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Background and Aims The first documented observation of pollination in Pleurothallidinae was that of Endre ́s, who noticed that the ‘viscid sepals’ of Specklinia endotrachys were visited by a ‘small fly’. Chase would later iden- tify the visiting flies as being members of the genus Drosophila. This study documents and describes how species of the S. endotrachys complex are pollinated by different Drosophila species. Methods Specimens of Specklinia and Drosophila were collected in the field in Costa Rica and preserved in the JBL and L herbaria. Flies were photographed, filmed and observed for several days during a 2-year period and were identified by a combination of non-invasive DNA barcoding and anatomical surveys. Tissue samples of the sepals, petals and labellum of Specklinia species were observed and documented by SEM, LM and TEM. Electroantennogram experiments were carried out on Drosophila hydei using the known aggregation pheromones ethyl tiglate, methyl tiglate and isopropyl tiglate. Floral compounds were analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectometry using those same pheromones as standards. Key Results Flowers of S. endotrachys, S. pfavii, S. remotiflora and S. spectabilis are visited and pollinated by several different but closely related Drosophila species. The flies are arrested by aggregation pheromones, including ethyl tiglate, methyl tiglate and isopropyl tiglate, released by the flowers, and to which at least D. hydei is very sen- sitive. Visible nectar drops on the adaxial surface of sepals are secreted by nectar-secreting stomata, encouraging male and female Drosophila to linger on the flowers for several hours at a time. The flies frequently show courtship behaviour, occasionally copulating. Several different Drosophila species can be found on a single Specklinia species. Conclusions Species of the S. endotrachys group share a similar pollination syndrome. There seem to be no spe- cies-specific relationships between the orchids and the flies. It is not expected that Specklinia species will hybridize naturally as their populations do not overlap geographically. The combination of pheromone attraction and nectar feeding is likely to be a generalized pollination syndrome in Pleurothallidinae. Ministerio del Ambiente y Energía/[]/MINAE/Costa Rica Sistema Nacional de Áreas de Conservación/[]/SINAC/Costa Rica Universidad de Costa Rica/[814-B1-239]/UCR/Costa Rica Universidad de Costa Rica/[814-B3-075]/UCR/Costa Rica UCR::Vicerrectoría de Investigación::Unidades de Investigación::Ciencias Agroalimentarias::Jardín Botánico Lankester (JBL)

New species of fossil Aphelinidae and Trichogrammatidae are described from middle Eocene (Lutetian) Baltic amber (41.3–47.8 Ma). A new subfamily, two new genera and three new species of Aphelinidae are described, with comments on their placement: Phtuaria fimbriae gen.n., sp.n. in Phtuariinae subf.n., Glaesaphytis interregni gen.n., sp.n. and Centrodora brevispinae sp.n. These represent the first described true fossil Aphelinidae. Four new species of Trichogrammatidae are described: Mirufens illusionis sp.n., Palaeogramma eos gen.n., sp.n., Pterandrophysalis plasmans sp.n. and Szelenyia terebrae sp.n., thus expanding our knowledge of fossil Trichogrammatidae beyond the single previously described species. The presence of recognizable extant genera of Aphelinidae and Trichogrammatidae in the Eocene suggests that the morphology of these genera has been relatively invariant despite highly variable conditions during and since the Eocene. This published work has been registered in ZooBank, http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:E9AD60B6-3D56-4E74-AA54-F7B91F4FDC79.

The monophyletic family Zhangsolvidae comprises stout-bodied brachyceran flies with a long proboscis and occurring only in the Cretaceous, originally known in shale from the Early Cretaceous Laiyang Formation (Fm.) in China (Zhangsolva Nagatomi & Yang), subsequently from limestones of the Early Cretaceous Crato Fm. of Brazil. Cratomyoides Wilkommen is synonymized with Cratomyia Mazzarolo & Amorim, both from the Crato Fm.; Cratomyiidae is synonymized with Zhangsolvidae. Two genera and three species of Zhangsolvidae are described: Buccinatormyia magnifica Arillo, Penalver & Perez-de la Fuente, gen. et sp.n. and B. soplaensis Arillo, Penalver & Perez-de la Fuente, sp.n., in Albian amber from Las Penosas Fm. in Spain; and Linguatormyia teletacta Grimaldi, gen. et sp.n., in Upper Albian–Lower Cenomanian amber from Hukawng Valley in Myanmar. Buccinatormyia soplaensis and Linguatormyia teletacta are unique among all Brachycera, extant or extinct, by their remarkably long, flagellate antennae, about 1.6× the body length in the latter species. A phylogenetic analysis of 52 morphological characters for 35 taxa is presented, 11 taxa being Cretaceous species, which supports placement of the family within Stratiomyomorpha, although not to any particular family within the infraorder. This published work has been registered in Zoobank, http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:F32CF887-7C37-45D5-BD6B-135FE9B729A7.

Calyptrate flies include about 22,000 extant species currently classified into Hippoboscoidea (tsetse, louse, and bat flies), the muscoid grade (house flies and relatives) and the Oestroidea (blow flies, bot flies, flesh flies, and relatives). Calyptrates are abundant in nearly all terrestrial ecosystems, often playing key roles as decomposers, parasites, parasitoids, vectors of pathogens, and pollinators. For oestroids, the most diverse group within calyptrates, definitive fossils have been lacking. The first unambiguous fossil of Oestroidea is described based on a specimen discovered in amber from the Dominican Republic. The specimen was identified through digital dissection by CT scans, which provided morphological data for a cladistic analysis of its phylogenetic position among extant oestroids. The few known calyptrate fossils were used as calibration points for a molecular phylogeny (16S, 28S, CAD) to estimate the timing of major diversification events among the Oestroidea. Results indicate that: (a) the fossil belongs to the family Mesembrinellidae, and it is identified and described as Mesembrinella caenozoica sp. nov.; (b) the mesembrinellids form a sister clade to the Australian endemic Ulurumyia macalpinei (Ulurumyiidae) (McAlpine’s fly), which in turn is sister to all remaining oestroids; (c) the most recent common ancestor of extant Calyptratae lived just before the K–Pg boundary (ca. 70 mya); and (d) the radiation of oestroids began in the Eocene (ca. 50 mya), with the origin of the family Mesembrinellidae dated at ca. 40 mya. These results provide new insight into the timing and rate of oestroid diversification and highlight the rapid radiation of some of the most diverse and ecologically important families of flies. ZooBank accession number–urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:0DC5170B-1D16-407A-889E-56EED3FE3627.

Summary Myrmecophiles—species that depend on ant societies—include some of the most morphologically and behaviorally specialized animals known [1]. Remarkable adaptive characters enable these creatures to bypass fortress-like security, integrate into colony life, and exploit abundant resources and protection inside ant nests [2, 3]. Such innovations must result from intimate coevolution with hosts, but a scarcity of definitive fossil myrmecophiles obscures when and how this lifestyle arose. Here, we report the earliest known morphologically specialized and apparently obligate myrmecophile, in Early Eocene (∼52 million years old) Cambay amber from India. Protoclaviger trichodens gen. et sp. nov. is a stem-group member of Clavigeritae, a speciose supertribe of pselaphine rove beetles (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae) heavily modified for myrmecophily via reduced mouthparts for trophallaxis with worker ants, brush-like trichomes that exude appeasement compounds, and fusions of many body and antennal segments [4, 5]. Protoclaviger captures a transitional stage in the evolutionary development of this novel body plan, most evident in its still-distinct abdominal tergites. The Cambay paleobiota marks one of the first occurrences in the fossil record of a significant presence of modern ants [6]. Protoclaviger reveals that sophisticated social parasites were nest intruders throughout, and probably before, the ascent of ants to ecological dominance, with ancient groups such as Clavigeritae primed to radiate as their hosts became increasingly ubiquitous.

Cretaceous fossils of Asilidae are reviewed, and two new taxa from Burmese and Raritan (New Jersey) ambers are described. The first robber fly from Burmese amber, †Burmapogon bruckschi, new genus and species, is described based on specimens of both sexes. A scientific name is provided for the previously described but unnamed fossil assassin fly from Raritan amber, †Cretagaster raritanensis, new genus and species, preserved as a fragmentary specimen. The amber fossils are placed phylogenetically within Asilidae. Specifically, †Burmapogon is postulated to be a representative of the clade comprised of (Brachyrhopalinae + Stichopogoninae), while †Cretagaster is a member of the Leptogastrinae and postulated to be an extinct sister group to (Acronychini + Leptogastrini).

The genus Parapolycentropus, originally described for two species in 99 myo Burmese amber, is unique among Mecoptera for its long, thin proboscis and possession of just the mesothoracic pair of wings. A new series of 19 specimens with excellent preservation allows description and redescription of virtually all morphological details. Male terminalia are very similar to those of the Holarctic Recent family of “snow fleas,” the Boreidae. Thoracic sclerites are highly convergent with nematocerous Diptera in the expansion of the mesothorax and great reduction of the pro-and metathoraces. The metathoracic wing vestige appears to be just the tegula; axial sclerites are lost. Details of the pretarsal claws are described; in P. paraburmiticus Grimaldi and Rasnitsyn the outer claw of the meso- and metathoracic pretarsi is elongate and the inner claw reduced. The proboscis is comprised not of a labial tube and “pseudolabellum” (contra Ren et al, 2009), but is mostly maxillary in origin, with the outer valve...

Although the prefrontal cortex influences motivated behavior, its role in food intake remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate a role for D1-type dopamine receptor-expressing neurons in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in the regulation of feeding. Food intake increases activity in D1 neurons of the mPFC in mice, and optogenetic photostimulation of D1 neurons increases feeding. Conversely, inhibition of D1 neurons decreases intake. Stimulation-based mapping of prefrontal D1 neuron projections implicates the medial basolateral amygdala (mBLA) as a downstream target of these afferents. mBLA neurons activated by prefrontal D1 stimulation are CaMKII positive and closely juxtaposed to prefrontal D1 axon terminals. Finally, photostimulating these axons in the mBLA is sufficient to increase feeding, recapitulating the effects of mPFC D1 stimulation. These data describe a new circuit for top-down control of food intake.

Description (gyne) Gerontoformica sp.: JZC Bu 313 (Figs. S 3 F; S 4 D-F) This is a virtually complete specimen in a piece that was originally bead-shaped, with a hole bored through it. It was trimmed flat on two faces, one face providing a full frontal view of the head; size is now 8 x 5 x 4 mm. The ant is missing its apical antennomeres (just the four basal ones remain), and the apex of the metasoma (e.g., sting), which were obliterated at the surface of the bead. The piece also contains a Collembola, a small Hemiptera (Dipsocoromorpha), and a tiny empidoid fly (the first two of these suggests capture near or on the surface of the ground). Other than loss of some small portions the ant is quite well preserved, with little preservational distortion and the cuticle cleared in most regions (thus facilitating observation of fine details). The wings are particularly well preserved. Head length 0.81; head width 0.62; eye length 0.20; mesosomal length 1.89 (likely distorted by dessication); petiole length 0.54; gaster length (preserved portion) 1.73; forewing length 4.25, width 1.34; hindwing length 2.83, width 1.06. Head: oral margin broad, with comb of ca. 18 clypeal pegs; mandible structure typical of Gerontoformica: broad, with single preapical tooth (plus apical one). Ocelli present, small; head with numerous fine, erect setae; bases of antennae surrounded by large, round, shallowly concave area. Pronotum projected into long, narrowed neck; metapleural gland opening large, facing posteriad (mesosoma strongly compressed laterally). Mesoscutellum and postnotum well developed; propodeum shallow, sloping; petiole distorted, not fully discernable. Protibia with long, slender, bare (non-pectinate) calcar having bifid apex, smaller spur mesally (0.5 x the length). Mesotibia with slender ventroapical spur; metatibia with pair of ventroapical spurs (approximately equal in size). Wing and Venation: Hind wing with row of six thicker hamuli distal to Rs; 3 finer, widely spaced ones distal to this. Venation very similar to that of male Sphecomyrma sp. in Turonian-aged New Jersey amber (AMNH NJ- 242) [S 1]. Main forewing differences are that Gerontoformica sp. (Bu 313) has a partial division of cell SMC 1, as in Baikurus mandibularis Dlussky (vs. undivided); basal cells BC and SBC are shorter; vein Cu 1 is present, though weaker than the other veins (vs. absent); vein M gradually fades apicad but nearly complete (vs. evanescent well before the wing margin). Main hind wing differences are Rs and M evanescent apically (vs. barely developed in Sphecomyrma).

Gerontoformica spiralis (Barden and Grimaldi) 2014: 16. New Combination., Published as part of Phillip Barden & David A. Grimaldi, 2016, Adaptive Radiation in Socially Advanced Stem-Group Ants from the Cretaceous, pp. 515-521 in Current Biology 26 on page 538, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.060, http://zenodo.org/record/269536

Camelomecia Barden and Grimaldi, New Genus, Figs. S 2 A-C; S 3 A-E,H; S 4 G,I Diagnosis (gyne): Based on alate specimens. A unique morphotype with unusual head and mandibular structure. Head broad posteriorly, narrowed sharply at anterior margin of eyes and antennal sockets. Antenna with 12 segments, scape short; flagellomeres narrow at base, most broadened apically with inner pointed lobe. Gena with Vshaped incision accomodating lateral articulation of mandible. Mandibles broad, cup-like (mesally concave), with anterior margin of inner surface with rows of dense, scale-like setae. Labrum a tongue-like sclerite between mandibles, its margin rimmed with fine setae. Eyes and ocelli well developed. Anterior margin of pronotum with unique collar of long, dense, fine pilosity. Petiole pedunculate, broadly attached to gaster. Type Species: C. janovitzi, new species. Etymology: Derived directly from camel, referring to the head in profile; and - mecia, a common suffix in ant generic names derived from Greek., Published as part of Phillip Barden & David A. Grimaldi, 2016, Adaptive Radiation in Socially Advanced Stem-Group Ants from the Cretaceous, pp. 515-521 in Current Biology 26 on page 536, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.060, http://zenodo.org/record/269536

Gerontoformica occidentalis (Perrichot, Nel, N��raudeau, Lacau and Guyot) 2008: 95. New Combination., Published as part of Phillip Barden & David A. Grimaldi, 2016, Adaptive Radiation in Socially Advanced Stem-Group Ants from the Cretaceous, pp. 515-521 in Current Biology 26 on page 538, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.060, http://zenodo.org/record/269536

Gerontoformica maraudera, Barden and Grimaldi, New Species, Fig. S 2 D,E Diagnosis (worker): Readily distinguishable from other Gerontoformica species by elongate mandibles incapable of full adduction against clypeus; frontal lobe with pointed and projected anterolateral margin; sparse, thick setae coating head and body; five maxillary palpomeres; reduced metanotum; distinct band-like constriction between first and second gaster segments. Total length 8.67. ZooBank LSID. urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act: 64 ED00D 2 -0 562 - 49 A 4-9 E 55 - 1 E 17 F 9 C 83 CCF Description (worker): all measurements in millimeters (mm). Head: Sparsely setose, setae up to 0.36 length; head 1.21 length from posterior margin of head to anterior margin of clypeus in frontal view; 1.06 wide excluding eyes. Ocelli present. Occipital foramen broadly rounded. Vertex of head flattened, its posterolateral margins broadly rounded. Eyes situated high on head, 65 % the distance above anterior margin of clypeus to posterior margin of head. Eyes bulging, 0.43 long, 0.24 deep. Cuticle between antennae raised into frontal lobe, frontal carina originate at inner margin of eye, diagonally leading to anterior margin of frontal lobe, terminating as a slight pointed expansion. Antenna total length 6.07: scape 0.66, pedicel 0.19, funicular segment I 0.89, II 0.63, III 0.63, IV 0.60, V 0.61, VI 0.54, VII 0.56, VIII 0.54, IX 0.51, X 0.56. Clypeus appearing reduced, anterior and lateral margins obscured by desiccation; anterolateral margin with small pointed projection; anterior margin with characteristic stout, setae-like denticles (0.03 long), difficult to enumerate,> 15. Mandibles elongate, 1.00 long, exceeding width of clypeus preventing flush retraction as in other Gerontoformica; apex with two denticles, apical tooth slightly larger; external margins slightly setose. Labium broad, possessing at least six interwoven rows of small, pointed denticles; anterior margin with fine, tapered setae. Labial palps with two palpomeres (damaged and not possible to measure accurately); maxillary palp with five palpomeres: I 0.13, II 0.23, III 0.33, IV 0.44, V unclear. Mesosoma: Weber���s length 2.90. Dorsal lengths: Pronotum 1.07, mesonotum 0.70, propodeum 1.44. Dorsal sclerites with sparse setae throughout. Pronotum broadly rounded with high collar; depression situated just anterior to collar. Propleuron reduced, slightly visible in lateral view. Mesonotum expanded dorsally; thoracic gemmae appear to be present. Metanotum apparently lost or highly reduced. Pronotum elongate, gradually rounded; metapleural gland opening gaping, facing posteriorly. Forelegs lost beyond the forecoxae; one midleg preserved; hind legs lost beyond femur. Procoxa with tapered setae along anterior edge, 0.69 long. Mesocoxa 0.53 long; mesotrochanter 0.36 long; mesofemur 1.69 long, trochantellus present; mesotibia highly setose, measurement obscured by fracturing and distortion, mesotibial spur not visible; tarsal segments highly setose, pretarsal claw with subapical tooth. Metacoxae 0.74 long; metatrochanter 0.37 long; metafemur 2.46 long. Metasoma: Petiole not tergosternally fused, with broad anterior face, nodiform; approximately 1.06 total length. Node broadly rounded with setae along dorsal face; maximum height 0.67, decreasing to 0.57 at gaster attachment (sternal projection comprising 50 % of this height). Underside of petiole and sternite of gaster segment I (abdominal segment III) possessing narrow projection that appears to be attached to both sclerites, projection with perpendicular anterior and ventral margins, anteroventral margin with sharp hook. Helcium distinct, rugose segment expanding to reach petiole. Gaster rugose throughout, with sparse elongate setae. Distinct band-like constriction between gaster segments I and II. Sting exuded slightly. Type: Holotype JCZ Bu 1846. Wingless female (presumed worker). Preserved in a 11 x 7 x 5 mm piece of transparent yellow amber previously shaped into bead. Myanmar: Kachin State dated to the Albian-Cenomanian boundary (ca. 99 Ma) [S 10]. Housed at the American Museum of Natural History. Etymology: As in ���marauder,��� in reference to the fierce appearance and dramatic mandibles., Published as part of Phillip Barden & David A. Grimaldi, 2016, Adaptive Radiation in Socially Advanced Stem-Group Ants from the Cretaceous, pp. 515-521 in Current Biology 26 on pages 538-539, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.060, http://zenodo.org/record/269536

Gerontoformica contegus (Barden and Grimaldi) 2014: 2. New Combination., Published as part of Phillip Barden & David A. Grimaldi, 2016, Adaptive Radiation in Socially Advanced Stem-Group Ants from the Cretaceous, pp. 515-521 in Current Biology 26 on page 538, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.060, http://zenodo.org/record/269536

Description (male)? Camelomecia sp.: JZC Bu 1818 (Figs. S 3 H; S 4 G,H,J) A rather large, gracile ant preserved in a large piece of transparent yellow amber 45 x 22 x 20 mm (untrimmed); the piece also containing two beetle larvae (one minute, early instar; the other larger and distinctive, resembling Brachypsectridae), plus 21 oblong frass pellets that are fairly uniform in size. Body length of the ant approximately 8.5; mesosoma distorted as preserved. Pronotum extended into long, slender neck; propodeum long, gradually sloping; petiole not well preserved, but apparently long, slender, not well developed; gaster relatively short. Head: Eye large, oval; ocelli present, large, barely separated (by distances less than their diameter); antenna with 11 antennomeres (9 flagellomeres). Lengths: scape 0.27; pedicel 0.58, flagellomere I 0.57, II 0.55, III 0.46, IV + V unclear, VI 0.32, VII 0.27, VIII 0.25, IX 0.35. Clypeus apparently without pegs but with fringe of stiff, fine setae. Mandibles distinctive, very similar to those of alate Camelomecia: short, scoop-shaped, with two short, subapical teeth; fringe of stiff, spicule-like setae on ventral margin and mesal surface. Legs relatively short compared to body length. Protibia with pectinate calcar, calcar notched in middle of the surface facing tibia. Mesotibia with one large ventroapical spur; metatibia with pair of ventroapical spurs, approximately equal in length. Pretarsal claws with small, subapical tooth, arolium well developed. Male genitalia slender, conical, parameres adjoining. Wing and Venation: Relatively short and slender, forewing length 4.96, width 1.56; hind wing length 3.96, width 0.77. Hind wing with row of 13 thicker hamuli distal to Rs, one fine hamulus anterior to midline of R + Rs. Wing venation distinct, divergent from Sphecomyrma and Gerontoformica: Forewing with SMC 1 complete, undivided; cell DC very large, forming parallelogram (vs. pentagonal); large DC 2 cell present (i.e. vein 2 m-cu present) (vs. absent); cell SMC 2-3 absent (vs. present). Hind wing with long row of hamuli posterior to Rs (vs. shorter, ≤ 6); venation reduced: vein M absent (vs. present, apically evanescent). Venation very similar to that of alate female (AMNH Bu-TJ003) This specimen is placed in Camelomecia on the basis of the distinctive mandibles, oral setae, and similar wing venation.

Gerontoformica gracilis (Barden and Grimaldi) 2014: 4. New Combination., Published as part of Phillip Barden & David A. Grimaldi, 2016, Adaptive Radiation in Socially Advanced Stem-Group Ants from the Cretaceous, pp. 515-521 in Current Biology 26 on page 538, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.060, http://zenodo.org/record/269536

Description (gyne) Camelomecia sp.: Tong- 112 : fully winged (Figs. S 3 A-E; S 4 I) Specimen preserved within large (2.5 x 2.8 x 1.1cm) piece of light yellow amber. Description: Total length of ant approximately 6.3; some desiccation apparent in mouthparts, petiole, and gaster. Head shape very similar to C. janovitzi, 1.38 in length; eyes elongate, 0.58 long; ocelli large, bulging. Mandibles more elongate than C. janovitzi specimen, with overall cup-like shape with internal margin of sharp setae. Labrum partially cleared with few setae near posterior margin; lateral margins darkened, possessing sparse setae. Clypeus distinct from C. janovitzi, dorsally flattened with distinct posterior margin spanning width of head. Antennal segments flattened and distorted, preventing reliable measurement; scape approximately 0.75 x length of flagellomere I. Pronotum with faint row of short setae along anterior margin, anteriorly pronotum narrowing greatly into neck before meeting head; promesonotal suture highly visible, appearing flexible, mesosoma constricted ventrally at this suture; scutellum bulbous, developed dorsally; propodeum with sheer posterior face, broadly rounded at posterodorsal margin, possessing stout spines; metapleural gland opening present, gaping. Propleuron reduced; mesopleuron developed, rounded laterally. Mid- and hind-legs with visible trochantellus; pretarsal claw with subapical tooth; tibial spurs as in C. janovitzi. Petiole pedunculae and elongate, gradually expanded to meet abdominal segment III, with single ventral spicule near anterior margin. Gaster elongate, distinct constriction between III and IV abdominal segments; third valvulae and sting visible.

Gerontoformica robustus (Barden and Grimaldi) 2014: 12. New Combination., Published as part of Phillip Barden & David A. Grimaldi, 2016, Adaptive Radiation in Socially Advanced Stem-Group Ants from the Cretaceous, pp. 515-521 in Current Biology 26 on page 538, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.060, http://zenodo.org/record/269536

Gerontoformica Nel and Perrault Gerontoformica Nel and Perrault, 2004: pg. 24. Type species: G. cretacica Nel and Perrault, by original designation. In Albian-aged amber from France. Sphecomyrmodes Grimaldi and Engel, 2005: pg. 5. Type species: Sphecomyrmodes orientalis, by original designation. In Burmese amber. New synonymy. Diagnosis (Emended). Distinguished from other Cretaceous genera by an uninterrupted row of peg-like denticles on the anterior margin of the clypeus; mandibles falcate, with one large apical tooth and one preapical tooth. The revised diagnosis and new generic synonymy is based on re-examination by one author (P.B.) of the type specimen, officially housed at the National Museum of Natural History, Paris. Species formerly placed in Sphecomyrmodes [16, 20, 25] are now placed in Gerontoformica., Published as part of Phillip Barden & David A. Grimaldi, 2016, Adaptive Radiation in Socially Advanced Stem-Group Ants from the Cretaceous, pp. 515-521 in Current Biology 26 on page 518, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.060, http://zenodo.org/record/269536, {"references":["16. Engel, M. S., and Grimaldi, D. A. (2005). Primitive new ants in Cretaceous amber from Myanmar New Jersey and Canada (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Am. Mus. Novit. 3485, 1 - 23.","20. Perrichot, V., Nel, A., Neraudeau, D., Lacau, S., and Guyot, T. (2008). New fossil ants in French Cretaceous amber (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Naturwissenschaften 95, 91 - 97.","25. Barden, P., and Grimaldi, D. (2014). A diverse ant fauna from the midcretaceous of Myanmar (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). PLoS ONE 9, e 93627."]}

Gerontoformica tendir (Barden and Grimaldi) 2014: 17. New Combination., Published as part of Phillip Barden & David A. Grimaldi, 2016, Adaptive Radiation in Socially Advanced Stem-Group Ants from the Cretaceous, pp. 515-521 in Current Biology 26 on page 538, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.060, http://zenodo.org/record/269536

Gerontoformica pilosus (Barden and Grimaldi) 2014: 10. New Combination., Published as part of Phillip Barden & David A. Grimaldi, 2016, Adaptive Radiation in Socially Advanced Stem-Group Ants from the Cretaceous, pp. 515-521 in Current Biology 26 on page 538, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.12.060, http://zenodo.org/record/269536

Bees of the family Halictidae (Apoidea: Anthophila) have three pairs of thick, bundled muscles that are circular to subcircular in cross section within the first metasomal segment, as revealed by micro-CT scanning of 16 species in 15 genera of five bee families. In nonhalictids and the basal halictid subfamily Rophitinae, these muscles are planar (flat and sheetlike), typically lying between the anterior air sacs and abdominal wall. In Nomiinae and Halictinae, these muscles, especially the dorsal-ventral pair, bulge into air-sac space, partly enveloped by air-sac membrane. A possible function may be to facilitate metasomal compression and contraction, and thus air flow. The bundled shape of these derived halictid muscles is similar to that of flight muscles, but further data is needed to determine if they are fibrillar, which would suggest a completely different function.

The Meropeidae consists of only three rare, highly disjunct Recent species, Merope tuber Newman from eastern North America, Austromerope poultoni Killington from Western Australia, and the recently discovered A. brasiliensis Machado, Kawada, and Rafael from southeastern Brazil. A new genus and new species of meropeid scorpionfly, Burmomerope eureka Grimaldi and Engel, is described in 99 myo amber (mid-Cretaceous: Aptian/Cenomanian-aged) from northern Myanmar. It is one of only two fossils known for the family, the other (Boreomerope Novokshonov: mid-Jurassic of Siberia) known only as a compression fossil wing. Burmomerope shares with the three living species several distinctive, derived features of the antenna, wing, as well as the uniquely large, forcipate male terminalia. Burmomerope plesiomorphically possesses fewer crossveins (though this may be related to its small size), and possibly ocelli; its robust rostrum may be either plesiomorphic or apomorphic. Burmomerope appears to be a stem-group...

A new fossil stephanid wasp (Stephanidae, or so called ‘crown wasps’) is described and figured from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. Kronostephanus zigrasi Engel and Grimaldi, new genus and species, is the oldest stephanid currently known in amber, and only the second amber specimen documented from the Mesozoic. Like Archaeostephanus corae Engel and Grimaldi (Turonian, New Jersey), the Burmese species belongs to the basal subfamily Schlettereriinae. The implications of this new taxon are elaborated and comments are provided regarding the age of the clade as well as the Hymenoptera as a whole.

The Leptosaldinae (Leptopodomorpha: Leptopodidae) are considered an isolated subfamily, possibly the sister group to the remaining species of the bug family Leptopodidae. Until now the subfamily consisted of two species: Leptosalda chiapensis Cobben, in Miocene amber from Chiapas, Mexico; and Saldolepta kistnerorum Schuh and Polhemus, a Recent species from Ecuador and Colombia. The new species, Leptosalda dominicana Grimaldi and Engel and L. niarchos Grimaldi and Engel are described from Miocene amber of the Dominican Republic (a third species is recorded but undescribed since it is based on a very fragmentary specimen). Archaesalepta Grimaldi and Engel, new genus, is described for A. schuhi Grimaldi and Engel, new species, preserved in Early Eocene Cambay amber from western India, and which appears to be a sister group to the New World leptosaldines. Unexpected discovery of a leptosaldine from the Old World greatly expands the known distribution and emphasizes the perils of biogeographic scenari...

A comprehensive compendium on the taxonomy and biology of the 3106 living and fossil species of the worlds termites is presented, along with reviews of Isoptera morphology and evolution, identification keys, the history of termite systematics, and summary of the worlds 363 significant pest species. A complete bibliography is provided of nearly 5000 references covering virtually all aspects of termite taxonomy and biology through December 2011. The morphology of Isoptera is thoroughly reviewed and illustrated with original scanning electron micrographs and photomicrographs, covering the cuticular anatomy and those internal organs that are taxonomically and phylogenetically significant, including several new character systems. Terminology is presented for the systems of tibial spines and spurs so as to establish homologs. Keys are presented to the nine living families of termites, and the world subfamilies and genera of Archotermopsidae, Hodotermitidae, Kalotermitidae, Mastotermitidae, Rhinotermiti...

A new family of microhymenopteran wasps is described and figured from three new species discovered in Cretaceous amber of Spain (Albian) and New Jersey (Turonian). Spathiopterygidae Engel and Ortega-Blanco, new family, is allied to the Diapriidae and Maamingidae (Proctotrupomorpha: Diaprioidea), sharing with these families putatively derived features relative to Monomachidae. The family contains three genera and three species, all new: Spathiopteryx alavarommopsis Engel and Ortega-Blanco, new genus and species, and Myamaropsis turolensis Engel and Ortega-Blanco, new genus and species, both from the Early Cretaceous (Albian) of Spain, and Spathopria sayrevillensis Engel, Ortega-Blanco, and Grimaldi, new genus and species, from the Late Cretaceous (Turonian) of New Jersey. Spathopria sayrevillensis is reconstructed using x-ray synchrotron microtomography In addition, a peculiar new genus and species, Iberopria perialla Engel, Ortega-Blanco, and Delclos, of stem-group Diapriidae is described from Sp...

One of the primary specializations of true flies (order Diptera) is the modification of the hind wings into club-shaped halteres. Halteres are complex mechanosensory structures that provide sensory feedback essential for stable flight control via an array of campaniform sensilla at the haltere base. The morphology of these sensilla has previously been described in a small number of dipteran species, but little is known about how they vary across fly taxa. Using a synoptic set of specimens representing 42 families from all of the major infraorders of Diptera, we used scanning electron microscopy to map the gross and fine structures of halteres, including sensillum shape and arrangement. We found that several features of haltere morphology correspond with dipteran phylogeny: Schizophora generally have smaller halteres with stereotyped and highly organized sensilla compared to nematoceran flies. We also found a previously undocumented high variation of haltere sensillum shape in nematoceran dipterans, as well as the absence of a dorsal sensillum field in multiple families. Overall, variation in haltere sensillar morphology across the dipteran phylogeny provides insight into the evolution of a highly specialized proprioceptive organ and a basis for future studies on haltere sensory function.

The radiation of flowering plants in the mid-Cretaceous transformed landscapes and is widely believed to have fuelled the radiations of major groups of phytophagous insects. An excellent group to test this assertion is the scale insects (Coccomorpha: Hemiptera), with some 8,000 described Recent species and probably the most diverse fossil record of any phytophagous insect group preserved in amber. We used here a total-evidence approach (by tip-dating) employing 174 morphological characters of 73 Recent and 43 fossil taxa (48 families) and DNA sequences of three gene regions, to obtain divergence time estimates and compare the chronology of the most diverse lineage of scale insects, the neococcoid families, with the timing of the main angiosperm radiation. An estimated origin of the Coccomorpha occurred at the beginning of the Triassic, about 245 Ma [228–273], and of the neococcoids 60 million years later [210–165 Ma]. A total-evidence approach allows the integration of extinct scale insects into a phylogenetic framework, resulting in slightly younger median estimates than analyses using Recent taxa, calibrated with fossil ages only. From these estimates, we hypothesise that most major lineages of coccoids shifted from gymnosperms onto angiosperms when the latter became diverse and abundant in the mid- to Late Cretaceous.

Exquisitely preserved fossil lizards from 99-million-year-old Burmese amber provide new insights into paleotropical diversity., Modern tropical forests harbor an enormous diversity of squamates, but fossilization in such environments is uncommon and little is known about tropical lizard assemblages of the Mesozoic. We report the oldest lizard assemblage preserved in amber, providing insight into the poorly preserved but potentially diverse mid-Cretaceous paleotropics. Twelve specimens from the Albian-Cenomanian boundary of Myanmar (99 Ma) preserve fine details of soft tissue and osteology, and high-resolution x-ray computed tomography permits detailed comparisons to extant and extinct lizards. The extraordinary preservation allows several specimens to be confidently assigned to groups including stem Gekkota and stem Chamaleonidae. Other taxa are assignable to crown clades on the basis of similar traits. The detailed preservation of osteological and soft tissue characters in these specimens may facilitate their precise phylogenetic placement, making them useful calibration points for molecular divergence time estimates and potential keys for resolving conflicts in higher-order squamate relationships.

A second female of mid-Cretaceous Burmaculex antiquus BorkentGrimaldi, preserved in 99 myo Burmese amber, and the oldest known member of the Culicidae, is described in detail. Although generally opaque and distorted, some character states are added or refined. The discovery of well-developed scales on the legs shows that this feature must now be considered a synapomorphy of both the fossil and all extant members of the family. Previously described synapomorphies and further interpretation here confirm the phylogenetic position of this fossil as the sister group to extant and all known fossil Culicidae. It is placed in the new subfamily Burmaculicinae.

Amber from northern Myanmar has been commercially exploited for millennia, and it also preserves the most diverse palaeobiota among the worlds' seven major deposits of Cretaceous amber. Recent estimated ages vary from Albian to Cenomanian, based on palynology, an ammonoid, and Mesozoic insect taxa preserved within the amber. The burmite-bearing rock is sedimentaryand consists mainly of rounded lithic clasts (0.03w0.15 mm in diameter), with minor fragments of quartz and feldspar. Among the lithic clasts are mostly volcanic rocks. Zircons separated from the amber matrix form two groups: Group-I zircons are overgrown and have variable CL patterns, experienced slight geological disturbances after they formed, and their Ion microprobe 206 Pb/ 238 U ages fall into a very narrow range of w102 Maew108 Ma; Group-II zircons are typical magmatic ones with rhythmically flat zones, inferred to be derived fromvolcanic rock clasts, and yielded a concordia 206 Pb/ 238 U age of 98.79 � 0.62 Ma. The dating on Group-I zircons is only for their interiors, thus hiding what age excursion might come from the overgrowth. Considering the nearshore marine environment and 1-m thickness of the burmite-bearing sediments, and the syn- and post-eruption deposition of volcanic clasts, the age of 98.79 � 0.62 Ma therefore can be used as a maximum limit for the burmite(eitheratorafter),establishinganearliestCenomanianageforthefossilizedinclusions.Theagealso indicates that volcanic eruption occurred at 98.79 � 0.62 Ma in the vicinity of the Hukawng Valley.

Curtonotidae are a small, mostly tropical family of acalyptrate flies in the Ephydroidea, a superfamily that also includes the Drosophilidae. Two species of Curtonotidae are described from Miocene amber of the Dominican Republic, 17–20 Ma: Curtonotum †electrodominicum Grimaldi and Kirk-Spriggs, sp. n., and Depressonotum †priscum Grimaldi and Kirk-Spriggs, gen. et sp. n. The fossil Curtonotum is based on a female specimen and has some features of Neotropical species and a small clade of African species. Depressonotum †priscum, gen. et sp. n., is based on a male and female and has a unique combination of features that are plesiomorphic and derived for the Curtonotidae. These are the only definitive fossils of the family and the only Curtonotidae known from the Caribbean. The fossil Curtonotidae provide rare data on the geological occurrence of ephydroid flies, essential for estimates of divergence times.

The Staphylinidae contain over 57,000 described species, thus comprising one of the largest families in all Insecta. Leehermania prorova Chatzimanolis, Grimaldi, and Engel, new genus and species, is described, which is the earliest staphylinid and the oldest definitive polyphagan beetle. The new species is based on a series of well-preserved specimens from the early Norian to late Carnian-aged (Late Triassic) Cow Branch Formation of southern Virginia. It is considered to be subfamily incertae sedis within Staphylinidae, but its possible affinity with the tachyporine group of staphylinids is noted. A summary of all Mesozoic Staphylinidae is provided and the evolutionary history of the lineage briefly discussed.

The Ortheziidae (ensign scale insects) is a morphologically well-defined family. The morphology and occurrence in the fossil record suggests a probable early origin of the family in scale insect evolution. The present phylogenetic analysis – based on 69 morphological characters of female ortheziids, using 39 exemplar Recent species – provides the first analytical assessment of relationships among living genera of the family, as well as the relationships of eight fossil species, based on complete, well-preserved specimens in amber. Monophyly of the subfamilies Newsteadiinae, Ortheziinae and Ortheziolinae is supported, but Nipponortheziinae is found to be paraphyletic by inclusion of the Ortheziolinae. Thus, the subfamily Ortheziolinae is reduced in rank to tribe Ortheziolini stat.n., which now includes Matileortheziola Kozar & Foldi, Ortheziolacoccus Kozar, Ortheziolamameti Kozar and OrtheziolaSulc. Consequently, the tribes Matileortheziolini, Ortheziolacoccini and Ortheziolamametini are synonymized (syn.n.) here under Ortheziolini. Five new species and one new genus of fossil ensign scales are described from three amber deposits: Burmortheziagen.n. with type species Burmorthezia kotejaisp.n. and also B. insolitasp.n., both in mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber (98 Ma) and Arctorthezia balticasp.n. in Eocene Baltic amber (c. 43 Ma) based on second-instar nymphs; Mixorthezia kozarisp.n. and M. dominicanasp.n. in Miocene Dominican amber (c. 17 Ma) based on adult females. Fossil placements are unambiguous, with Burmorthezia forming a stem to crown-group (Recent and Tertiary) Ortheziidae. A summary of described fossil ortheziids is provided.

The first fossil exomalopsine bee is described and figured from two females, one very partially preserved in Early Miocene amber from the Dominican Republic. Anthophorula (Anthophorula) persephone Engel, new species, is distinguished from its modern counterparts mainly by the broader pterostigma in which its inner breadth is greater than that of its marginal veins. This record expands the Dominican amber melittofauna to 21 species. Brief comments are made on the discovery as well as the Dominican amber bees in general. The new combination Thaumatosoma (Chalicodomopsis) glaesaria (Engel) is established.

The discovery of two distinct, near-complete specimens belonging to the Cretaceous ant genus Haidomyrmex Dlussky prompts a detailed description and discussion of a remarkable mandibular morphology. The specimens, preserved in 98 million-year-old amber from northern Myanmar, are described here as Haidomyrmex scimitarus, n. sp., and Haidomyrmex zigrasi, n. sp., with diagnostic differences provided between them as well as with H. cerberus Dlussky (also in Burmese amber). Relationships and comparisons of H. scimitarus, H. zigrasi, H. cerberus, and the recently described Haidomyrmodes mammuthus Perrichot from Cretaceous French amber are also discussed. Haidomyrmex was probably arboreal, cursorial, and a specialized trap-jaw predator, utilizing its enormous mandibles and cranial morphology in concert to capture prey. Mandibles appear to have moved in a plane oblique to the dorsoventral and horizontal axes of the body, unlike the lateral-plane movement of modern ants. The additions of these new fossils ...

The occurrence of arthropods in amber exclusively from the Cretaceous and Cenozoic is widely regarded to be a result of the production and preservation of large amounts of tree resin beginning ca. 130 million years (Ma) ago. Abundant 230 million-year-old amber from the Late Triassic (Carnian) of northeastern Italy has previously yielded myriad microorganisms, but we report here that it also preserves arthropods some 100 Ma older than the earliest prior records in amber. The Triassic specimens are a nematoceran fly (Diptera) and two disparate species of mites, Triasacarus fedelei gen. et sp. nov., and Ampezzoa triassica gen. et sp. nov. These mites are the oldest definitive fossils of a group, the Eriophyoidea, which includes the gall mites and comprises at least 3,500 Recent species, 97% of which feed on angiosperms and represents one of the most specialized lineages of phytophagous arthropods. Antiquity of the gall mites in much their extant form was unexpected, particularly with the Triassic species already having many of their present-day features (such as only two pairs of legs); further, it establishes conifer feeding as an ancestral trait. Feeding by the fossil mites may have contributed to the formation of the amber droplets, but we find that the abundance of amber during the Carnian ( ca. 230 Ma) is globally anomalous for the pre-Cretaceous and may, alternatively, be related to paleoclimate. Further recovery of arthropods in Carnian-aged amber is promising and will have profound implications for understanding the evolution of terrestrial members of the most diverse phylum of organisms.

Pareuthychaeta Hennig was previously known only from two described species in Eocene Baltic amber (Lutetian, ca. 42 Ma), Pareuthychaeta electrica Hennig and Pareuthychaeta minuta (Meunier), some details of which are revised based on new specimens. A third Baltic species is described, Pareuthychaeta mcalpinei Grimaldi, sp. nov. Another species, Pareuthychaeta eoindica Grimaldi, sp. nov., is described in earliest Eocene (Ypresian-aged, ca. 50–52 Ma) amber from Gujarat, western India. Comments are provided on the relationships of Pareuthychaeta to Recent genera of Diastatidae sensu lato (including Campichoetinae), and implications of this extinct genus are discussed regarding biogeography and the early Paleogene Schizophora radiations.

The deterioration of fossil resins (crazing, cracking, and darkening) was investigated by comparing the effects of one year of accelerated aging—specifically intensive exposure to light, heat, and fluctuating humidity, both individually and in combination—on samples from several natural resin deposits. These included two Cretaceous ambers (from Myanmar [Burma] and central New Jersey), two Tertiary ambers (from the Baltic and the Dominican Republic), and Holocene copal from Zanzibar. The five resins were chosen for their disparate ages and botanical origins (and thus chemical and physical properties), as well as their paleontological significance. In all cases, pronounced deterioration occurred under combined exposure to light and fluctuating humidity, based on surface crazing and a decrease in absorbance of light in the UV region (360–400 nm). While crazing did not visibly occur in cases of fluctuating humidity in dark conditions, or UV exposure alone, spectrophotometric evidence indicates that s...

Examination of two pieces of amber from the mid-Cretaceous of Myanmar revealed seven inclusions of leafy liverworts that we assign to the extinct Frullania cretacea Hentschel et al. 2009. These inclusions show a suite of characters that were not visible in the type specimen of F. cretacea . The new gametophytes consistently display rectangular to ovate underleaves that have two long-ciliate apical teeth in addition to 0–2 blunt lateral teeth. A narrow stylus is present on at least some leaves. The lobules usually form water sacs that are 1.2–2.3 times longer than wide, and are arranged at some distance from the stem. The observed combination of character states is not present in extant crown group lineages of Frullania . A syninclusion in one of the amber pieces is interpreted as a detached gynoecium of a second Cretaceous Frullania species and is described as F. baerlocheri , sp. nov. The subgynoecial underleaves of the syninclusion are suborbicular in shape, and allow for a separation of this species from F. cretacea . The described amber inclusions are the oldest representatives of an extant genus of leafy liverworts known so far.

Mesozoic bryophyte fossils are rare and often assigned to form genera only. Here, we describe a fragment of a leafy liverwort preserved in Cenomanian amber from northern Alaska, and place it in a new genus, Kaolakia. The extinct species Kaolakia borealis resembles the extant Frullaniaceae in having perianths with a beak, as well as complicate-bilobed incubous leaves with a Frullania-type water sac; however, two water sacs are consistently present on each side of the stem. This character resembles Lepidolaenaceae and Goebeliellaceae, although the extant members of these families have coelocaules or truncate perianths. Thus our fossil likely represents an extinct lineage with affinities to Porellales, the primarily epiphytic clade of the leafy liverworts, and is possibly closely related to Frullaniaceae.

Species of the extinct, parasitoid wasp family Serphitidae (Proctotrupomorpha: Bipetiolarida: Serphitoidea), occurring in Cretaceous (Turonian) amber from New Jersey, are reviewed. Two species, both new, are described and figured as Serphites raritanensis Engel & Grimaldi sp.n. and S. navesinkae Engel & Grimaldi sp.n.

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For nearly 100 million years, the India subcontinent drifted from Gondwana until its collision with Asia some 50 Ma, during which time the landmass presumably evolved a highly endemic biota. Recent excavations of rich outcrops of 50–52-million-year-old amber with diverse inclusions from the Cambay Shale of Gujarat, western India address this issue. Cambay amber occurs in lignitic and muddy sediments concentrated by near-shore chenier systems; its chemistry and the anatomy of associated fossil wood indicates a definitive source of Dipterocarpaceae. The amber is very partially polymerized and readily dissolves in organic solvents, thus allowing extraction of whole insects whose cuticle retains microscopic fidelity. Fourteen orders and more than 55 families and 100 species of arthropod inclusions have been discovered thus far, which have affinities to taxa from the Eocene of northern Europe, to the Recent of Australasia, and the Miocene to Recent of tropical America. Thus, India just prior to or immediately following contact shows little biological insularity. A significant diversity of eusocial insects are fossilized, including corbiculate bees, rhinotermitid termites, and modern subfamilies of ants (Formicidae), groups that apparently radiated during the contemporaneous Early Eocene Climatic Optimum or just prior to it during the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum. Cambay amber preserves a uniquely diverse and early biota of a modern-type of broad-leaf tropical forest, revealing 50 Ma of stasis and change in biological communities of the dipterocarp primary forests that dominate southeastern Asia today.

Aphids are marked by their high polymorphism, but species reported from the Early Cretaceous are known only from alate morphs. The discovery of an apterous adult morph in Lebanese amber and a larva of the same species are very important for the understanding of both the morphological and biological evolution of this insect group at the very early stage of development. Gondvanoaphis estephani new subfamily, new genus and species of the recent aphids family Thelaxidae is described. The characters of the new genus in respect to other genera placed in Thelaxidae are reviewed. The palaeoecological and palaeogeographical data concerning Gondvanoaphis new genus are also discussed.

Three genera and species of Scydmaeninae (Staphylinidae) are described as new from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber: Ektatotricha paradoxa Chatzimanolis, Engel & Newton gen. et sp. nov. and Electroatopos castaneus Chatzimanolis, Engel & Newton gen. et sp. nov. in the emended supertribe Hapsomelitae, and Kachinus antennatus Chatzimanolis, Engel & Newton gen. et sp. nov. in the supertribe Scydmaenitae. The supertribe Hapsomelitae is newly diagnosed and doubt cast on one of its putative apomorphies, with the development of a “patella” considered a misinterpretation by the original authors.