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Dissipation behaviour of the chloronicotinyl insecticide, imidacloprid (Tatamida 17.8 % SL), in fresh and cured cardamom capsules was studied following application at doses 20 and 40 g a.i. ha(-1) in a cardamom plantation of Indian Cardamom Hills (ICH), Idukki, Kerala, India. A single-laboratory ultra performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for the estimation of imidacloprid and its six metabolites (5-hydroxy, olefin, guanidine, urea, 6-chloronicotinic acid and nitrosimine) in fresh and cured cardamom. At the lower dose, the initial deposits of total imidacloprid residues were 1.91 and 7.23 μg g(-1), respectively, in fresh and cured cardamom. At the higher dose, the initial residues were 3.94 and 14.72 μg g(-1), respectively, in fresh and cured capsules. The residues dissipated below the quantitation level of 0.01 μg g(-1) after 21 and 28 days at lower dose and after 28 days for both at higher dose. The half-lives of imidacloprid in fresh and cured cardamom were 4.02 and 3.63 days, respectively, at lower dose and 3.61 days for both at higher dose. The waiting periods of imidacloprid on fresh and cured cardamom at lower and higher doses were 21.40, 27.10, 23.85 and 30.70 days, respectively. The mean processing factor of imidacloprid was 3.96 at 20 g a.i. ha(-1). Amongst metabolites of imidacloprid, urea had maximum residues in fresh and cured cardamom followed by 5-hydroxy and guanidine. Other metabolites such as 6-chloronicotinic acid, olefin and nitrosimine were not detected either in fresh or cured cardamom.

Cardamom is a popular spice that has been commonly used in cuisines for flavor since ancient times. It has copious health benefits such as improving digestion, stimulating metabolism, and exhibits antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects. The current study investigated the effect of cardamom on hemodynamic, biochemical, histopathological and ultrastructural changes in isoproterenol (ISO)-induced myocardial infarction. Wistar male albino rats were randomly divided and treated with extract of cardamom (100 and 200 mg/kg per oral) or normal saline for 30 days with concomitant administration of ISO (85 mg/kg, subcutaneous) on 29th and 30th days, at 24 h interval. ISO injections to rats caused cardiac dysfunction evidenced by declined arterial pressure indices, heart rate, contractility and relaxation along with increased preload. ISO also caused a significant decrease in endogenous antioxidants, superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, depletion of cardiomyocytes enzymes, creatine kinase-MB, lactate dehydrogenase and increase in lipid peroxidation. All these changes in cardiac and left ventricular function as well as endogenous antioxidants, lipid peroxidation and myocyte enzymes were ameliorated when the rats were pretreated with cardamom. Additionally, the protective effects were strengthened by improved histopathology and ultrastructural changes, which specifies the salvage of cardiomyocytes from the deleterious effects of ISO. The present study findings demonstrate that cardamom significantly protects the myocardium and exerts cardioprotective effects by free radical scavenging and antioxidant activities.

Due to the presence of a diverse array of metabolites, no standard method of RNA isolation is available for plants. We noted that polysaccharide and polyphenol contents of cardamom tissues critically hinder the RNA extraction procedure. Hence, we attempted several methods for obtaining intact mRNA and small RNA from various cardamom tissues. It was found that protocols involving a combination of commercial kits and conventional CTAB (cetyl trimethylammonium bromide) methods yielded RNA with good purity, higher yield, and good integrity. The total RNA isolated through this approach was found to be amenable for transcriptome and small RNA analysis through next-generation sequencing platforms., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Both black (B) and green (G) cardamom are used as flavours during food preparation. This study investigated the responses to B and G in a diet-induced rat model of human metabolic syndrome. Male Wistar rats were fed either a corn starch-rich diet (C) or a high-carbohydrate, high-fat diet with increased simple sugars along with saturated and trans fats (H) for 16 weeks. H rats showed signs of metabolic syndrome leading to visceral obesity with hypertension, glucose intolerance, cardiovascular remodelling and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. Food was supplemented with 3% dried B or G for the final eight weeks only. The major volatile components were the closely related terpenes, 1,8-cineole in B and α-terpinyl acetate in G. HB (high-carbohydrate, high-fat + black cardamom) rats showed marked reversal of diet-induced changes, with decreased visceral adiposity, total body fat mass, systolic blood pressure and plasma triglycerides, and structure and function of the heart and liver. In contrast, HG (high-carbohydrate, high-fat + green cardamom) rats increased visceral adiposity and total body fat mass, and increased heart and liver damage, without consistent improvement in the signs of metabolic syndrome. These results suggest that black cardamom is more effective in reversing the signs of metabolic syndrome than green cardamom.

Generally speaking, zingiberaceae plants with sweet fragrance are commonly seen as perennial herbs that contains numerous well-known crude drugs and fragrant plants like Amomum villosum, Amomumtsao-ko, Ginger, Alpinia katsumadai and Radix curcumae, which are widely used in daily life. This paper analyzed chemical components of Alpinia katsumadai of zingiberaceae and applied several laminar analysis to further develop its active ingredients, aiming to make sure its function on tumor assistance. Actually, cardamomin contained in Alpinia katsumadai has been recorded to act notably in myeloma resistance, which was verified by cholecystokinin-octopeptide (CCK-8) in this paper. Cardamom in is proved to have multiple anti-myeloma effects, including myeloma cell activity and proliferation control, cell cycle retardant and apoptosis induction, which indicates its value in the field of medical pharmacy.

Medicinal plants are widely used for the treatment of diseases and for the development of new drugs. This study was designed to determine the presence of hormone-like activities dependent on the activation of human estrogen receptor alpha (hERa) and/or androgen receptor (hAR) in methanol extracts prepared from three medicinal plants historically and currently used for therapeutic purposes: Ginkgo biloba leaves (GBL), Elettaria cardamomum seeds (ECS) and Plantago ovata seeds (POS). After a solid-liquid extraction (SLE) step, their effects on hERa function were assessed in MCF-7 breast cancer cells using the E-Screen bioassay, and their ability to induce hAR-mediated reporter gene expression was evaluated using the androgen-sensitive stable prostatic PALM cell line. Unlike POS extracts, GBL and ECS extracts showed estrogenic (0.07 and 0.20 nM E2Eq mg(-1), respectively) and anti-estrogenic (0.01 and 0.02 μM ICI182780Eq mg(-1), respectively) activities. ECS extracts evidenced androgenic activity (0.30 nM R1881Eq mg(-1)) and POS extracts anti-androgenic activity (22.30 μM ProcEq mg(-1)). According to these findings, these plant extracts may interfere with the endocrine system via one or more hormonal receptors, and further investigation is warranted into their role as endocrine disrupters in humans.

Prevention of cancer through dietary intervention has recently gained significant recognition. Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), a dietary phytoproduct, is a popular spice that is regularly used as a flavoring agent in various cuisines, and is much valued for its medicinal properties. In the present study, the cancer chemopreventive potential of cardamom was investigated against benzo(α)pyrene [B(α)P]-induced forestomach papillomagenesis in mice. Results showed that treatment with cardamom [(B(α)P + cardamom] reduced tumor incidence and multiplicity significantly (P<0.001) by 41.67% and 74.55%, respectively, compared to that of the B(α)P control group. Biochemical assays revealed a significant enhancement in the hepatic activities of glutathione-S-transferases (P<0.01), superoxide dismutase (P<0.01), glutathione peroxidase (P<0.001), and catalase (P<0.001) in mice treated with cardamom compared with the control. Furthermore, the nonenzymatic antioxidant glutathione was significantly (P<0.001) increased in the cardamom-treated group, whereas the lipid peroxidation level along with lactate dehydrogenase activity exhibited a significant (P<0.01) reduction with cardamom treatment compared to the control. These results suggest that cardamom has the potential to become a pivotal chemopreventive agent against forestomach cancer.

Unlabelled: The effects of microencapsulating cardamom essential oil (CEO) in whey protein isolate (WPI) alone and combined with guar gum (GG) and carrageen (CG) on microencapsulation efficiency, oil chemical stability, and microcapsule structure were investigated. Freeze-dried microcapsules were prepared from emulsions containing (w/w): 15% and 30% WPI; 0.1% GG, and 0.2% CG as wall materials with CEO (at 10% of polymer concentration) as core material, and physical properties and chemical stability were compared. Bulk density of microcapsules was highest in WPI without GG or CG and in 30% WPI + GG microcapsules, and was more affected by moisture content (r = -0.6) than by mean particle diameter (d43 ; r = -0.2) and span (r = 0.1). Microcapsules containing only WPI had the highest entrapped oil (7.5%) and microencapsulation efficiency (98.5%). The concentrations of 1,8-cineole and d-limonene were used as indicators for microcapsule chemical stability since they were the main components of CEO. Microcapsules retained higher (P ≤ 0.05) concentrations of both components than non-microencapsulated CEO during 16 wk storage at 20 ºC, but higher loss of both components was noted at 35 ºC. Microencapsulated d-limonene was reduced faster than 1,8-cineole regardless of temperature. The 30% WPI and 30% WPI + GG microcapsules retained CEO best throughout storage at both storage temperatures. Scanning electron micrographs revealed that WPI microcapsules had smooth surfaces, were relatively homogenous and regular in shape, whereas GG and CG addition increased visual surface porosity and reduced shape regularity. It was concluded that the best formulation for encapsulating CEO was 30% WPI., Practical Application: Encapsulating cardamom essential oil in whey protein isolate alone or combined with guar gum produced dried powders that effectively retained and chemically stabilized CEO, and therefore enhanced its handling and storability., (© 2014 Institute of Food Technologists®)

The overall objective of this study was to develop a decontamination method against microorganisms in cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton) seeds using ozone as a decontaminating agent. Ozone treatment was conducted 3 times, at 24-h intervals, and the parameters of the process were determined assuring the least possible losses of biologically active substances (essential oils and polyphenols): ozone concentration 160 to 165.0 g/m(3) ; flow rate 0.1 L/min; pressure 0.5 atm; time 30 min. After each step of decontamination, the microbiological profile of the cardamom seeds was studied, and the contaminating microflora was identified. Next to the microbiological profile, the total polyphenol content (TPC), composition of essential oils, free radical-scavenging capacity, total antioxidant capacity, ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), and LC-MS polyphenol analysis were determined. This study shows that extract from cardamom seeds after ozone treatment is characterized by a better radical scavenging activity (IC(50) = 24.18 ± 0.04 mg/mL) than the control sample (IC(50) = 31.94 ± 0.05 mg/mL). The extract from cardamom seeds after ozone treatment showed an improved FRAP activity as well (613.64 ± 49.79 mmol TE/g compared to 480.29 ± 30.91 mmol TE/g of control sample). The TPC and the total antioxidant capacity were negatively affected, respectively, 41.2% and 16.2%, compared to the control sample., (© 2014 Institute of Food Technologists®)

A four-step synthesis of the antimalarial terpene cardamom peroxide, a 1,2-dioxepane-containing natural product, is reported from (-)-myrtenal and molecular oxygen. This highly concise route was guided by biosynthetic logic and enabled by an unusual manganese-catalyzed, tandem hydroperoxidation reaction. The absolute configuration of the cardamom peroxide is reported, and its mode of fragmentation following Fe(II)-mediated endoperoxide reduction is established. These studies reveal the generation of reactive intermediates distinct from previously studied endoperoxide natural products.

The dissipation kinetics and method for estimation of residues of chlorpyrifos and lambda-cyhalothrin in cardamom were studied and developed. The limit of detection and limit of quantitation arrived for the compounds were 0.01 and 0.025 μg g(-1), respectively. Gas chromatographic response of chlorpyrifos and lambda-cyhalothrin residues was linear in the range of 0.01-0.50 μg g(-1) and the mean recovery obtained was 97.3 % for chlorpyrifos and 98.9 % for lambda-cyhalothrin with satisfactory relative standard deviation values. The mean initial residues of chlorpyrifos applied at a concentration of 0.05 % in cardamom was 2.5 μg g(-1) and the residue was 8.1 μg g(-1) after processing, with a processing factor of 3.24, while lambda-cyhalothrin when applied at 0.0025 % resulted in initial residues of 1.63 μg g(-1) that magnified to 4.86 μg g(-1) on curing, with a processing factor of 2.98. The half-life of chlorpyrifos was in the range of 5.1-5.24 days while that of lambda-cyhalothrin was in the range of 4.40-4.55 days. The processing factor arrived at in the above experiment lead to the conclusion that the residues of chlorpyrifos got magnified to 3.24-3.68 times and that of lambda-cyhalothrin got magnified to 2.98-3.46 times of initial residues, consequent to loss of weight due to dehydration during curing.

Background: The aim of the present study was to investigate variations in the chemical composition of the essential oil from seeds of large cardamom grown at different altitudes in Himachal Pradesh, India. The composition of the essential oil was determined by gas chromatography (GC), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O)., Results: The oil components showed qualitative and quantitative variations in the composition. GC and GC-MS analysis led to the identification of 55 compounds representing 98% of total oil. Major components in the oil were 1,8-cineole, α-terpineol, DL-limonene, nerolidol, 4-terpineol, δ-terpineol, δ-3-carene, β-myrcene, germacrene D, α-terpinene and longifolenaldehyde. The oil yields obtained were 9.8-19.5 g kg(-1). Cardamom oil from Himachal Pradesh was found to contain new compounds, viz. 4-terpineol, δ-3-carene, trans-sabinene hydrate, 1-phellandrene, α-terpinene, bicyclo-germacrene, isopinocarveol and ledenoxid-II. α-Terpenyl acetate, the major constituent of small cardamom, was also detected in the oil of large cardamom grown in Himachal Pradesh. Application of aroma extract dilution analysis revealed 35 compounds having aroma impact with the flavour dilution factor ranging from 2 to 1024, and 34 of these compounds were identified. The five most intense aromatic components are dl-limonene, 1,8-cineole, β-myrcene, α-pinene, α-basabolol. This is the first time that the characterisation of odour-active compounds has been carried out on large cardamom., Conclusion: The presence of 4-terpineol, δ-3-carene, trans-sabinene hydrate, 1-phellandrene, α-terpinene, 1-terpineol, bicyclogermacrene, isopinocarveol, ledenoxid-II, longifolenaldehyde and α-terpenyl acetate make the aroma of the oil different from large cardamom oil of Sikkim and could offer potential as a new food flavour., (© 2012 Society of Chemical Industry.)

Water-soluble polysaccharides from seeds of true cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum White at Maton, family Zingiberaceae) have been studied. The study has shown the presence of neutral and acidic components in these polysaccharides. Three polysaccharides (380, 166, and 27 kDa) have been isolated from the neutral fraction. According to the structural analysis data, they represent alpha-glucans with different degrees of branching (7.1-46.1%); alpha-(1-->4)-D-glucopyranose residues of their backbone chains are substituted at the C6 position with single a-D-glucopyranose residues. Polysaccharides with such structures have a wide range of biological activity. The presence of branched alpha-glucans in E. cardamomum seeds has been demonstrated.

Background: Cardamom (Elettaria cardamom), also known as "Queen of Spices", has been traditionally used as a culinary ingredient due to its pleasant aroma and taste. In addition to this role, studies on cardamom have demonstrated cancer chemopreventive potential in in vitro and in vivo systems. Nevertheless, the precise poly-pharmacological nature of naturally occurring chemo-preventive compounds in cardamom has still not been fully demystified., Methods: In this study, an effort has been made to identify the proapoptopic, anti-inflammatory, anti-proliferative, anti-invasive and anti-angiogenic targets of Cardamom's bioactive principles (eucalyptol, alpha-pinene, beta-pinene, d-limonene and geraniol) by employing a dual reverse virtual screening protocol. Experimentally proven target information of the bioactive principles was annotated from bioassay databases and compared with the virtually screened set of targets to evaluate the reliability of the computational identification. To study the molecular interaction pattern of the anti-tumor action, molecular docking simulation was performed with Auto Dock Pyrx. Interaction studies of binding pose of eucalyptol with Caspase 3 were conducted to obtain an insight into the interacting amino acids and their inter-molecular bondings., Results: A prioritized list of target proteins associated with multiple forms of cancer and ranked by their Fit Score (Pharm Mapper) and descending 3D score (Reverse Screen 3D) were obtained from the two independent inverse screening platforms. Molecular docking studies exploring the bioactive principle targeted action revealed that H- bonds and electrostatic interactions forms the chief contributing factor in inter-molecular interactions associated with anti-tumor activity. Eucalyptol binds to the Caspase 3 with a specific framework that is well-suited for nucleophilic attacks by polar residues inside the Caspase 3 catalytic site., Conclusion: This study revealed vital information about the poly-pharmacological anti-tumor mode-of-action of essential oils in cardamom. In addition, a probabilistic set of anti-tumor targets for cardamom was generated, which can be further confirmed by in vivo and in vitro experiments.

The role of dietary factors in inhibiting or delaying the development of non-melanoma skin cancer (NMSC) has been investigated for many years. Cardamom, which is a dietary phytoproduct, has been commonly used in cuisines for flavour and has numerous health benefits, such as improving digestion and stimulating metabolism and having antitumorigenic effects. We have investigated the efficacy of dietary cardamom against 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced skin papillomatogenesis in Swiss albino mice that closely resembles human NMSC. Mice were grouped into normal wild type (untreated), vehicle-treated (acetone), carcinogen-treated (DMBA), and DMBA and cardamom-treated (DMBA+CARD) to delineate the role of cardamom against DMBA-induced papillomatogenesis. Oral administration of cardamom to DMBA-treated mice up-regulated the phase II detoxification enzymes, such as glutathione-S-transferase and glutathione peroxidase, probably via activation of nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 transcription factor in 'DMBA+CARD' mice. Furthermore, reduced glutathione, glutathione reductase, superoxide dismutase and catalase were also up-regulated by cardamom in the same 'DMBA+CARD' group of mice compared with DMBA-treated mice. Cardamom ingestion in DMBA-treated mice blocked NF-κB activation and down-regulated cyclo-oxygenase-2 expression. As a consequence, both the size and the number of skin papillomas generated on the skin due to the DMBA treatment were reduced in the 'DMBA+CARD' group. Thus, the results from the present study suggest that cardamom has a potential to become a pivotal chemopreventive agent to prevent papillomagenesis on the skin.

Introduction: Several biochemical studies have already shown that cardamonin has health promoting properties, such is in agreement with typical characteristics of chalcones. Although being a very promising compound for the nutraceutical field there is a lack of studies concerning its electroanalytical properties., Objective: To develop an electroanalytical methodology for the quantification of cardamonin in cardamom., Methodology: Cardamonin was analysed electrochemically by means of a hanging mercury drop electrode (HMDE) using square wave voltammetry (SWV). It was extracted from cardamom spice and quantified thereafter using the standard additions method to overcome matrix effects., Results: A limit of detection (LOD) of 0.15 mg/L and good linearity (r²  = 0.9998) were obtained. Decoction using ethanol as the extraction solvent appears to be the simplest extraction technique. Spectrophotometric analysis (maximum absorbance peak was found in ethanol at 344 nm with a value of molar extinction coefficient of (2.8 ± 0.1) × 10⁴  L mol⁻¹ cm⁻¹) and mass spectrometry analysis by electrospray in the positive ion mode were also performed., Conclusion: Cardamonin was detected voltammetrically. The LOD and limit of quantification (LOQ) of the proposed voltammetric methodology are adequate for trace analysis of this compound in several phytochemical matrices., (Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Spices, such as cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, garlic, ginger, cumin, coriander and turmeric are used all over the world as flavouring and colouring ingredients in Indian foods. Previous studies have shown that spices contain variable amounts of total oxalates but there are few reports of soluble oxalate contents. In this study, the total, soluble and insoluble oxalate contents of ten different spices commonly used in Indian cuisine were measured. Total oxalate content ranged from 194 (nutmeg) to 4,014 (green cardamom) mg/100 g DM, while the soluble oxalate contents ranged from 41 (nutmeg) to 3,977 (green cardamom) mg/100 g DM. Overall, the percentage of soluble oxalate content of the spices ranged from 4.7 to 99.1% of the total oxalate content which suggests that some spices present no risk to people liable to kidney stone formation, while other spices can supply significant amounts of soluble oxalates and therefore should be used in moderation.

A new hyphenated extraction method composed of ultrasound assisted extraction (UAE)-optimized ultrasound assisted emulsification microextraction (USAEME) was developed for the extraction and preconcentration of the essential oil of Elettaria cardamomum Maton. The essential oil was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and optimization was performed using gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID). Ultrasound played two different roles in the extraction of the essential oil. First, as a source of sufficient energy to break the oil-containing glands in order to release the oil, and second as an emulsifier to disperse the organic phase within water. The effective parameters (factors) of USAEME including volume of extraction solvent (C(2)H(4)Cl(2)), extraction temperature and ultrasonic time were optimized by using a central composite design (CCD). The optimal conditions were 120 μL for extraction solvent volume, 32.5 °C for temperature and 10.5 min for ultrasonic time. The linear dynamic ranges (LDRs) were 0.01-50 mg L(-1) with the determination coefficients in the range of 0.9990-0.9999. The limits of detection (LODs) and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) were 0.001-0.007 mg L(-1) and 3.6-6.3%, respectively. The enrichment factors were 93-98. The main components of the extracted essential oil were α-terpenyl acetate (46.0%), 1,8-cineole (27.7%), linalool (5.3%), α-terpineol (4.0%), linalyl acetate (3.5%)., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Use of insecticides can have disruptive effects on the environment. Replacing the chemical compounds in these insecticides with plant materials, however, can be a safe method with low environmental risk. In the current study, chemical composition and insecticidal activities of the essential oil from cardamom, Elettaria cardamomum L. (Maton) (Zingiberales: Zingiberaceae) on the adults of three stored product pests was investigated. Results indicated that essential oil of E. cardamomum toxic to the bruchid beetle, Callosobruchus maculatus Fabricius (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum Herbst (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae), and the flour moth, Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae). Adults of E. kuehniella were more sensitive than the Coleoptera. Also, the highest mortality of these insects was seen after 12 hours. Results of the LT₅₀ tests showed that the lethal time of mortality occurred between 10-20 hours in various test concentrations. Essential oil of E. cardamomum had a good efficacy on oviposition deterrence of C. maculatus females, too. The chemical constituents of the essential oils were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The major constituents of cardamom were identified as 1,8-cineol, α-terpinyl acetate, terpinene and fenchyl alcohol. These results suggest that essential oil of E. cardamomum is a good choice for control of stored product pests.

Oxidative stress results from an imbalance in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and cell's own antioxidant defenses that in part lead to numerous carcinogenesis. Several phytochemicals, derived from vegetables, fruits, herbs and spices, have demonstrated excellent chemopreventive properties against carcinogenesis by regulating the redox status of the cells during oxidative stress. I3C (indole-3-carbinol) and DIM (diindolylmethane) are the phytochemicals that are found in all types of cruciferous vegetables and demonstrated exceptional anti-cancer effects against hormone responsive cancers like breast, prostate and ovarian cancers. Novel analogs of I3C were designed to enhance the overall efficacy, particularly with respect to the therapeutic activity and oral bioavailability and that results in several patent applications on symptoms associated with endometriosis, vaginal neoplasia, cervical dysplasia and mastalgia. Likewise, DIM and its derivatives are patented for treatment and prevention of leiomyomas, HPV infection, respiratory syncytial virus, angiogenesis, atherosclerosis and anti-proliferative actions. On the other hand, phytochemicals in cardamom have not been explored in great details but limonene and cineole demonstrate promising effects against carcinogenesis. Thus studies with selected phytochemicals of cardamom and bioavailability research might lead to many patent applications. This review is focused on the patents generated on the effects of I3C, DIM and selected phytochemicals of cardamom on carcinogenesis.

Alternative methods for controlling bacterial endospore contamination are desired in a range of industries and applications. Attention has recently turned to natural products, such as essential oils, which have sporicidal activity. In this study, a selection of essential oils was investigated to identify those with activity against Bacillus subtilis spores. Spores were exposed to thirteen essential oils, and surviving spores were enumerated. Cardamom, tea tree, and juniper leaf oils were the most effective, reducing the number of viable spores by 3 logs at concentrations above 1%. Sporicidal activity was enhanced at high temperatures (60 degrees C) or longer exposure times (up to one week). Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis identified the components of the active essential oils. However, none of the major oil components exhibited equivalent activity to the whole oils. The fact that oil components, either alone or in combination, did not show the same level of sporicidal activity as the complete oils suggested that minor components may be involved, or that these act synergistically with major components. Scanning electron microscopy was used to examine spores after exposure to essential oils and suggested that leakage of spore contents was the likely mode of sporicidal action. Our data have shown that essential oils exert sporicidal activity and may be useful in applications where bacterial spore reduction is desired.

Ethnopharmacological Relevance: Cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum) is traditionally used in various gastrointestinal, cardiovascular and neuronal disorders., Aim of the Study: To rationalize cardamom use in constipation, colic, diarrhea, hypertension and as diuretic., Materials and Methods: Cardamom crude extract (Ec.Cr) was studied using in vitro and in vivo techniques., Results: Ec.Cr caused atropine-sensitive stimulatory effect in isolated guinea-pig ileum at 3-10mg/ml. In rabbit jejunum preparations, Ec.Cr relaxed spontaneous and K+ (80 mM)-induced contractions as well as shifted Ca++ curves to right, like verapamil. Ec.Cr (3-100mg/kg) induced fall in the arterial blood pressure (BP) of anaesthetized rats, partially blocked in atropinized animals. In endothelium-intact rat aorta, Ec.Cr relaxed phenylephrine (1 microM)-induced contractions, partially antagonized by atropine and also inhibited K+ (80 mM) contractions. In guinea-pig atria, Ec.Cr exhibited a cardio-depressant effect. Ec.Cr (1-10mg/kg) produced diuresis in rats, accompanied by a saluretic effect. It enhanced pentobarbital-induced sleeping time in mice. Bio-assay directed fractionation revealed the separation of spasmogenic and spasmolytic components in the aqueous and organic fractions respectively., Conclusion: These results indicate that cardamom exhibits gut excitatory and inhibitory effects mediated through cholinergic and Ca++ antagonist mechanisms respectively and lowers BP via combination of both pathways. The diuretic and sedative effects may offer added value in its use in hypertension and epilepsy.

Natural plant extracts containing taste modifier compounds will gain more commercial interest in the future. Black cardamom, Amomum tsao-ko Crevost et Lemarié, used as a spice in Asia, produces a nice refreshing effect in the mouth. Therefore, an ethyl acetate extract was prepared, and constituents were separated by liquid chromatography. Guided by the tasting of each fraction (LC tasting), a new pungent compound was discovered, (+/-)-trans-2,3,3a,7a-tetrahydro-1H-indene-4-carbaldehyde. To confirm this new structure, a synthesis was performed starting from cyclopentene-1-carbaldehyde. The Wittig conditions were determined to control the stereochemistry of the ring fusion to prepare (+/-)-trans-(2,3,3a,7a-tetrahydro-1 H-inden-4-yl) methanol and (+/-)-cis-(2,3,3a,7a-tetrahydro-1H-inden-4-yl) methanol. After oxidation, (+/-)-trans-2,3,3a,7a-tetrahydro-1H-indene-4-carbaldehyde and (+/-)-cis-2,3,3a,7a-tetrahydro-1H-indene-4-carbaldehyde were tasted in water and only the trans-2,3,3a,7a-tetrahydro-1H-indene-4-carbaldehyde, present in black cardamom, produced a trigeminal effect in the mouth.

The dose effects of pectic polysaccharide-rich extract from the food spice cardamom (Amomum villosum Lour.) on intestinal environment were investigated. The results showed that pectic polysaccharides and hemicellulose were the major polysaccharides in the cardamom extract. The administration of cardamom extract (0.5 and 1.5 g/100 g diet) effectively (p < 0.05) shortened hamster gastrointestinal transit time by approximately 58%, increased fecal moisture contents (148-174%), increased SCFA concentrations in hindgut (4.0- to 7.8-fold), decreased the activities of beta-D-glucuronidase (by 71.4-85.7%), beta-D-glucosidase (by 24.3-51.5%), mucinase (by 63.6-72.7%), and urease (by 88.8-90.4%) in feces, and reduced the production of toxic ammonia (by 16.1-64.5%). These findings suggested that the consumption of cardamom extract (at least 0.5 g/100 g diet or 40 mg/day) might exert a favorable effect on improving the gastrointestinal milieu, and also provide a clue to substantiate its traditional therapeutic uses and dosage for intestinal health improvement.

Food constituents are the major source of various phytochemicals and micronutrients. The importance of these dietary constituents has been stressed in recent years due to their antioxidant and anticarcinogenic potential. Spices used in Indian foods such as cloves (Syzygium aromaticum), licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), mace (aril of Myristica fragans), and greater cardamom (Amomum subulatum) were tested for their antioxidant properties in vitro. The metal chelating activity, bleomycin dependent DNA oxidation, diphenyl-p-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and the ferric reducing /antioxidant power (FRAP) were measured in rat liver homogenate in presence of spices. Metal chelating activity was significantly high with all the spice extracts except mace. The spices due to higher reducing potential (in presence of bleomycin-FeCl&#95;{3}) showed increased DNA oxidation. Cloves showed the highest DPPH radical scavenging activity, followed by licorice, mace and cardamom. FRAP values for cloves were also the highest, while other spices showed comparatively lesser FRAP values. The results show that the spices tested are strong antioxidants and may have beneficial effects on human health.

The volatile oil of Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton seeds was obtained by supercritical CO(2) extraction (SC-CO(2)). The effect of the extraction conditions on the yield and composition of the resulting cardamom volatile oil was examined by testing two pressure values, 9.0 and 11.0 MPa; two temperatures, 40 and 50 degrees C; two flow rate values, 0.6 and 1.2 kg/h; and two particles size values, 250-425 and >850 microm. The extraction conditions that gave the highest yield, Y (grams of extract per gram of seeds), of 5.5%, were as follows: pressure, 9.0 MPa; temperature, 40 degrees C; carbon dioxide flow, phi = 1.2 kg/h; and particles sizes in the range of 250-425 microm. Waxes, recovered as traces, were entrapped in the first separator set at 9.0 MPa and -10 degrees C. The oil was recovered in the second separator working at 1.5 MPa and 10 degrees C. The main components were as follows: alpha-terpinyl acetate, 42.3%; 1,8-cineole, 21.4%; linalyl acetate, 8.2%; limonene, 5.6%; and linalool, 5.4%. A comparison with the hydrodistilled oil, obtained at a yield of 5.0%, did not reveal any consistent difference. In contrast, the extract obtained using hexane, Y = 7.6%, showed strong composition differences. Indeed, the volatile fraction of the extract was made up mainly of the following: limonene, 36.4%; 1,8-cineole, 23.5%; terpinolene, 8.6%; and myrcene, 6.6%.

Nutrient cycling, nutrient use efficiency and nitrogen fixation in an age series of Alnus-cardamom plantations were studied in the eastern Himalaya. The impact of stand age (5, 10, 15, 20, 30 and 40 years) on the nutrient dynamics of mixtures of N2-fixing (Alnus nepalensis) and non-N2-fixing (large cardamom) plants was assessed. Foliar nutrient concentrations of Alnus decreased with advancing age groups of plantations and showed an inverse relationship with stand age. Annual N fixation increased from the 5-year-old stand (52 kg ha(-1)), peaking in the 15-year-old stand (155 kg ha(-1)) and then decreased with increasing plantation age. Nitrogen and phosphorus uptake was lowest in the 40-year-old stand, and highest in the 15- and 5-year-old stand, respectively. Nutrient storage in understorey cardamom was very high: up to 31 % N and 59 % P of the stand total in the 15-year-old stand. Nutrient use efficiency was higher (with faster turnover times) in younger stands and decreased (with slower turnover times) in older plantations. Nitrogen retranslocation showed a strong positive relationship with stand age, while that of P was inversely related to stand age. Nutrient standing stock, uptake and return were also highest in the 15-year-old stand. Nitrogen and P cycling in Alnus-cardamom plantations was functionally balanced. Nutrient cycling and dynamics indicated that Alnus-cardamom plantations performed sustainably up to 15-20 years. The management practice should be altered to incorporate replantation after this age.

Constituents of the fruits of greater cardamom (Amomum subulatum) were fractionated into three fractions, the dichloromethane extract, and the ethyl acetate-soluble and water-soluble fractions of the 70% aqueous acetone extract. The ethyl acetate-soluble fraction showed a high radical-scavenging activity against 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH). Four compounds were isolated from the ethyl acetate-soluble fraction, and their structures were ascribed to protocatechualdehyde (1), protocatechuic acid (2), 1,7-bis(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)hepta-4E,6E-dien-3-one (3) and 2,3,7-trihydroxy-5-(3,4-dihydroxy-E-styryl)-6,7,8,9-tetrahydro-5H-benzocycloheptene (4) on the basis of spectroscopic evidence. This is the first isolation of these compounds from greater cardamom. In particular, 4 was a new type of cyclic diarylheptanoid. DPPH radical-scavenging activity of these compounds was measured by colorimetric analysis. Compounds 1 and 3 showed stronger activity than such natural antioxidants as alpha-tocopherol and L-ascorbic acid. Compounds 2 and 4 were comparable to alpha-tocopherol and L-ascorbic acid.