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Locative inversion in English ( under the bridge lived a troll ) is ungrammatical in all of the contexts where do -support applies: subject-auxiliary inversion, sentential negation, emphasis or verum focus, VP ellipsis, and VP displacement. Importantly, it is ungrammatical in these contexts whether do -support applies or not: it is ungrammatical with other auxiliaries, and it is also ungrammatical in nonfinite clauses of these types, where do -support never actually applies. This indicates that all of these contexts have something in common, and that cannot be disruption of adjacency between tense/agreement and the verb because there is no such disruption with other auxiliaries or in nonfinite contexts. These facts therefore argue against the standard last-resort theory of do -support, which holds that it is inserted to save a stranded tense/agreement affix, and for a theory like that of Baker 1991. In this theory, VPs have corresponding SPECIAL PURPOSE ([SP]) VPs, and do heads a [SP] VP. All of the contexts for do -support have in common the featural specification [SP]. Locative inversion involves a null expletive subject, the licensing of which is blocked by a non-[SP] context. All of this argues for a view of syntax with language-particular licensing constraints, features, and rules, within a range of variation proscribed by universal grammar.

This study charts the early history of canonical tag questions in English (e.g., It is cold, isn't it?) focusing on the sixteenth century and using drama texts as a source. By means of semi-automated retrieval from computerized sources, 136 instances were collected. They were then analyzed in context to ascertain polarity, choice of operator and subject, meter and authorship, and especially pragmatic functions. Even at this early stage, tag questions had functions beyond asking for confirmation, such as expressing speaker attitude, challenging an interlocutor, or issuing directives. Cautious comparisons are made with Present-day English conversational use. The importance of modal verbs and do-support for the emergence of canonical tag questions is discussed, but it is argued that the rise of not as the sole sentence negator in English is the most important single factor in the emergence of canonical tag questions.

Do-support is a unique characteristic of English. Many languages other than English havedo-periphrasis but not English-typedo-support. This raises the obvious question: What is special about English? The goal of this paper is to provide an account of Englishdo-support that explains whydo-support, with its attendant properties, is found uniquely in English. I review the classical derivational approaches todo-support and argue that they do not satisfactorily capture the generalizations. I suggest an alternative, non-derivational account of contemporarydo-support that makes crucial use of constructions. Finally, I propose an account of the history ofdo-support in English that characterizes the changes in terms of the content and scope of constructions. The rise ofdo-support can be understood as a consequence of the contraction and re-specialization of particular constructions in the wake of well-documented changes in the overt morphological system of the language.*

This paper develops an account of do-support in VP focus constructions in Central and Western Basque (CWB) dialects. In particular, this paper argues that CWB dialects, along with Korean, form a class of do-support languages whose dummy verb insertion mechanism differs slightly from that of English and Monnese. In all four of these languages, the dummy verb occupies a position that is, in marked environments, inaccessible to the verb. However, in Korean and CWB, unlike in English and Monnese, the verb's inability to raise to value this feature is not due to its inflectional poverty, but rather because it must bear a nominalizing infinitival affix for independent reasons; this nominal infinitive may not bear aspectual morphology, and a dummy verb is merged to do so instead. Moreover, Basque do-support is not a last-resort phenomenon as in Chomsky's classic analysis of English do-support (Chomsky 1957). That is, the unavailability of do-support in non-verb focalization constructions is not due to competition with a more economical alternative, but rather is independently excluded. This approach avoids a violation of the Inclusiveness Condition inherent in economy-based approaches to do-support that generate the dummy verb in the computational component.

Currently, do-support is obligatory with most lexical verbs in negation and questions. At the end of the 19th century it was still variable, in particular with verbs of the so-called know-group. Research on change in British and American English additionally reveals a marked regional difference in the spread of do-support with the lexical verb have. The current study uses corpus evidence to verify whether the two southern-hemisphere varieties, in the second half of the 19th century, followed the British model or whether there were signs of divergence in this area of grammar. The focus is on negation and variable do-support with the lexical verb have. The general picture is one of parallel development, with only minimal differences between the four varieties.

The replicability of experiment is routinely offered as the gold standard of evidence. I argue that it is not supported by a universal principle of replicability in inductive logic. A failure of replication may not impugn a credible experimental result; and a successful replication can fail to vindicate an incredible experimental result. Rather, employing a material approach to inductive inference, the evidential import of successful replication of an experiment is determined by the prevailing background facts. Commonly, these background facts do support successful replication as a good evidential guide and this has fostered the illusion of a deeper, exceptionless principle.; La replicabilidad de los experimentos se presenta de modo rutinario como la regla de oro de la evidencia. Defenderé que no está apoyada por un principio universal de repli cabilidad en la lógica inductiva. El fracaso en la replicación puede que no impugne un resultado experimental creíble; y una replicación exitosa puede fallar a la hora de vindicar un resultado experimental increíble. En contra, y según un enfoque material de la inferencia inductiva, el valor evidencial de la replicación exitosa de un experimento está determinado por los hechos de fondo prevalecientes. Por lo general, estos hechos apoyan la replicación exitosa como una buena guía evidencial, y esto ha generado la ilusión de que existe un principio más profundo y sin excepciones.

I support Rattansi and Phoenix's (1997) general thesis that historical and contextual issues play a vital role in the adolescent identity formation process. I find 3 general, problematic issues in the Rattansi and Phoenix analysis, however: (a) there are many dubious assumptions and deductions about identity and its formation, (b) many "newer" theorizations of identity that the authors highlighted and recommended have existed for at least 30 years, and (c) there is a confusion between identity structure and content in proposing identity as a multiple rather than unitary construct. Finally, I do support the authors' call for identity research to draw on tools from a variety of disciplines.

In this paper it is shown how an account of the English auxiliary system that has been independently proposed to deal with problems in standard analyses also provides a natural treatment of microvariation among varieties of English. The phenomenon is the use of non-emphatic periphrastic/dummy do in positive declaratives (Mary did visit her brother), here called "spurious do," as found most famously in the English of the 1500s, but attested also in some modern dialects and registers and in child English, and closely related to the use of tun in colloquial German. The framework adopted dispenses with two standard but problematic claims about English INFL: the exceptional ability of be and have to raise to Tense, even across negation, and the existence of PF affix lowering. Instead it is claimed that English has overt verb raising and that finite be/have are base-generated in INFL, above negation; independent support for the latter is provided from VP ellipsis. The analysis of do is that it is an allomorph of the indicative value of the Mood head, whose other indicative allomorph is zero. Mood is above Tense and is where modals are base-generated. It is shown that this system cannot block the generation of spurious do, because this would require transderivational comparison. Thus, the narrow syntax makes spurious do freely available. Languages and dialects differ on the extent to which they make use of this option. All else equal, it should be dispreferred because it involves one more word than its counterpart without do, but numerous advantages, including processing and rhetorical benefits, can outweigh this. The conclusion is that do cannot be analyzed as a strictly last-resort device in the way proposed in Chomsky's classic analysis. (C) 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In this paper we document the existence in a Romance languageof a strategy of do (fa) insertion in main non-subject interrogatives parallel to the well-known English case. As our description illustrates, the set of contexts wheredo-support applies in this language is a proper subset of the English contexts. The syntax of fa-support in a language with typicalRomance features allows us to draw some general conclusions regarding the analysis of Englishdo-support and the interfaces between syntax and morphology, on one side, andsyntax and lexical-semantic structure, on the other. First, we will show how fa-support in this Romancelanguage constitutes evidence in favor of the hypothesis that V to C movement applies alsoin Romance main questions. Second, some aspects of Rizzi's (1991) proposal that subject wh-sentences have a CP structure with the wh- in SpecC is confirmed by thepresence of an overt complementizer in the language we are dealing with.Thirdly, the phenomenon of Romance fa-support will lead us to further develop Pollock'sidea that do-insertion is directly connected with the theta-grid of a verb: a main verbcannot move to a thematically opaque position, while auxiliaries can, as they do not havea theta-grid. In the Romance dialect we analyze some verbs move to C° (or usedo-support) independently of their use as auxiliaries or as main verbs. In order to accountfor this aspect of the phenomenon, we suggest a more detailed description of the process.

Psychologically based rules are important in human behavior and have the potential of explaining equilibrium selection and separatrix crossings to a payoff dominant equilibrium in coordination games. We show how a rule learning theory can easily accommodate behavioral rules such as aspiration-based experimentation and reciprocity-based cooperation and how to test for the significance of additional rules. We confront this enhanced rule learning model with experimental data on games with multiple equilibria and separatrix-crossing behavior. Maximum likelihood results do not support aspiration-based experimentation or anticipated reciprocity as significant explanatory factors, but do support a small propensity for non-aspiration-based experimentation by random belief and non-reciprocity-based cooperation.

Inclusion of learners with diverse learning difficulties in the mainstream schools is a global phenomenon. The stance to accommodate learners with diverse learning needs demand teachers to be competent in implementing learning support processes to ensure that learners learn optimally. Although several countries like South Africa are in favor of inclusion, teachers seem to battle in providing learning support for learners presenting with specific learning difficulties. A qualitative interpretive research was conducted to explore and describe the experiences of senior phase teachers in selected mainstream schools. Purposive sampling included senior phase teachers who are members of the School Based Support Teams. Data was collected through individual and focus group interviews; document analysis; and field notes which were reflected in a journal. This article discusses the findings extracted from interviews on learning support strategies used by teachers. According to the teachers learning support strategies include: Giving learners extra work and re-teaching; differentiation; assessment; peer support and referring learners. DOI: 10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n2p455

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A fundamental question for syntactic theory concerns the nature of the basic computations that are used to construct grammatical representations. This chapter is devoted to a framework, Tree Adjoining Grammar (TAG). TAG is a formalism that builds grammatical representations through the composition of smaller pieces of syntactic structure. The interest of TAG for linguistic theory comes not only from the prominence it assigns to structural recursion, but also from the perspective it offers on the nature of syntactic dependencies. The author explores the implications of TAG for the nature of the grammar, specifically in the domain of long-distance dependencies. The use of TAG in syntactic theory is also motivated by questions of formal complexity. The author explores the role that TAG can play in discussions of the computational constraints on grammar. Chomsky adopted a more powerful system for grammatical representation, one incorporating grammatical transformations.

The chapter argues that the best way to profit from the rich corpus-linguistic working environment available to the student of the history of English is to use traditional (and sometimes small) linguistic corpora together with larger textual databases and digital archives, including the World-Wide Web, in a coordinated way. Linguistic corpora (ARCHER, Brown family, BNC, COCA, COHA) are sufficient to document the successive waves of grammaticalisation which have added have to, have got to and, more recently, want to or need to to the older form must, producing the complex layered system of present-day English modal markers of obligation and necessity. Using do-support with modal got (to)/gotta as an illustration, the paper shows that, in spite of its known deficiencies as a linguistic corpus, the World-Wide Web can help fill in the language-historical picture in useful ways where even the biggest available corpora fail to produce sufficient evidence.

This article deals with the 'do-support' phenomenon in the German Tyrolean dialect spoken in Merano/Meran (Northern Italy). We show that it is used in various contexts, which do not correspond to the contexts in which English resorts to do-support. In some of these contexts the do-support is obligatory, while in others it is optional.

Recent challenges to Chomsky’s poverty of the stimulus thesis for language acquisition suggest that children’s primary data may carry “indirect evidence” about linguistic constructions despite containing no instances of them. Indirect evidence is claimed to suffice for grammar acquisition, without need for innate knowledge. This article reports experiments based on those of Reali and Christiansen (2005), who demonstrated that a simple bigram language model can induce the correct form of auxiliary inversion in certain complex questions. This article investigates the nature of the indirect evidence that supports this learning, and assesses how reliably it is available. Results confirm the original finding for one specific sentence type but show that the model’s success is highly circumscribed. It performs poorly on inversion in related constructions in English and Dutch. Because other, more powerful statistical models have so far been shown to succeed only on the same limited subset of cases as the bigram model, it remains to be seen whether stimulus richness can be substantiated more generally.

What is the relation between perceptual learning (PL) in basic sensory discriminations and in more complex tasks, including real-world learning tasks? Most recent PL work focuses on the former, using simple sensory dimensions and a few specific stimulus values. In contrast, other PL research and virtually all real-world tasks involve discovery of invariance amidst variation, and may also involve PL working synergistically with other cognitive abilities. In this talk I will suggest that, despite superficial differences, low- and high-level PL tasks draw upon—and reveal—a unified type of learning. I will consider several arguments that have been advanced in favor of confining perceptual learning to plasticity at the earliest cortical levels along with models of PL based on receptive field change vs. selection. These analyses do not support the idea of a separate low-level process but do support both the abstract character of PL and its dependence on unifying notions of discovery and selection. In the final part of the talk, I will relate this unified view of PL to direct practical applications. Learning technology based on PL modules (PLMs) can address elusive aspects of learning, including pattern recognition, transfer, and fluency, even in high-level, symbolic domains, such as mathematics learning.

Students and inexperienced writers often have misconceptions about the writing process and characteristics of good papers that effectively prevent them from writing as good a paper as they possibly could. Here are eight common misconceptions you should be aware of before you even begin writing: Writing the psychology paper is the most routine, least creative aspect of the scientifific enterprise, requiring much time but little imagination. The important thing is what you say, not how you say it. Longer papers are better papers, and more papers are better yet. The main purpose of a psychology paper is the presentation of facts, whether newly established (as in reports of experiments) or well established (as in literature reviews). The distinction between scientifific writing, on the one hand, and advertising or propaganda, on the other hand, is that the purpose of scientifific writing is to inform, whereas the purpose of advertising or propaganda is to persuade. A good way to gain acceptance of your theory is by refuting someone else's theory. Negative results that fail to support the researcher's hypothesis are every bit as valuable as positive results that do support the researcher's hypothesis. The logical development of ideas in a psychology paper reflflects the historical development of ideas in the psychologist's head. Misconception 1. Writing the psychology paper is the most routine, least creative aspect of the scientific enterprise, requiring much time but little imagination.

Binne die teoretiese raamwerk van Government-Binding (GB) soos ontwikkel deur Chomsky, is talle voorstelle gedoen ter verklaring van die verskynsel van do support in Engels. Hierdie voorstelle was geeneen onproblematies nie. Onlangs het Pollock egter 'n belowende teorie interne voorstel in die verband gemaak. Aangesien Pollock se voorstel berus op veron-derstellings in Chomsky se teorie, sal die implikasies van die laasgenoemde teorie uiteengesit word voor die bespreking van Pollock se voorstel oor do support. Benewens 'n verklaring vir die verskynsel vir do support, sal aandag ook gegee word aan die basis-gegenereerde posisie van sinsbywoorde (waaronder ontkenning) asook aan die Werkwoord-tweede verskynsel (V2) in Germaanse tale. Omdat do support 'n instansie van V2 is, sal die bespreking met die laasgenoemde begin.

Introduction The subjunctive is one of the most striking and most frequently commented-on domains of grammatical contrasts between the two major national varieties of English. Many surveys and specific studies have remarked on the greater propensity of AmE to use the subjunctive in contexts where BrE resorts to two other options, the indicative or modal constructions (see Johansson 1979: 201, 1980: 90–1, Erdmann 1981: 120–3, Quirk et al . 1985: 157, Johansson and Norheim 1988, Algeo 1992: 600, 2006: 263–4, Denison 1998: 264, Peters 2004: 520). However, those that widen the perspective to include the history of the phenomenon have come to contradictory conclusions. On the one hand, Turner (1980: 272–3), Gorlach (1987: 53) and Lass (1987: 282) seem to assume a continuity between older forms of English and the frequent use of the subjunctive in AmE, and accordingly label it an ‘archaic expression’, a ‘retention’ or a ‘conservatism’. In a similar vein, Algeo (1992: 604) and Peters (1998: 98, 100) suggest that the higher levels of subjunctive use in AmE require no particular explanation, being simply another effect of the ‘colonial lag’ often adduced in such cases.

The English construction with do-support in the affirmative form, in the interrogative form, in the declarative-negative form, and in the interrogative­-negative form is a periphrastic construction. It satisfied the definition of a strengthened construction as long as it was an optional replacement of the corresponding non-strengthened construction, i.e. of forms without do-support.

International audience; Professionalisation, defined as the transmission of competences adapted to the job-market, is one of the new missions of Doctoral Schools in France. Interviews with supervisors reveal a number of ambivalent attitudes towards this new policy. Supervisors do support the rhetoric of professionalisation, but are powerless to push their students towards other careers than the academic one. We interpret this as a challenge to the academic identity through the modification of what a Ph.D is, which, in turn, impacts on the content, output and meaning of supervision. We show that academics do professionalise their students, but only for the profession they know: academia. They only train the students whom they believe they can acknowledge as future peers, and the on-the-job training provided by Ph.D supervisors is implicitly directed towards academia. The absence of an explicit academic professional identity is discussed, as well as the fact that 'professionalising' must relate to a specific professional identity. We argue that only 'specific' professional identity can be transmitted, leading to questions about the implementation of the related policy.

This chapter illustrates the virtues of the Optimality-Theoretic framework (Prince & Smolensky 1993) in explicating the course of syntactic change. The rise of do-support, a well-known change in the history of English, is taken as a case study. We investigate the patterns of variation inherent in linguistic change that occur as innovating forms replace conservative forms. We take the position that these periods of variation reflect competition between grammatically incompatible structures, i.e. conceptualizing variation and change in the surface structures of language as a reflection of alternation of different underlying grammars (Kroch 1989a,b; 1994), which themselves result from reanalysis by language learners (cf. Lightfoot 1991 et seq.). We argue that the notion of constraint competition inherent in Optimality Theory is advantageous in understanding language change as competition between contradictory grammatical systems. Also, we demonstrate the capacity of Optimality Theory as a means of describing systematic, grammatically-structured long-term linguistic change — particularly changes following an ‘S’-curve pattern of linguistic renewal — as resulting from systematic re-ordering of precedence relationships amongst conflicting universal grammatical principles.

This paper discusses V features, nominative case checking, and V movement in the minimalist program, explaining the facts of the English subjunctive and im­perative, and contrasting them with those in Greek. The feature matrices [-Tense, +Agr] and [+Tense, -Agr] have been proposed for the subjunctive and imperative respectively; the auxiliary do can be inserted into [+Tense], while [+Agr] is a dependent case checker which must be activated by another head under adjacency. Furthermore, finite V carries [+Tense, +Agr] in English, but [+Tense, +Agr, +Mood] in old English and Greek. The claim is that Κ move­ment can be maintained, keeping the unitary Infl system, by counting the num­ber of positive features., Selected papers on theoretical and applied linguistics, Vol 14 (2002): Selected Papers on Theoretical and Applied Linguistics from the 14th International Symposium, Thessaloniki 20-22 April 2000

Introduction Our goal in this chapter is the presentation of universal characterizations of some of the diachronic processes that turn biclausal constructions into monoclausal ones. We approach this goal first by describing one such process from the point of view of several languages, then generalizing about the form of this process. We then examine a different process, and make generalizations about its form. Finally we analyze a large category of processes and end the chapter with a statement of general principles governing all the changes examined within the chapter. To this end, section 7.2 discusses processes that derive from cleft clauses containing pragmatic markers. In section 7.3 we describe the transition from quotation constructions to structures involving a quotative marker. A process that derives a variety of periphrastic expressions of verbal categories is discussed in section 7.4. All three processes considered here are types of reanalysis; in section 7.5 we state general principles governing changes of biclausal to monoclausal structures. Highlighting constructions We examine in this section cross-linguistic evidence concerning one origin of highlighting – the use of particles to mark focus or topic. This is not an exhaustive inventory of sources of such markers; instead we deal in some detail with a single common pathway of development, derivations found in a wide variety of unrelated languages.

Mise en evidence des rapports etroits entre l'auxiliaire " do " emphatique et obligatoire, a partir d'une analyse contrastive avec le russe, le yukaghir et des langues chukchee-kamchatka

Recent assessments by ‘behavioralists' and others in international politics underscore the lack of quantity and/or quality of theories. While the value of established explanatory scientific theories is indisputable, the justification for clinging to this ideal in international politics no matter what turns up in the course of considerable empirical research merits close scrutiny. Disciplines progress as their students continually evaluate the explanatory structures fields do support. Modes of research then follow epistemological sensibilities rather than being forced Procrustes-like into predetermined models. Two suggestions are advanced here. The first is a study of the inference warrants in the field that effectively explain. The second is visualizing a continuum extending from science to technology, thereby heightening awareness of how many phenomena in the field can profitably be analyzed with reference to relatively more technological forms.

Finally, the data lend indirect support to the efforts of some students who seek to explain how factors peculiar to the United States militate against the formation of class-conscious aggregates. Rosenberg13 has suggested hypotheses relating features of our group life to class-awareness; others have focussed on the shifting base of the contemporary status system and extensive morbility.14 The present findings do not constitute any kind of test of these ideas; but they do support the claim that there is in fact a relative lack of social class awareness in the current stratification system.