forced-choice between two visual patterns for monetary reward for different beneficiaries (i.e., self, stranger, or no one) followed by reward or no-reward feedback. We found that verbal reminders of mortality (vs. negative emotion) enlarged an early positive component (P1) at the occipital electrodes but decreased a late positive potential (LPP) at the frontocentral electrodes in response to learning stimuli. While no-reward feedback relative to reward feedback stimuli elicited a feedback-related negativity (FRN) and increased non-phase locked theta band (4–8 Hz) activity at the frontocentral electrodes during reward learning for all beneficiaries, verbal reminders of mortality (vs. negative emotion) significantly reduced the FRN amplitude but failed to modulate the theta band activity. These results suggest that mortality salience enhances early attentional processing but dampens late cognitive evaluation of the learning stimuli during reinforcement learning. Moreover, mortality salience decreases the neural sensitivity to feedback signaling the absence of monetary reward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prediction errors (PEs) encode representations of rewarding and aversive experiences and are critical to reinforcement processing. The feedback-related negativity (FRN), a component of the event-related potential (ERP) that is sensitive to valenced feedback, is believed to reflect PE signals. Reinforcement is also studied using frontal midline theta (FMΘ) activity, which peaks around the same time as the FRN and increases in response to unexpected events compared to expected events. We recorded EEG while participants completed a monetary incentive delay (MID) task that included positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement conditions with multiple levels of the outcome, as well as control conditions that had no reinforcement value. Despite the overlap of FRN and FMΘ, these measures indexed dissociable cognitive processing. The FRN was sensitive to errors in both positive and negative reinforcement but not in control conditions, while frontal theta instead was sensitive to outcomes in positive reinforcement and control conditions, but not in negative reinforcement conditions. The FRN was sensitive to the point level of feedback in both positive and negative reinforcement, while FMΘ was not influenced by the feedback point level. Results are consistent with recent results indicating that the FRN is influenced by unsigned PEs (i.e., a salience signal). In contrast, we suggest that our findings for frontal theta are consistent with hypotheses suggesting that the neural generators of FMΘ are sensitive to both negative cues and the need for control.

“Social mindfulness” refers to being thoughtful of others and considering their needs before making decisions, and can be characterized by low-cost and subtle gestures. The present study compared the behavioral and neural responses triggered by observing others’ socially mindful/unmindful choices and how these responses were modulated by the social status of the agency. At the behavioral level, observing socially mindful choices made observers feel better, rate the actors as more likable, and behave more cooperatively than did observing socially unmindful choices. Analysis of event-related potentials in the brain revealed that compared with socially unmindful choices, mindful choices elicited more negative feedback-related negativity (FRN). Notably, while this effect of social mindfulness was only significant when the actor’s social status was medium and high, it was undetectable when the actor’s social status was low. These results demonstrate that the social mindfulness of others can be rapidly detected and processed, as reflected by FRN, even though it does not seem to receive further, more elaborate evaluation. These findings indicated that low-cost cooperative behaviors such as social mindfulness can also be detected and appreciated by our brain, which may result in better mood and more cooperative behaviors in the perceivers. Besides, the perception of social mindfulness is sensitive to important social information, such as social status.

Background: Event related potential (ERP) components, such as P3, N2, and FRN, are potential metrics for assessing feedback response as a form of performance monitoring. Most research studies investigate these ERP components using clinical or research-grade electroencephalography (EEG) systems. Wearable EEGs, which are an affordable alternative, have the potential to assess feedback response using ERPs but have not been sufficiently evaluated. Feedback-related ERPs also have not been scientifically evaluated in interactive settings that are similar to daily computer use. In this study, a consumer-grade wearable EEG system was assessed for its feasibility to collect feedback-related ERPs through an interactive software module that provided an environment in which users were permitted to navigate freely within the program to make decisions.Methods: The recording hardware, which costs < $1,500 in total, incorporated the OpenBCI Cyton Board with Daisy chain, a consumer-grade EEG system that costs $949 USD. Seventeen participants interacted with an oddball paradigm and an interactive module designed to elicit feedback-related ERPs. The features of interests for the oddball paradigm were the P3 and N2 components. The features of interests for the interactive module were the P3, N2, and FRN components elicited in response to positive, neutral, and two types of negative feedback. The FRN was calculated by subtracting the positive feedback response from the negative feedback responses.Results: The P3 and N2 components of the oddball paradigm indicated statistically significant differences between infrequent targets and frequent targets which is in line with current literature. The P3 and N2 components elicited in the interactive module indicated statistically significant differences between positive, neutral, and negative feedback responses. There were no significant differences between the FRN types and significant interactions with channel group and FRN type.Conclusion: The OpenBCI Cyton, after some modifications, shows potential for eliciting and assessing P3, N2, and FRN components, which are important indicators for performance monitoring, in an interactive setting.

Coping self-efficacy (CSE) has a positive mental health effect on athletes’ ability to cope with stress. To understand the mechanism underlying the potential impact of CSE, event-related potentials (ERPs) were used to explore the neural activity of the cerebral cortex under acute psychological stress in athletes with different CSE levels. Among 106 high-level athletes, 21 high-CSE athletes and 20 low-CSE athletes were selected to participate in the experiment. A mental arithmetic task was used to induce acute psychological stress. The results showed that high-CSE athletes responded more quickly than low-CSE athletes. In the stress response stage, the N1 peak latency of low-CSE athletes was longer than that of high-CSE athletes, and the N1 amplitude was significantly larger than that of high-CSE athletes. In the feedback stage, the FRN amplitude with error feedback of high-CSE athletes was larger than that of low-CSE athletes, and the P300 amplitude with correct feedback was larger than that with error feedback. The results indicate that high-CSE athletes can better cope with stressful events, adjust their behaviors in a timely manner according to the results of their coping, and focus more on processing positive information.

Social comparison is a common phenomenon in our daily life, through which people get to know themselves, and plays an important role in depression. In this study, event-related potential (ERP) was used to explore the temporal course of social comparison processing in the subthreshold depression group. Electrophysiological recordings were acquired from 30 subthreshold depressed individuals and 31 healthy individuals while they conducted the adapted dot estimation task. The ERP results revealed that there was a significant difference of feedback-related negativity (FRN) in the process of social comparison. Especially only in the subthreshold depression, the FRN amplitudes of worse off than some, better off than many comparisons were larger than those of upward comparisons and downward comparisons. Our results suggested that the abnormal reward sensitivity for worse off than some, better off than many comparisons might be prodromal symptoms in the subthreshold depression., (© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

"Social mindfulness" refers to being thoughtful of others and considering their needs before making decisions, and can be characterized by low-cost and subtle gestures. The present study compared the behavioral and neural responses triggered by observing others' socially mindful/unmindful choices and how these responses were modulated by the social status of the agency. At the behavioral level, observing socially mindful choices made observers feel better, rate the actors as more likable, and behave more cooperatively than did observing socially unmindful choices. Analysis of event-related potentials in the brain revealed that compared with socially unmindful choices, mindful choices elicited more negative feedback-related negativity (FRN). Notably, while this effect of social mindfulness was only significant when the actor's social status was medium and high, it was undetectable when the actor's social status was low. These results demonstrate that the social mindfulness of others can be rapidly detected and processed, as reflected by FRN, even though it does not seem to receive further, more elaborate evaluation. These findings indicated that low-cost cooperative behaviors such as social mindfulness can also be detected and appreciated by our brain, which may result in better mood and more cooperative behaviors in the perceivers. Besides, the perception of social mindfulness is sensitive to important social information, such as social status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prediction errors (PEs) encode representations of rewarding and aversive experiences and are critical to reinforcement processing. The feedback-related negativity (FRN), a component of the event-related potential (ERP) that is sensitive to valenced feedback, is believed to reflect PE signals. Reinforcement is also studied using frontal midline theta (FMΘ) activity, which peaks around the same time as the FRN and increases in response to unexpected events compared to expected events. We recorded EEG while participants completed a monetary incentive delay (MID) task that included positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement conditions with multiple levels of the outcome, as well as control conditions that had no reinforcement value. Despite the overlap of FRN and FMΘ, these measures indexed dissociable cognitive processing. The FRN was sensitive to errors in both positive and negative reinforcement but not in control conditions, while frontal theta instead was sensitive to outcomes in positive reinforcement and control conditions, but not in negative reinforcement conditions. The FRN was sensitive to the point level of feedback in both positive and negative reinforcement, while FMΘ was not influenced by the feedback point level. Results are consistent with recent results indicating that the FRN is influenced by unsigned PEs (i.e., a salience signal). In contrast, we suggest that our findings for frontal theta are consistent with hypotheses suggesting that the neural generators of FMΘ are sensitive to both negative cues and the need for control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD) are aware of the risks of alcohol abuse yet continue risky drinking. Research indicates that dysfunctional decision processes and trait variables such as impulsivity contribute to this awareness‐behavior discrepancy. The present study focused on decision‐related versus feedback‐related processes as potential contributors to decision making in AUD by examining the relationship between decision choices and decision‐ and feedback‐related ERP phenomena in the balloon analogue risk task (BART). N = 39 AUD and n = 35 healthy comparison participants (HC) performed the BART modified for EEG assessment. In each of 100 runs, participants made a series of choices about whether to pump up a virtual balloon, which popped pseudorandomly, ending the run. Alternatively, participants ended the run by pressing a "cash‐out" button. Each pump not producing a pop provided.05 €; popping resulted in loss of the run's accumulated gain. Groups made similar choices, though AUD responded more slowly. The decision P3 200‒400 ms after decision prompt (balloon) was larger in AUD than in HC, and decision P3 enhancement on high‐risk trials predicted choices to pump. Feedback‐related negativity (FRN) after loss (relative to cash out) feedback was smaller in AUD than in HC, suggesting indifference to negative feedback. In AUD, high impulsivity was associated with risk‐modulated decision P3 but not FRN. Results indicate atypical decision‐ and feedback‐related processes that could contribute to difficulties in engaging with daily challenges effectively. Risky drinking, despite risk awareness in individuals with alcohol use disorder, has been explained in the decision‐making framework (i.e., as compromised decision and/or feedback processing). Analyses of ERPs in an experimental risk‐taking task showed that patients with alcohol use disorder exhibit accentuated response to decision (P3) and reward prompt (P2) but blunted response to loss feedback (FRN). This suggests more effortful processing and reward approach/penalty avoidance as contributions to risky alcohol use despite knowledge of negative consequences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurofeedback is a promising self-regulation technique used to modify specific targeted brain patterns. During neurofeedback, target brain activity is monitored in real time and fed back to the subject in a chosen format (e.g. visual stimulus). To date, we do not know how success and failure feedback are processed during neurofeedback learning. Here we analysed the event-related potentials (ERPs) in response to success and failure feedback during a single neurofeedback session in two experiments. Participants in experiment 1 (n = 127) took part in one of the three neurofeedback conditions: RLA: trained to increase alpha power on the right frontal in relation to the left; LRA: the reverse of the RLA; FPA: trained to increase alpha power on the mid-frontal in relation to the mid-parietal region. In experiment 2 (n = 45), participants took part in a similar session but one group received random feedback whereas the other received valid feedback to increase right frontal alpha power. We analysed the feedback related negativity (FRN), correct positivity (CP), and P3a and P3b in response to success and failure feedback. We observed stronger FRN and CP in response to success compared to failure feedback. Additionally, the P3a in response to success feedback was higher in epochs preceding subsequent good adjustments. Our findings indicate that people respond more strongly to success than failure feedback and that the P3a might mediate the encoding of the reinforced patterns in the brain. • People respond more strongly to success than failure feedback during neurofeedback. • The FRN is stronger in response to success feedback during neurofeedback. • The P3a in response to success feedback is higher preceding adaptive adjustment in brain activity during neurofeedback. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We recently demonstrated a processing advantage of social versus nonsocial feedback stimuli in a western sample by assessing phase-locked neural responses. The current study extended our previous findings to another cultural sample (Chinese) to further test whether non-phase-locked neural oscillations also exhibit the social feedback processing advantage. Fifty-three Chinese volunteers performed a time estimation task with social and nonsocial feedback stimuli (matched for complexity) while electroencephalogram was recorded. Almost entirely replicating our previous results, feedback ERPs showed a processing advantage for social compared with nonsocial stimuli. Importantly, non-phase-locked oscillations also revealed this pattern. Frontal midline theta (FMΘ) oscillations differentiated between negative and positive feedback to a larger extent in response to social compared with nonsocial feedback. The current findings imply a rather universal effect of social stimulus characteristics during feedback processing and further corroborate the notion of social content as a distinct stimulus category. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Event related potential (ERP) components, such as P3, N2, and FRN, are potential metrics for assessing feedback response as a form of performance monitoring. Most research studies investigate these ERP components using clinical or research-grade electroencephalography (EEG) systems. Wearable EEGs, which are an affordable alternative, have the potential to assess feedback response using ERPs but have not been sufficiently evaluated. Feedback-related ERPs also have not been scientifically evaluated in interactive settings that are similar to daily computer use. In this study, a consumer-grade wearable EEG system was assessed for its feasibility to collect feedback-related ERPs through an interactive software module that provided an environment in which users were permitted to navigate freely within the program to make decisions. Methods: The recording hardware, which costs < $1,500 in total, incorporated the OpenBCI Cyton Board with Daisy chain, a consumer-grade EEG system that costs $949 USD. Seventeen participants interacted with an oddball paradigm and an interactive module designed to elicit feedback-related ERPs. The features of interests for the oddball paradigm were the P3 and N2 components. The features of interests for the interactive module were the P3, N2, and FRN components elicited in response to positive, neutral, and two types of negative feedback. The FRN was calculated by subtracting the positive feedback response from the negative feedback responses. Results: The P3 and N2 components of the oddball paradigm indicated statistically significant differences between infrequent targets and frequent targets which is in line with current literature. The P3 and N2 components elicited in the interactive module indicated statistically significant differences between positive, neutral, and negative feedback responses. There were no significant differences between the FRN types and significant interactions with channel group and FRN type. Conclusion: The OpenBCI Cyton, after some modifications, shows potential for eliciting and assessing P3, N2, and FRN components, which are important indicators for performance monitoring, in an interactive setting. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coping self-efficacy (CSE) has a positive mental health effect on athletes' ability to cope with stress. To understand the mechanism underlying the potential impact of CSE, event-related potentials (ERPs) were used to explore the neural activity of the cerebral cortex under acute psychological stress in athletes with different CSE levels. Among 106 high-level athletes, 21 high-CSE athletes and 20 low-CSE athletes were selected to participate in the experiment. A mental arithmetic task was used to induce acute psychological stress. The results showed that high-CSE athletes responded more quickly than low-CSE athletes. In the stress response stage, the N1 peak latency of low-CSE athletes was longer than that of high-CSE athletes, and the N1 amplitude was significantly larger than that of high-CSE athletes. In the feedback stage, the FRN amplitude with error feedback of high-CSE athletes was larger than that of low-CSE athletes, and the P300 amplitude with correct feedback was larger than that with error feedback. The results indicate that high-CSE athletes can better cope with stressful events, adjust their behaviors in a timely manner according to the results of their coping, and focus more on processing positive information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The present study examines individual differences in brain responses to feedback stimuli as a complex perceptual task is gradually learned. Event-related potentials were recorded while subjects learned to categorize a visual stimulus that required integration of different physical dimensions. Feedback was provided following the subject's response. High learners achieved about 80% accuracy while low learners remained slightly above chance performance. A feedback-related negativity (FRN) peaking at about 340 ms became less negative-going as the study progressed. This FRN did not however differ between the two groups. On the other hand, the P300, peaking at about 400 was significantly larger following correct feedback for the high than low learners. Importantly, this P300 difference emerged early in learning and was predictive of future performance. The P300 following incorrect feedback increased in amplitude across the study for the high learners but did not change for low learners. A later positivity, peaking at about 625 ms following incorrect feedback was especially large for the high learners when it had a low probability of occurrence, after learning had occurred. The ERP group differences suggest a discrepancy in the utilization of feedback prior to and following learning. Highlights • Event-related potentials were recorded to feedback in a perceptual learning task. • A FRN gradually decreased over the course of the task for both low & high learners. • The P300 elicited by correct feedback was predictive of learning outcome. • The P300 and LPC to incorrect feedback closely reflected learning trajectories. • Individuals differ in the extent to which they take advantage of feedback to learn. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To use ERPs to investigate the impact of advice distance on advice taking in the Judge-Advisor System (JAS) paradigm, behavioural and ERP data were recorded from 20 subjects. The behavioural discrepancies and EEG characteristics of advice taking, as affected by the advice distances, were compared. The results showed that the relationship between the modification rate of a decision maker's initial estimation and the advice distance exhibited an inverse U-shaped curve. During the advice evaluation stage, different advice distances induced the feedback-related negativity (FRN) and subsequent P300 components. The amplitude of the FRN increased as the advice distance increased, while the amplitude of P300 in the zero distance condition was significantly larger than those in the intermediate and far distance conditions. These findings indicate that the advice evaluation process of a decision maker is related to conflict perception, prediction error and motivational or affective significance. • A inversely U-shaped relationship between advice distance and the degree of advice taking was found. • The amplitude of the FRN increased and that of the P300 gradually decreased as the advice distance increased. • Advice evaluation process of a decision maker is related to conflict perception, prediction error and motivational or affective significance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Effects of outcome sensory uncertainty versus feedback valence were compared. • During EEG recording, a speech-nonspeech discrimination task was performed. • Effects of feedback valence occurred in the anterior N1, the FRN and the P3. • Outcome Uncertainty only affected the P3. • Three stages of feedback processing: initial screening (N1), binary valence (FRN) and detailed analysis (feedback-P3). Performance feedback during a speech-nonspeech discrimination task was used to investigate (neuro-)cognitive processes underlying feedback processing under uncertainty. Sensory uncertainty was manipulated by creating stimuli that were stepwise morphs of the German vowels /a/ and /a:/ (speech) and their spectrally rotated counterparts (non-speech). The anterior N1 associated with early attentional modulation was largest following negative feedback. Both negative and uninformative feedback showed larger FRN amplitudes, suggesting a classification as worse than expected. Sensory uncertainty affected only the feedback-P3, in terms of larger amplitudes for (1) stimuli with high uncertainty and (2) positive feedback. Confidence ratings revealed that sensory uncertainty reduced the accuracy of stimulus categorization, but did not modulate participants' response confidence. Results suggest that feedback processing follows three distinct and successive stages, starting with initial screening for behavioral relevance (anterior N1, enhanced for unexpected negative feedback), followed by a binary valence distinction (FRN), and a more detailed analysis (P3). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focused attention meditation (FAM) practices are cognitive control exercises where meditators learn to maintain focus and attention in the face of distracting stimuli. Previous studies have shown that FAM is both activating and causing plastic changes to the mesolimbic dopamine system and some of its target structures, particularly the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and striatum. Feedback-based learning also depends on these systems and is known to be modulated by tonic dopamine levels. Capitalizing on previous findings that FAM practices seem to cause dopamine release, the present study shows that FAM experience predicts learning from negative feedback on a probabilistic selection task. Furthermore, meditators exhibited attenuated feedback-related negativity (FRN) as compared with nonmeditators and this effect scales with meditation experience. Given that reinforcement learning and FRN are modulated by dopamine levels, a possible explanation for our findings is that FAM practice causes persistent increases in tonic dopamine levels which scale with amount of practice, thus altering feedback processing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Trait irritability was associated with reduced response to loss feedback. • Trait irritability was unrelated to reward responsivity. • Frustration impaired accuracy on trials requiring spatial attention shifts. Abstract Despite increasing interest in the mechanisms of irritability, little research in this domain has been conducted with adults. The present study evaluates relationships among trait irritability, reward responsivity, and frustrative non-reward in a non-clinical sample of young adult females (n = 58) using a paradigm that has been used successfully in pediatric populations with clinically significant irritability. Similar to prior work in these pediatric populations, the frustration manipulation increased self-reported frustration and decreased task accuracy on trials requiring spatial attention shifts. Higher trait irritability was associated with smaller FRN amplitudes to loss feedback. Trait irritability was unrelated to the FRN to reward feedback and the reward positivity ERP. These findings provide preliminary evidence linking irritability with aberrant frustrative non-reward in a healthy young adult sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Himalayan region characterized by rugged terrain with steep sloping landscape. • Conventional methods of soil erosion assessment have their inherent limitations. • Fallout Radionuclides (FRNs) serves as a robust tool for measuring soil erosion in hilly and mountainous region. • Implementation of FRN based soil erosion measurement in Himalayan region is discussed. The Himalayan hills and mountains are very fragile and being threatened by land degradation due to soil erosion by water, poses serious challenges to the soil ecosystem services and sustainability of natural resources. Reliable estimate of long-term soil erosion rate in various land use/land cover types and slopes are necessitated to suggest suitable conservation measures for managing the natural resources. The rugged terrain, inaccessibility, remoteness, and extreme weather events restrains in adopting conventional methods of soil erosion measurements. Fallout Radionuclides (FRNs) 137Cs provide a unique potential for reliable measurement of long-term soil erosion rate in the hilly and mountainous landscapes. This relies on underlying assumptions of uniform spatial distribution, strong binding to soil particles, negligble plant uptake, minimal leaching by water, no chemical migration as well as movement solely through physical processes and appropriate soil sampling designs. FRN based erosion measurements may compliment to the erosion models as well as serves as exclusive method for erosion estimation in the landscape. Erosion measurement over the hillslope positions will provide robust opportunity to understand the erosion processes in the Himalayan region on explicit manner. The present study underscores the shortcomings of conventional erosion methods and models in addressing the complexities of erosion processes over hillslopes in rugged terrains, often hindered by resource intensiveness and limitations in data acquisition. We deliver a comprehensive overview of the FRN method's potential and adaptability in measurement of long term soil erosion rate in higher elevation area with steep to very steep sloping complex topography of hilly and mountainous landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reward processing deficit is a core feature of schizophrenia, however, it remains unclear whether reward processing is impaired in individuals with high schizotypy. In this study, 27 high schizotypal trait and 25 control group children were screened by the Chinese version of the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire for Children (SPQ C). We recorded their brain activity (event-related potentials, ERPs) while they completed a simple gambling task. In the early semi-automatic processing stage, small losses s evoked a more negative feedback-related negativity (FRN) in the high schizotypy group than that in control group, and the large wins evoked a less positive reward positivity (RewP) in the high schizotypy group than that in the control group. In the later cognitive appraisal stage, the Feedback-P3 (Fb-P3) amplitude was smaller in the schizotypy group than in control group. These results provided evidence that the abnormalities of outcome evaluation exist in the schizotypy children. Pending replications and longitudinal studies, the FRN, RewP and the P3 might represent a psychophysiological marker of risk for schizophrenia. • Schizotypy children are hypersensitive to the small losses. • Schizotypy children are hyposensitive to the large gains. • Abnormalities of outcome evaluation exist in the schizotypy children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Event-related potentials (ERPs) have been used to investigate neural mechanisms underlying risk-related decisions over the last 16 years. We aimed to systematically evaluate associations between risk-taking and ERP components elicited during decisions and following feedback. A total of 79 articles identified from PsychINFO and PubMed databases met the inclusion criteria. Selected articles assessed early ERP components (feedback-related negativity/FRN, error-related negativity/ERN, and medial frontal negativity/MFN) and the mid-latency P3 component, all using gambling paradigms that involved selecting between choices of varying risk (e.g., Iowa Gambling Task, Balloon Analogue Risk Task, and two-choice gambling tasks). The P3 component was consistently enhanced to the selection of risky options and when positive feedback (as compared to negative feedback) was provided. Also consistently, the early negative components were found to be larger following feedback indicating monetary losses as compared to gains. In the majority of studies reviewed here, risk was conceptualized in the context of simple economical decisions in gambling tasks. As such, this narrow concept of risk might not capture the diversity of risky decisions made in other areas of everyday experience, for example, social, health, and recreational risk-related decisions. It therefore remains to be seen whether the risk-sensitivity of the ERP components reviewed here generalizes to other domains of life.

Recent research emphasizes the importance of social factors during performance monitoring. Thus, the current study investigated the impact of social stimuli -such as communicative gestures- on feedback processing. Moreover, it addressed a shortcoming of previous studies, which failed to consider stimulus complexity as potential confounding factor. Twenty-four volunteers performed a time estimation task while their electroencephalogram was recorded. Either social complex, social non-complex, non-social complex, or non-social non-complex stimuli were used to provide performance feedback. No effects of social dimension or complexity were found for task performance. In contrast, Feedback-Related Negativity (FRN) and P300 amplitudes were sensitive to both factors, with larger FRN and P300 amplitudes after social compared to non-social stimuli, and larger FRN amplitudes after complex positive than non-complex positive stimuli. P2 amplitudes were solely sensitive to feedback valence and social dimension. Subjectively, social complex stimuli were rated as more motivating than non-social complex ones. Independently of each other, social dimension and visual complexity influenced amplitude variation during performance monitoring. Social stimuli seem to be perceived as more salient, which is corroborated by P2, FRN and P300 results, as well as by subjective ratings. This could be explained due to their given relevance during every day social interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decision making and feedback processing are two important cognitive processes that are impacted by social context, particularly during adolescence. The current study examined whether a psychosocial intervention could improve psychological wellbeing in at-risk adolescent boys, thereby improving their decision making and feedback processing skills. Two groups of at-risk adolescents were compared: those who were relatively new to a psychosocial intervention, and those who had engaged over a longer time period. Electroencephalography was recorded while the young people participated in a modified version of the Taylor Aggression Paradigm. The late positive potential (LPP) was measured during the decision phase of the task (where participants selected punishments for their opponents). The feedback-related negativity (FRN) and P3 components were measured during the task's outcome phase (where participants received 'win' or 'lose' feedback). Adolescents who were new to the intervention (the minimal-intervention group) were harsher in their punishment selections than those who had been engaged in the program for much longer. The minimal-intervention group also showed an enhanced LPP during the decision phase of the task, which may be indicative of immature decision making in that group. Analysis of the FRN and P3 amplitudes revealed that the minimal-intervention group was physiologically hypo-sensitive to feedback, compared with the extended-intervention group. Overall, these findings suggest that long-term community-based psychosocial intervention programs are beneficial for at-risk adolescents, and that event-related potentials can be employed as biomarkers of therapeutic change. However, because participants were not randomly allocated to treatment groups, alternative explanations cannot be excluded until further randomized controlled trials are undertaken. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Successful adaptive behavior requires the learning of associations between stimulus-specific choices and rewarding outcomes. Most research on the mechanisms underlying such processes has focused on subcortical reward-processing regions, in conjunction with frontal circuits. Given the extensive stimulus-specific coding in the sensory cortices, we hypothesized they would play a key role in the learning of stimulus-specific reward associations. We recorded electrical brain activity (using electroencephalogram) during a learning-based decision-making gambling task where, on each trial, participants chose between a face and a house and then received feedback (gain or loss). Within each 20-trial set, either faces or houses were more likely to predict a gain. Results showed that early feedback processing (~200–1200 ms) was independent of the choice made. In contrast, later feedback processing (~1400–1800 ms) was stimulus-specific, reflected by decreased alpha power (reflecting increased cortical activity) over face-selective regions, for winning- vs -losing after a face choice but not after a house choice. Finally, as the reward association was learned in a set, there was an increasingly stronger attentional bias towards the more likely winning stimulus, reflected by increasing attentional orienting–related brain activity and increasing likelihood of choosing that stimulus. These results delineate the processes underlying the updating of stimulus–reward associations during feedback-guided learning, which then guide future attentional allocation and decision-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Performance monitoring (PM) entails the continuous evaluation of actions and their outcomes. At the electrophysiological level, PM has been consistently related to two event-related brain potentials (ERPs): the Feedback-Related Negativity (FRN) and the P3. In a previous within-subject crossover design study, we showed that feedback's goal impact (i.e., its importance to one's goal) modulated these ERP components, yet in opposing directions. Although high goal impact was associated with a larger P3, the preceding FRN had a lower amplitude than in the low impact condition. We sought to extend these findings here by adopting a between-subjects design for a pure goal impact manipulation. Sixty-eight participants completed a Go/No Go Task while 64-channel electroencephalography was recorded concurrently. They were randomly assigned to either a high or low goal impact condition, manipulated through instructions on the supposed task's diagnosticity, while reward probability was kept similar between conditions. Replicating our previous results, we found that high goal impact yielded a marginally lower FRN, but substantially larger P3 during PM than low goal impact, without arousal or performance differences. Moreover, a principal component analysis confirmed these opposing directions of goal impact modulation. Overall, these results dovetail with the assumption that goal impact influences PM processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated cultural differences regarding social connectedness in association with social vs non-social comparison feedback. We performed electroencephalography in 54 Chinese and 49 Western adults while they performed a time estimation task in which response–accuracy feedback was either delivered pertaining to participants' own performance (non-social reference frame) or to the performance of a reference group (social reference frame). Trait interdependence and independence were assessed using a cultural orientations questionnaire. Applying a principal component approach, we observed divergent effects for the two cultural groups during feedback processing. In particular, Feedback-Related Negativity results indicated that non-social (vs social) reference feedback was more salient/motivating for Chinese participants, while Westerners showed the opposite pattern. The results suggest that Chinese individuals perceive a non-social context as more salient than a social comparison context, possibly due to their extensive experience of social comparisons in daily life. The reverse pattern was found in Western participants, for whom a social comparison context is less common and presumably more salient. The cultural differences in neural responses to social vs non-social feedback might be caused by culturally diverse cognitive traits, as well as by exposure to culturally defined behaviour on a systemic level—such as the education system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • The FRN component is specific to gain omission, and not necessarily by losses. • We report further empirical support for the reward positivity hypothesis. • Contextual valence effect is displayed across gain and loss blocks using blocked design. Abstract Feedback processing is an important aspect of learning. In the human brain, feedback processing is often examined by measuring an event-related potential, the feedback-related negativity component. Typically, the feedback-related negativity component is investigated by directly comparing gain with loss feedback randomized across trials; however, this method does not control for confounds associated with unexpected feedback. For this study we used a blocked design gambling task to investigate the sensitivity of feedback-related negativity to positive and negative feedback separately for gains and losses. While there appeared to be no significant feedback-related negativity in the loss domain, results revealed an enlarged feedback-related negativity during the omission of gains compared to the reception of gains. These findings further support the reward positivity hypothesis which declares that the feedback-related negativity is associated with the processing of outcomes in the context of gains as opposed to losses, irrespective of unexpectedness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Delayed Feedback following interference trials impaired reinforcement learning. • Delayed feedback reduced the Reward Positivity amplitude after PCA. • Comparable N170 amplitudes were elicited by both of delayed and immediate feedback. Abstract An immediate feedback after action facilitated reinforcement learning in dynamically varying environments. With several seconds delay, a series of event-related potential (ERP) studies have recently conducted to explore how delayed feedback influences learning processes and corresponding brain activities by measuring the Reward Positivity and N170 component. However, it remains unclear how does our brain process a feedback that is delayed longer and interrupted by other trials. In the present study, participants were asked to undertake a time-estimation task in two different conditions. Feedback was presented right after their actions in the immediate feedback condition, while it was presented after another five trials in the delayed feedback condition. By recording feedback related activities, we aim to test whether, or not, delayed feedback impairs reinforcement learning, the Reward Positivity and N170 amplitude. The behavioural results show that delayed feedback can reduce behavioural adjustment efficiency from trial-to-trial. To reduce component overlapping, we adopted the temporospatial principal components analysis (PCA) to separate the Reward Positivity from other ERP components. Results indicate that the Reward Positivity is decreased in the delayed feedback condition compared to the immediate feedback condition, however, no difference of N170 amplitude is found between the two conditions. These results indicate that delayed feedback impairs reinforcement learning process in terms of behavioural adjustment and brain activities even though these feedbacks are truly associated with participants' previous actions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The magnification of skill component in gambling as well as the gambler's and hot hand fallacies are gambling-related cognitive distortions. The magnification of skill component refers to the belief that one's ability can be used to win in gambling and that there is a reliable way to do so. The gambler's fallacy refers to the belief that a given outcome is unlikely to follow a preceding run of the same outcome (e.g. a coin coming up heads following a run of heads), while the hot hand fallacy refers to the belief that a streak of wins is going to continue. The biopsychological basis of these cognitive distortions can be analyzed by examining the processing of near outcomes and outcome sequences in gambling. Near outcomes refer to close wins and losses that would have almost resulted in the other outcome. The current study aims to investigate the electrophysiological basis of said cognitive distortions as well as its modulation by gambling problems. In the current study a group of problem gamblers and matched controls gambled on a wheel of fortune and a coin toss paradigm. The processing of near outcomes and outcome sequences was analyzed using event-related potentials (FRN, P300). Near outcomes evoked smaller P300 amplitudes in both groups. Furthermore, previous wins were associated with increased P300 amplitudes. Outcome closeness and previous outcome sequences did not modulate the FRN amplitude. The processing of near outcomes and outcome sequences was not modulated by gambling problems. General differences between problem gamblers and controls were found, with problem gamblers showing reduced peak-to-peak FRN amplitudes. This might point towards a generally more favorable evaluation of gambling outcomes in problem gamblers while the electrophysiological correlates of the analyzed cognitive distortions do not differ from those of healthy controls. Highlights • Near versus full outcomes elicit a smaller P300. • Previous win sequences elicit a larger P300. • These effects are not modulated by problem gambling. • Problem gamblers show overall reduced FRN. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract External and internal performance feedback triggers not only neural but also cardiac modulations, suggesting communication between brain and heart during feedback processing. Using Cardio-Electroencephalographic Covariance Tracing (CECT), it has accordingly been shown that feedback-evoked centromedial single-trial EEG at the P300 latency intraindividually predicts subsequent changes in heart period – the so called N300H phenomenon. While previous findings suggest that the N300H depends on serotonin, its relationship to central dopamine and noradrenaline is currently unknown. Here, we tested (1) the psychometric properties of this CECT-based component and (2) its putative catecholaminergic mechanisms. N = 54 healthy male participants received either a α2-adrenoceptor antagonist (yohimbine, 10 mg; n = 18), D 2 -dopamine-receptor antagonist (sulpiride, 200 mg; n = 18), or a placebo (n = 18). Afterwards, they performed a gambling task with feedback after each trial, while EEG and ECG were recorded. Feedback successfully evoked a significant N300H both across all 54 participants and within each substance group. Importantly, we show that N300H can be reliably measured in a priori defined time windows with as few as 240 feedback trials and is relatively unaffected when removing extreme single-trial values. However, we could not find any significant substance effects on N300H magnitude as well as on univariate feedback-related measures (FRN, P300, heart period). Altogether, the N300H component proves as a robust and reliable marker of cortico-cardiac coupling evoked by feedback. Furthermore, these findings suggest a subordinate role of catecholamines (i.e., noradrenaline and dopamine) and sympathetic pathways in feedback-evoked brain-heart communication as measured with N300H. Highlights • Feedback-evoked EEG around 300 ms intraindividually predicts subsequent heart period. • This “N300H” effect is a reliable marker of feedback-evoked cortico-cardiac coupling. • No effect of yohimbine (10 mg) on N300H, FRN, P300 and heart period • No effect of sulpiride (200 mg) on N300H, FRN, P300 and heart period • Catecholamines (noradrenaline, dopamine) may be less relevant for N300H modulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]