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The caged xanthone gambogic acid (GA) is a novel anti-cancer agent which exhibits anti-proliferative, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic effects in many types of cancer tissues. In a recent phase IIa study, GA exhibits a favourable safety profile. However, limited data are available concerning its interaction with cardiac ion channels. Heteromeric assembly of Kir2.x channels underlies the cardiac inwardly rectifying I

Class IA antiarrhythmic drug quinidine was one of the first clinically used compounds to terminate atrial fibrillation and acts as multichannel inhibitor with well-documented inhibitory effects on several cardiac potassium channels. In the mammalian heart, heteromeric assembly of Kir2.1-2.3 channels underlies I

The cardiac I

Kir2.x channels form the molecular basis of cardiac I(K1) current and play a major role in cardiac electrophysiology. However, there is a substantial lack of selective Kir2 antagonists. We found the β(3)-adrenoceptor antagonist SR59230A to be an inhibitor of Kir2.x channels. Therefore, we characterized the effects of SR59230A on Kir2.x and other relevant cardiac potassium channels. Cloned channels were expressed in the Xenopus oocyte expression system and measured with the double-microelectrode voltage clamp technique. SR59230A inhibited homomeric Kir2.1 channels with an IC(50) of 33μM. Homomeric Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels and Kir2.x heteromers were also inhibited by SR59230A with similar potency. In contrast, no relevant inhibitory effects of SR59230A were found in cardiac Kv1.5, Kv4.3 and KvLQT1/minK channels. In hERG channels, SR59230A only induced a weak inhibition at a high concentration. These findings establish SR59230A as a novel inhibitor of Kir2.1-2.3 channels with a favorable profile with respect to additional effects on other cardiac repolarizing potassium channels.

There is genetic and epidemiological evidence demonstrating the association between Lp(a) levels and cardiovascular disease. While evolocumab reduces Lp(a) by 25-30%, the impact of PCSK9 inhibition on plaque at different Lp(a) levels is unknown. GLAGOV compared the effects of the PCSK9 inhibitor

Background and purpose: Atomoxetine is a selective noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor, recently approved for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. So far, atomoxetine has been shown to be well tolerated, and cardiovascular effects were found to be negligible. However, two independent cases of QT interval prolongation, associated with atomoxetine overdose, have been reported recently. We therefore analysed acute and subacute effects of atomoxetine on cloned human Ether-a-Go-Go-Related Gene (hERG) channels. Experimental approach: hERG channels were heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes and in a human embryonic kidney cell line and hERG currents were measured using voltage clamp and patch clamp techniques. Action potential recordings were made in isolated guinea-pig cardiomyocytes. Gene expression and channel surface expression were analysed using quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, Western blot and the patch clamp techniques. Key results: In human embryonic kidney cells, atomoxetine inhibited hERG current with an IC50 of 6.3 µmol·L−1. Development of block and washout were fast. Channel activation and inactivation were not affected. Inhibition was state-dependent, suggesting an open channel block. No use-dependence was observed. Inhibitory effects of atomoxetine were attenuated in the pore mutants Y652A and F656A. In guinea-pig cardiomyocytes, atomoxetine lengthened action potential duration without inducing action potential triangulation. Overnight incubation with high atomoxetine concentrations resulted in a decrease of channel surface expression. Conclusions and implications: Whereas subacute effects of atomoxetine seem negligible under therapeutically relevant concentrations, hERG channel block should be considered in cases of atomoxetine overdose and when administering atomoxetine to patients at increased risk for the development of acquired long-QT syndrome.

Dronedarone is a novel class III antiarrhythmic drug that is widely used in atrial fibrillation. It has been shown in native cardiomyocytes that dronedarone inhibits cardiac inwardly rectifying current IK1 at high concentrations, which may contribute both its antifibrillatory efficacy and its potential proarrhythmic side effects. However, the underlying mechanism has not been studied in further detail to date. In the mammalian heart, heterotetrameric assembly of Kir2.x channels is the molecular basis of IK1 current. Therefore, we studied the effects of dronedarone on wild-type and mutant Kir2.x channels in the Xenopus oocyte expression system. Dronedarone inhibited Kir2.1 currents but had no effect on Kir2.2 or Kir2.3 currents. Onset of block was slow but completely reversible upon washout. Blockade of Kir2.1 channels did not exhibit strong voltage dependence or frequency dependence. In a screening with different Kir2.1 mutants lacking specific binding sites within the cytoplasmic pore region, we found that residue E224 is essential for binding of dronedarone to Kir2.1 channels. In conclusion, direct block of Kir2.1 channel subunits by dronedarone through binding at E224 may underlie its inhibitory effects on cardiac IK1 current.

Ajmaline is a class Ia anti-arrhythmic compound that is widely used for the diagnosis of Brugada syndrome and the acute treatment of atrial or ventricular tachycardia. For ajmaline, inhibitory effects on a variety of cardiac K+ channels have been observed, including cardiac Kv1 and Kv4 channels. However, the exact pharmacological properties of channel blockade have not yet been addressed adequately. Using two different expression systems, we analysed pharmacological effects of ajmaline on the potassium channels Kv1.5 and Kv4.3 underlying cardiac I Kur and I to current, respectively. When expressed in a mammalian cell line, we find that ajmaline inhibits Kv1.5 and Kv4.3 with an IC50 of 1.70 and 2.66 μM, respectively. Pharmacological properties were further analysed using the Xenopus expression system. We find that ajmaline is an open channel inhibitor of cardiac Kv1.5 and Kv4.3 channels. Whereas ajmaline results in a mild leftward shift of Kv1.5 activation curve, no significant effect on Kv4.3 channel activation could be observed. Ajmaline did not significantly affect channel inactivation kinetics. Onset of block was fast. For Kv4.3 channels, no significant effect on recovery from inactivation or channel deactivation could be observed. Furthermore, there was no use-dependence of block. Taken together, we show that ajmaline inhibits cardiac Kv1.5 and Kv4.3 channels at therapeutic concentrations. These data add to the current understanding of the electrophysiological basis of anti-arrhythmic action of ajmaline.

Este artigo apresenta a proposta de desenvolvimento de duas aplicações, uma usando Realidade Aumentada e outra QR code, para apoiarem a visitação de um museu de artes. Os aplicativos permitirão aos visitantes do museu, acessarem informações adicionais das obras de artes, no primeiro aplicativo, a partir de uma webcam e um monitor de computador que serão disponibilizados no local e no segundo com um celular ou tablet.

In order to prevent human error, it is essential to understand the nature of the user’s behaviour. This chapter proposes a combined approach to increase knowledge of user behaviour by instantiating a programmable user model with data gathered from a user profile. Together, the user profile and user model represent, respectively, the static and dynamic characteristics of user behaviour. Typically, user models have been employed by system designers to explore the user decision-making process and its implications, since user profiles do not account for the dynamic aspects of a user interaction. In this chapter, the user profile and model are employed to study human errors—supporting an investigation of the relationship between user errors and user characteristics. The chapter reviews the literature on user profiles and models and presents the proposed user profile and model. It concludes by discussing the application of the proposed approach in the context of electrical systems’ operation.

article i nfo The transient outward current Ito is an important determinant of the early repolarization phase. Ito and its molecular basis Kv4.3 are regulated by adrenergic pathways including protein kinase C. However, the exact regulatory mechanisms have not been analyzed yet. We here analyzed isoenzyme specific regulation of Kv4.3 and Ito by PKC. Kv4.3 channels were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and currents were measured with double electrode voltage clamp technique. Patch clamp experiments were performed in isolated rat cardiomyocytes. Unspecific PKC stimulation with PMA resulted in a reduction of Kv4.3 current. Similar effects could be observed after activation of conventional PKC isoforms by TMX. Both effects were reversible by pharmacological inhibition of the conventional PKC isoenzymes (Go6976). In contrast, activation of the novel PKC isoforms (ingenol) did not significantly affect Kv4.3 current. Whereas TMX-induced PKC activation was not attenuated inhibition of PKCβ, inhibition of PKCα with HBDDE prevented inhibitory effects of both PMA and TMX. Accordingly, stimulatory effects of PMA and TMX could be mimicked by the α-isoenzyme selective PKC activator iripallidal. Further evidence for the central role of PKCα was provided with the use of siRNAs. We found that PKCα siRNA but not PKCβ siRNA abolished the TMX induced effect. In isolated rat cardiomyocytes, PMA dependent Ito reduction could be completely abolished by pharmacologic inhibition of PKCα. In summary we show that PKCα plays a central role in protein kinase C dependent regulation of Kv4.3 current and native Ito. These results add to the current understanding of isoenzyme selective ion channel regulation by protein kinases.

International audience; Accident and incident analysis is essential to the study of human error and the development of error prevention measures. Human Error research deals essentially with the classification of error and the identification of the causal relation between the error detected and the level of human performance at which it occurred. As a result the literature proposes many error categorization methods and taxonomies. These are not, in themselves, sufficient, however, to analyze (and understand) the circumstances surrounding the error occurrence. For a more complete understanding of human error, it is necessary to associate each error with the sequence of steps taken by the human operator during the task that led to it. This paper proposes an extension of the existing error categorization found in the literature and applies it to the analysis of human error reports originating in the electricity industry.

The antidepressant mianserin exhibits a tetracyclic structure that is different from typical tricyclic antidepressants (TCA) and that of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. In comparison to the older TCA, mianserin has been shown to have a superior risk profile regarding proarrhythmic effects, both in vitro and in vivo. However, the underlying molecular electrophysiological basis has not been elucidated to date. Therefore, we studied the effects of mianserin on cardiac hERG potassium channels, the predominant target of drug-induced proarrhythmia. HERG channels were expressed in the Xenopus oocyte expression system and in human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells and currents were measured with two-microelectrode voltage-clamp and whole-cell patch-clamp, respectively. Mianserin inhibited hERG currents in a dose-dependent manner with an IC(50) of 3.2 micromol/l in HEK cells. Onset of blockade was slow and the inhibitory effect was not reversible upon wash-out of the drug. In hERG channel mutants, Y652A and F656A, lacking aromatic residues in the S6 domain, the effect of mianserin was significantly reduced in comparison to the wild type. Mianserin inhibited hERG currents in the open and inactivated state, but not in the closed states. HERG inactivation kinetics were significantly altered by mianserin without marked effects on channel activation kinetics. The inhibitory effect was not frequency dependent. In conclusion, mianserin is a low-affinity hERG-blocking agent. However, taken together with the lack of APD-prolongation shown in other studies, mianserin seems to have a good safety profile. Lack of consistent QT prolonging effects of mianserin in previous studies may therefore be linked to additional effects such as inhibition of other cardiac ion channels. However, as demonstrated by clinical case reports, mianserin can induce proarrhythmic effects in susceptible patients. Therefore, in patients with complex co-medication (i.e., additional hERG-blocking agents) and in patients with risk factors for acquired long QT syndrome as well as in cases of overdose, adequate monitoring should be recommended.

Inhibition of I(K1) currents by adrenergic alpha(1) receptors has been observed in cardiomyocytes and has been linked to arrhythmogenesis in an animal model. Both PKC-dependent and PKC-independent pathways have been implied in this regulation. The underlying molecular mechanisms, however, have not been elucidated to date. The molecular basis of native I(K1) current is mainly formed by Kir2.1 (KCNJ2), Kir2.2 (KCNJ12) and Kir2.3 (KCNJ4) channels that are differentially regulated by protein kinases. We therefore sought to investigate the role of those different Kir2.x channel subunits in this regulation and to identify the major signalling pathways involved. Adrenergic alpha(1A) receptors (the predominant cardiac isoform) were co-expressed with cloned Kir2.1, Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels in Xenopus oocytes and electrophysiological experiments were performed using two-microelectrode voltage clamp. Native I(K1) currents were measured with the whole-cell patch clamp technique in isolated rat ventricular cardiomyocytes. Activation of co-expressed adrenergic alpha(1A) receptors by phenylephrine induced differential effects in Kir2.x channels. No effect was noticed in Kir2.1 channels. However, a marked inhibitory effect was observed in Kir2.2 channels. This regulation was not attenuated by inhibitors of PKC, CamKII and PKA (chelerythrine, KN-93, KT-5720), and mutated Kir2.2 channels lacking functional phosphorylation sites for PKC and PKA exhibited the same effect as Kir2.2 wild-type channels. By contrast, the regulation could be suppressed by the general tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein and by the src tyrosine kinase inhibitor PP2 indicating an essential role of src kinases. This finding was validated in rat ventricular cardiomyocytes where co-application of PP2 strongly attenuated the inhibitory regulation of I(K1) current by adrenergic alpha(1) receptors. The inactive analogue PP3 was tested as negative control for PP2 and did not reproduce the effects of PP2. In Kir2.3 channels, a marked inhibitory effect of alpha(1A) receptor activation was observed. This regulation could be attenuated by inhibition of PKC with chelerythrine or with Ro-32-0432, but not by tyrosine kinase inhibition with genistein. In summary, on the molecular level the inhibitory regulation of I(K1) currents by adrenergic alpha(1A) receptors is probably based on effects on Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels. Kir2.2 is regulated via src tyrosine kinase pathways independent of protein kinase C, whereas Kir2.3 is inhibited by protein kinase C-dependent pathways. Src tyrosine kinase pathways are essential for the inhibition of native I(K1) current by adrenergic alpha(1) receptors. This regulation may contribute to arrhythmogenesis under adrenergic stimulation.

Aquaporin-1 (AQP1) channels contribute to osmotically induced water transport in several organs including the kidney and serosal membranes such as the peritoneum and the pleura. In addition, AQP1 channels have been shown to conduct cationic currents upon stimulation by cyclic nucleotides. To date, the short term regulation of AQP1 function by other major intracellular signaling pathways has not been studied. In the present study, we therefore investigated the regulation of AQP1 by protein kinase C. AQP1 wild type channels were expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Water permeability was assessed by hypotonic challenges. Activation of protein kinase C (PKC) by 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG) induced a marked increase of AQP1-dependent water permeability. This regulation was abolished in mutated AQP1 channels lacking both consensus PKC phosphorylation sites Thr(157) and Thr(239) (termed AQP1 DeltaPKC). AQP1 cationic currents measured with double-electrode voltage clamp were markedly increased after pharmacological activation of PKC by either OAG or phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. Deletion of either Thr(157) or Thr(239) caused a marked attenuation of PKC-dependent current increases, and deletion of both phosphorylation sites in AQP1 DeltaPKC channels abolished the effect. In vitro phosphorylation studies with synthesized peptides corresponding to amino acids 154-168 and 236-250 revealed that both Thr(157) and Thr(239) are phosphorylated by PKC. Upon stimulation by cyclic nucleotides, AQP1 wild type currents exhibited a strong activation. This regulation was not affected after deletion of PKC phosphorylation sites in AQP1 DeltaPKC channels. In conclusion, this is the first study to show that PKC positively regulates both water permeability and ionic conductance of AQP1 channels. This new pathway of AQP1 regulation is independent of the previously described cyclic nucleotide pathway and may contribute to the PKC stimulation of AQP1-modulated processes such as endothelial permeability, angiogenesis, and urine concentration.

Nadine Vonderlin,1 Fathima Fischer,1 Edgar Zitron,1,2 Claudia Seyler,1 Daniel Scherer,1 Dierk Thomas,1,2 Hugo A Katus,1,2 Eberhard P Scholz1 1Department of Internal MedicineIII, University Hospital Heidelberg, 2German Centre for Cardiovascular Research, Partner Site Heidelberg/Mannheim, Heidelberg, Germany Abstract: Midazolam is a short-acting benzodiazepine that is in wide clinical use as an anxiolytic, sedative, hypnotic, and anticonvulsant. Midazolam has been shown to inhibit ion channels, including calcium and potassium channels. So far, the effects of midazolam on cardiac human ether-à-go-go-related gene (hERG) channels have not been analyzed. The inhibitory effects of midazolam on heterologously expressed hERG channels were analyzed in Xenopus oocytes using the double-electrode voltage clamp technique. We found that midazolam inhibits hERG channels in a concentration-dependent manner, yielding an IC50 of 170 µM in Xenopus oocytes. When analyzed in a HEK 293 cell line using the patch-clamp technique, the IC50 was 13.6 µM. Midazolam resulted in a small negative shift of the activation curve of hERG channels. However, steady-state inactivation was not significantly affected. We further show that inhibition is state-dependent, occurring within the open and inactivated but not in the closed state. There was no frequency dependence of block. Using the hERG pore mutants F656A and Y652A we provide evidence that midazolam uses a classical binding site within the channel pore. Analyzing the subacute effects of midazolam on hERG channel trafficking, we further found that midazolam does not affect channel surface expression. Taken together, we show that the anesthetic midazolam is a low-affinity inhibitor of cardiac hERG channels without additional effects on channel surface expression. These data add to the current understanding of the pharmacological profile of the anesthetic midazolam. Keywords: midazolam, anesthetics, human ether-à-go-go-related gene, potassium channels

beta(3)-adrenoceptors have recently been shown to induce a complex modulation of intracellular signaling pathways including cyclic guanine monophosphate, cyclic adenosine monophosphate, nitric oxide, and protein kinases A and C. They are expressed in a broad variety of tissues including the myocardium, vascular smooth muscle, and endothelium. In those tissues, resting membrane potential is controlled mainly by inwardly rectifying potassium channels of the Kir2 family namely, Kir2.1 in the vascular smooth muscle, Kir2.1-2.3 in the myocardium, and Kir2.1-2.2 in the endothelium. In the present study, we investigated the possible modulation of Kir2 channel function by beta(3)-adrenoceptors in an expression system. Human-cloned beta(3)-adrenoceptors and Kir2.1 (KCNJ2), Kir2.2 (KCNJ12), and Kir2.3 (KCNJ4) channels were coexpressed in Xenopus oocytes, and currents were measured with double-microelectrode voltage clamp. Activation of beta(3)-adrenoceptors with isoproterenol resulted in markedly increased currents in Kir2.1 and in Kir2.2 potassium channels with EC50 values of 27 and 18 nM, respectively. In contrast, Kir2.3 currents were not modulated. Coapplication of specific inhibitors of protein kinase A (KT-5720) and calmodulin kinase II (KN-93) had no effects on the observed regulation in Kir2.1. However, coapplication of protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitors staurosporine and chelerythrine suppressed the observed effect. In Kir2.2, coapplication of KT-5720 reduced the effect of beta(3)-adrenoceptor activation. No differences in current increase after application of isoproterenol were observed between mutant Kir2.2 potassium channels lacking all functional PKC phosphorylation sites and Kir2.2 wild-type channels. In heteromeric Kir2.x channels, all types of heteromers were activated. The effect was most pronounced in Kir2.1/Kir2.2 and in Kir2.2/Kir2.3 channels. In summary, homomeric and heteromeric Kir2.x channels are activated by beta(3)-adrenoceptors via different protein kinase-dependent pathways: Kir2.1 subunits are modulated by PKC, whereas Kir2.2 is modulated by protein kinase A. In heteromeric composition, a marked activation of currents can be observed particularly with involvement of Kir2.2 subunits. This regulation may contribute to the hyperpolarizing effects of beta(3)-adrenoceptors in tissues that exhibit modulation by Kir2 channel function.

To elucidate the ionic mechanism of endothelin-1 (ET-1)-induced focal ventricular tachyarrhythmias, the regulation of I(K1) and its main molecular correlates, Kir2.1, Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels, by ET-1 was investigated. Native I(K1) in human atrial cardiomyocytes was studied with whole-cell patch clamp. Human endothelin receptors were coexpressed with human Kir2.1, Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels in Xenopus oocytes. Currents were measured with a two-microelectrode voltage clamp. In human cardiomyocytes, ET-1 induced a marked inhibition of I(K1) that could be suppressed by the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor staurosporine. To investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying this regulation, we studied the coupling of ET(A) receptors to homomeric and heteromeric Kir2.1, Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels in the Xenopus oocyte expression system. ET(A) receptors coupled functionally to Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels but not to Kir2.1 channels. In Kir2.2 channels lacking functional PKC phosphorylation sites, the inhibitory effect was abolished. The inhibition of Kir2.3 currents could be suppressed by the PKC inhibitors staurosporine and chelerythrine. The coupling of ET(A) receptors to heteromeric Kir2.1/Kir2.2 and Kir2.2/Kir2.3 channels resulted in a strong inhibition of currents comparable with the effect observed in Kir2.2 homomers. Surprisingly, in heteromeric Kir2.1/Kir2.3 channels, no effect was observed. ET-1 inhibits human cardiac I(K1) current via a PKC-mediated phosphorylation of Kir2.2 channel subunits and additional regulatory effects on Kir2.3 channels. This mechanism may contribute to the intrinsic arrhythmogenic potential of ET-1.

Objective: The human ether-a-go-go-related gene (hERG) encodes the rapid component of the cardiac repolarizing delayed rectifier potassium current, IKr. The direct interaction of the commonly used protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor bisindolylmaleimide I (BIM I) with hERG, KvLQT1/minK, and IKr currents was investigated in this study. Methods: hERG and KvLQT1/minK channels were heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, and currents were measured using the two-microelectrode voltage clamp technique. In addition, hERG currents in stably transfected human embryonic kidney (HEK 293) cells, native IKr currents and action potentials in isolated guinea pig ventricular cardiomyocytes were recorded using whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology. Results: Bisindolylmaleimide I blocked hERG currents in HEK 293 cells and Xenopus oocytes in a concentration-dependent manner with IC50 values of 1.0 and 13.2 AM, respectively. hERG channels were primarily blocked in the open state in a frequency-independent manner. Analysis of the voltage-dependence of block revealed a reduction of inhibition at positive membrane potentials. BIM I caused a shift of 20.3 mV in the voltage-dependence of inactivation. The point mutations tyrosine 652 alanine (Y652A) and phenylalanine 656 alanine (F656A) attenuated hERG current blockade, indicating that BIM I binds to a common drug receptor within the pore region. KvLQT1/minK currents were not significantly altered by BIM I. Finally, 1 AM BIM I reduced native IKr currents by 69.2% and lead to action potential prolongation. Conclusion: In summary, PKC-independent effects have to be carefully considered when using BIM I as PKC inhibitor in experimental models involving hERG channels and IKr currents.

Nadine Vonderlin,1 Fathima Fischer,1 Edgar Zitron,1,2 Claudia Seyler,1 Daniel Scherer,1 Dierk Thomas,1,2 Hugo A Katus,1,2 Eberhard P Scholz1 1Department of Internal Medicine III, University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany; 2German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Heidelberg/Mannheim, Heidelberg, GermanyAbstract: Midazolam is a short-acting benzodiazepine that is widely used in anesthesia. Despite its widespread clinical use, detailed information about cardiac side effects of midazolam is largely lacking. Using the double-electrode voltage clamp technique, we studied pharmacological effects of midazolam on heterologously expressed Kv1.5 channels underlying atrial repolarizing current IKur. Midazolam dose-dependently inhibited Kv1.5 current, yielding an IC50 of 17 µM in an HEK cell line and an IC50 of 104 µM in Xenopus oocytes. We further showed that midazolam did not affect the half-maximal activation voltage of Kv1.5 channels. However, a small negative shift of the inactivation curve could be observed. Midazolam acted as a typical open-channel inhibitor with rapid onset of block and without frequency dependence of block. Taken together, midazolam is an open channel inhibitor of cardiac Kv1.5 channels. These data add to the current understanding of the pharmacological profile of midazolam.Keywords: anesthetics, potassium channels, pharmacology

Background: Cardiac inwardly rectifying IK1 current drives terminal repolarisation. Inhibition of IK1 current can suppress re-entry based arrhythmias and has been demonstrated to exert anti-fibrillatory effects. Human IK1 current is mainly formed by heterotetrameric assembly of three subunits: Kir2.1, Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels. Amiodarone and dronedarone have been shown to inhibit cardiac IK1 current, but the molecular basis of these effects has not been elucidated to date. Methods: Human Kir2.1 - Kir2.3 channels were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and current recordings were performed using the double-electrode voltage-clamp technique. Results: Amiodarone and dronedarone exerted differential inhibitory effects on Kir2.1, Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels, respectively. Both drugs inhibited only Kir2.1 channels without an effect on Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels. We analyzed effects of dronedarone in detail. Onset of inhibition was slow, but the effect was completely reversible upon washout. Biophysical current characteristics such as inwardly-rectifying properties and reversal potential of Kir2.1 currents were not modified. The inhibitory effect did not exhibit frequency dependence. Interestingly, dronedarone inhibited Kir2.1 currents mainly at negative potentials. Conclusions: Amiodarone and dronedarone both inhibit only Kir2.1 channels without affecting Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels. In view of the functional significance of Kir2.1 channels, this effect probably underlies the observed inhibition of IK1 current by both compounds and may contribute to their anti-fibrillatory efficacy.

Background: The cardiac inwardly rectifying potassium current IK1 stabilises the diastolic resting membrane potential of ventricular cardiomyocytes. Protein kinase A (PKA) induces an inhibition of IK1 current which strongly promotes focal arrhythmogenesis under increased catecholamine levels. The molecular mechanisms underlying this regulation have only partially been elucidated to date. Furthermore, the role of A Kinase Anchoring Proteins (AKAPs) in this regulation has not been examined yet. The objective of this project was to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying the inhibition of IK1 by PKA and to identify novel molecular targets for antiarrhythmic therapy downstream β-adrenoreceptors. Methods: Cardiac IK1 current was measured in isolated rat ventricular cardiomyocytes using whole-cell patch clamp. Kir2.x channels and AKAPs were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and current recordings were performed using the double-electrode voltage-clamp technique. Association of channels and AKAPs was examined with the use of co-immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescent confocal microscopy in isolated cardiomyocytes and in mammalian cell lines. Results: In patch clamp experiments, activation of PKA inhibited IK1 current in rat ventricular cardiomyocytes. This regulation was markedly attenuated by disrupting PKA-binding to AKAPs with the peptide inhibitor AKAP-IS. In expression systems, we observed functional and spatial coupling of the plasma membrane-associated AKAP15/18 and AKAP79 to Kir2.1 and Kir2.2 channel subunits, but not to Kir2.3 channels, which underly IK1 currents. In contrast, AKAPyotiao had no functional effect on the PKA regulation of Kir channels. AKAP15/18 and AKAP79 co-immunoprecipitated with and co-localized to Kir2.1 and Kir2.2 channel subunits in ventricular cardiomyocytes. Conclusions: In this study, we provide evidence for the functional and spatial coupling of cardiac Kir2.1 and Kir2.2 subunits as molecular components of IK1 current with the plasma membrane-bound AKAPs 15/18 and 79. Cardiac membrane-associated AKAPs are a functionally essential part of the regulatory cascade determining IK1 current function and may be novel molecular targets for antiarrhythmic therapy downstream from β-adrenoreceptors.

Background: Inwardly rectifying potassium current IK1 stabilizes the diastolic resting membrane potential. On the molecular level it is composed by heterotetrameric assembly of Kir2.1, Kir2.2 and Kir2.3 channels. Dysfunction of IK1 current strongly predisposes to focal ventricular ectopy. Protein kinase A (PKA) is a key enzyme in adrenergic signal transduction that is involved in catecholaminergic arrhythmogenesis. Targeted protein phosphorylation through PKA is mediated by A Kinase Anchoring Proteins (AKAPs). To date, however, only little is known about the AKAPs that are of functional relevance for the regulation of cardiac IK1 potassium current. Methods: Cardiac IK1 current was measured in isolated rat ventricular cardiomyocytes using whole-cell patch clamp. Kir2.x channels and AKAPs were expressed in Xenopus oocytes and current recordings were performed using the double-electrode voltage-clamp technique. Association of channels and AKAPs was examined with the use of co-immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescent confocal microscopy in isolated cardiomyocytes and in mammalian cell lines. Results: IK1 current in isolated rat ventricular cardiomyocytes was inhibited by activation of protein kinase A. This regulation was markedly attenuated by disrupting PKA-binding to AKAPs with the peptide Ht31 in the expression system. We observed functional coupling of AKAP15 and AKAP79 to Kir2.1 and Kir2.2 channels, but not to Kir2.3 channels. Kir2.1 channels were only sensitive to PKA regulation if membrane-associated AKAPs were co-expressed. Kir2.2 channels exhibited the strongest sensitivity to PKA regulation that was even further increased after co-expression of AKAPs. By contrast, Kir2.3 channels were insensitive to PKA regulation even after co- expression of AKAPs. When co-expressing the AKAP-IS related inhibitor peptide Ht31 together with AKAPs and Kir2.1 and Kir2.2 channels, PKA- dependent effects were almost completely suppressed. Both AKAP79 and AKAP15 co-immunoprecipitate and co-localize with Kir2.1 and Kir2.2 in cardiomyocytes indicating co-assembly in membrane-bound signalling complexes. Conclusion: In this project, we provide evidence for the functional and biochemical coupling of cardiac Kir2.1 and Kir2.2 channels to the membrane-associated anchoring proteins AKAP15 and AKAP79. Membrane-associated AKAPs may provide novel molecular targets for antiarrhythmic therapy downstream from the cardiac beta1-adrenoreceptor.

Estabeleceu-se um sistema rápido para regeneração de plantas a partir de protoplastos derivados de calos primários de dois cultivares de arroz brasileiros, IAC-165 e IAC-201. Após uma série de experimentos em indução de calos, foi possível produzir uma quantidade suficiente de calos embriogênicos derivados de semente nos meios B5 (GAMBORG et al, 1968) e N6 (CHU, 1978) suplementados com 2 e 4 mg/l de 2,4-D, acrescidos de 576 e 288 mg/l de L-prolina para os cultivares IAC-165 e IAC-201, respectivamente. Os calos embriogênicos primários derivados de sementes foram utilizados para isolamento direto de protoplastos ou para o início de suspensões celulares. Linhagens de células em suspensão foram estabelecidas para ambos cultivares sendo capazes de produzir uma grande quantidade de protoplastos em 4 a 6 meses. Os protoplastos derivados de calos induzidos a partir de sementes foram plaqueados em blocos de agarose e formaram colônias embriogênicas, visíveis ao olho nu, em 15 a 16 dias após o plaqueamento. Este tipo de colônia formou pequenos calos que foram plaqueados em meio de regeneração. Mais de 100 plantas foram regeneradas, sendo 22,2%. O presente sistema possibilitará fazer-se transformação genética em não mais do que 120 dias. Isto torna o sistema mais rápido do que o sistema tradicional de obtenção de protoplastos derivados de suspensões celulares e, devido a isto, torna-o competitivo com a biolística. Existem somente dois trabalhos que relatam a regeneração de plantas a partir de protoplastos derivados de calos primários, ambos usaram calos embriogênicos induzidos a partir de embriões imaturos. O presente trabalho relata, pela primeira vez, a regeneração de plantas de cultivares de arroz brasileiros utilizando sementes para a indução de calos. not available

INHIBITION OF HETEROMERIC KIR2.X CHANNELS BY ALPHA1A ADRENERGIC RECEPTORS: CRUCIAL ROLE OF PROTEIN KINASE C DEPENDENT REGULATION OF KIR2.3 SUBUNITS Claudia Kiesecker, MS, Edgar Zitron, Daniel Scherer, Sonja Lueck, Ramona Bloehs, Eberhard P. Scholz, Sven Kathofer, MD, Dierk Thomas, MD, Volker A. Kreye, MD, Johann Kiehn, MD, Wolfgang Schols, MD, Hugo A. Katus, MD and Christoph A. Karle, MD. Medical University Hospital Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany and University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.

Orientador: Michel Georges Albert Vincentz Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia Resumo: O resumo poderá ser visualizado no texto completo da tese digital Abstract: The abstract is available with the full electronic document Doutorado Genética Vegetal e Melhoramento Doutora em Genética e Biologia Molecular

Orientador: Michel Georges Albert Vincentz Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia Resumo: A manutenção do balanço energético em plantas é de crucial importância para a otimização de seu crescimento e desenvolvimento em resposta às condições sempre flutuantes do meio. A energia obtida através da fotossíntese deve ser utilizada parcimoniosamente e dividida entre crescimento, desenvolvimento, armazenamento e respostas a estresses bióticos e abióticos. Entender como a energia é canalizada para cada um destes processos e como os diversos sinais ambientais e metabólicos são integrados é de vital importância para a compreensão dos mecanismos que permitem o sucesso reprodutivo das plantas mesmo frente a condições ambientais adversas. Os fatores reguladores de transcrição desempenham um papel importante como pontos de convergência de vias de sinalização distintas e regulam a expressão dos conjuntos de genes mais adequados para cada combinação de sinais, permitindo uma resposta equilibrada diante de desafios muitas vezes concomitantes. Neste trabalho, mostramos que o fator de transcrição de Arabidopsis thaliana AtbZIP63, o qual pertence a família bZIP e é um mediador das respostas a carência energética induzidas pela quinase KIN10, é reprimido a curto prazo (2h e 4h) pela hexose glicose e o hormônio ácido abscíssico (ABA). A repressão da expressão de AtbZIP63 por 2% de glicose é independente da atividade sensora de glicose da enzima Hexokinase 1 (HXK1) e não envolve mudanças nos níveis endógenos de ABA, um mediador das respostas a glicose. No entanto, o ABA é capaz de modular a amplitude da resposta de AtbZIP63 a glicose. ABA e glicose interagem de maneira sinérgica para repressão da expressão de AtbZIP63 e esta interação envolve mecanismos de regulação pós-transcricionais. Análises em escala genômica de diferenças de perfis transcricionais entre mutantes para AtbZIP63 e seus respectivos genótipos selvagens foram desenvolvidas para identificar os genes alvos de AtbZIP63 e definir a rede de regulação da qual AtbZIP63 participa. A classificação funcional dos 280 e 348 genes desregulados nos mutantes por inserção de T-DNA atbzip63-1 e atbzip63-2, respectivamente, sugere que AtbZIP63 está envolvido na regulação de genes relacionados as respostas à carência energética, síntese e resposta a hormônios, estresses abióticos e bióticos e ciclo circadiano, provavelmente modulando o uso equilibrado de energia em resposta aos desafios ambientais. Baseado na observação de que os mutantes para AtbZIP63 apresentam diversos genes relacionados a respostas contra estresses bióticos, avaliamos a resposta dos mutantes atbzip63-1 e atbzip63-2 a patógenos usando o patossistema Arabidopsis-Pseudomonas O mutante atbzip63-1 é mais resistente a infecção com o fitopatógeno Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000, mostrando seu envolvimento nas respostas a estresse biótico. O mutante atbzip63-2 apresenta atraso de crescimento quando cultivado em condições limitantes de energia, sugerindo sua participação também no crescimento/desenvolvimento de Arabidopsis nestas condições. A busca de proteínas interatoras de AtbZIP63 utilizando o sistema de duplo híbrido em levedura (Y2H) revelou genes relacionados a degradação de proteínas sugerindo que controle da estabilidade da proteína de AtbZIP63. Em conjunto, os resultados apresentados neste trabalho sugerem que AtbZIP63 é um nó de integração entre diferentes vias de sinalização para modular o crescimento e desenvolvimento de Arabidopsis de acordo com diversos sinais ambientais Abstract: The maintenance of energy balance in plants is crucial to optimize their growth and development in response to ever changing environment. The energy obtained through photosynthesis must be used sparingly and divided between growth, development, storage, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Understand how energy is channeled to each of these processes and how the environmental and metabolic signals are integrated have a vital importance to understanding the mechanisms by which plants reach the reproductive success even in adverse environmental conditions. Transcription factors play an important role as convergence points of several signaling pathways and regulate the expression of sets of genes most appropriate for each signal combination. We show that the transcription factor AtbZIP63 from Arabidopsis thaliana, which belongs to the bZIP family and mediates partially the response to energy deprivation induced by kinase KIN10, is repressed in short-term treatments (2h and 4h) with glucose and hormone absicisic acid (ABA). The repression of AtbZIP63 by 2% glucose is independent of the glucose sensing activity of the enzyme Hexokinase 1 (HXK1) and does not involve changes in endogenous ABA levels, a mediator of glucose responses. However, ABA modulates the amplitude of AtbZIP63 responses to glucose. ABA and glucose interact synergistically to repress AtbZIP63 mRNA accumulation and that this interaction involves post-transcriptional mechanisms. Genomic scale transcriptional profile comparison between AtbZIP63 mutants and their respective wild-type genotypes have been developed to identify target genes and the regulatory context which AtbZIP63 is involved. The functional classification of 280 and 348 misregulated genes in T-DNA insertion mutants atbzip63-1 and atbzip63-2, respectively, suggests that AtbZIP63 regulates genes involved in responses to energy starvation, synthesis and hormone response, biotic and abiotic stress, and circadian clock, probably by modulating the energy usage in response to environmental challenges. Based on the observation that the AtbZIP63 mutants have several misregulated genes related to responses to biotic stress, we evaluated the response of atbzip63-1 and atbzip63-2 to pathogens using the Arabidopsis-Pseudomonas pathosystem. The atbzip63-1 mutant is more resistant to infection with the pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato DC3000, showing their involvement in responses to biotic stress. The atbzip63-2 mutant has arrested growth in energy-limiting conditions, also suggesting its participation in the growth / development of Arabidopsis under these conditions. A searching for interacting proteins of AtbZIP63 using Yeast Two-Hybrid (Y2H) system revealed proteins related to protein degradation and suggests stability control of AtbZIP63 protein. Together, the results presented here suggest that AtbZIP63 is an integration node of different signaling pathways and modulates growth and development of Arabidopsis under different environmental conditions Doutorado Genética Vegetal e Melhoramento Doutor em Genética e Biologia Molecular

As plantas evoluíram diversos mecanismos de sensoriamento para identificar mudanças no ambiente e de sinalização para melhor responder aos estresses que as afetam. Estresses abióticos em plantas são responsáveis por reduzir a produtividade, o crescimento e promover diversas alterações fisiológicas e bioquímicas. O estresse ao frio se destaca principalmente em regiões temperadas assim como regiões de elevada altitude, limitando geograficamente a distribuição de culturas. A cana-de-açúcar é uma espécie de grande importância econômica para a produção de açúcar e etanol, é cultivada nas regiões tropicais e subtropicais. Baixas temperaturas atuam sobre a maturidade e, consequentemente, sobre a produtividade da cana-de-açúcar, logo torna-se relevante estudar fatores responsivos a este estresse na cultura. Fatores de transcrição C-repeats/Dehydration responsive element binding factors 1 (CBFs/DREB1s), são considerados chaves para a resposta de estresse ao frio, atuam na regulação de diversos genes COR (cold regulated genes). Estes fatores ainda não estão identificados na cana-de-açúcar. Logo, objetiva-se neste trabalho identificar e caracterizar genes CBFs na cana-de-açúcar (SP80-3280) por meio do seu isolamento e sequenciamento; da análise de expressão frente ao frio (8°C) e ao congelamento (-2°C), como também à exposição ao tratamento de ABA (100 mM), solução salina (200 mM NaCl) e de manitol (200 mM); do alinhamento e comparação com homólogos de demais espécies; e do estudo de sua região promotora predita. Neste estudo, encontrou-se quatro genes do tipo CBF, são estes SoCBF1-4. As sequências de aminoácidos de SoCBF1-2 demonstram pouca similaridade com SoCBF3-4, e se encontram em polos distintos na árvore filogenética. Todos apresentaram expressão induzida tanto ao frio quanto ao congelamento, com padrões distintos frente ao tempo de exposição. Em contraste, todos apresentaram inibição em tratamentos com ABA e manitol. SoCBF2 e 4 tiveram expressões impulsionadas em tratamento salino. O padrão de expressão de SoCBFs foi analisado pela caracterização de sua região promotora, onde encontrou-se sítios de ligação CM2, MYB, ABRE, MYC, GCCC-box e CArG-box. Este trabalho é um passo importante para projetos futuros a respeito da maturação e produtividade frente a estresses por baixas temperaturas sobre a cana-de-açúcar em uma perspectiva molecular. The plants have evolved mechanisms of sensing to identify environmental changes, and of signaling to better respond to stresses. Abiotic stresses are responsible to reduce their productivity and growth and promoting various physiological and biochemical alterations. The low-temperature stress stands out in temperate and/or high-altitude regions, limiting the geographical distribution of crops. Sugarcane is a crop of high economic relevance cultivated in tropical and subtropical areas for sugar and ethanol productions. The low temperature acts upon the sugarcane maturity and consequently upon its productivity, therefore, it becomes relevant to study the transcription factors responsive to the stress in this crop. The C-repeats/Dehydration responsive element binding factors 1 (CBFs/DREB1s) are key transcription factors in response to low temperatures, regulating genes COR (cold regulated genes). These transcription factors are not yet identified on sugarcane. Therefore, this work had the objective to identify and characterize genes CBFs in sugarcane by their isolation and sequencing; by the analysis of their expression facing cold stress (8°C) and freezing stress (-2°C), facing treatments of abscisic acid (100 mM ABA), salt (200 mM NaCl) and mannitol (200 mM); by their alignment and comparison with homologs from other species; and last by the study of their predicted promoter region. Here, four CBFs genes were found, SoCBF1-4. The amino acid sequences of SoCBF1-2 present low similarity with SoCBF3-4, thus located in opposite poles of the phylogenetic tree. All of them presented promotion of expression facing both cold and chilling stress with different patterns according to the exposure time. In contrast, they all had repressed expression facing ABA and mannitol treatments. SoCBF2 e 4 expressions were promoted in salt treatments. The expression patterns of SoCBFs are explained by their predicted promoter region where were found CM2, GCCC-box, CArG-box MYB, MYC, and ABRE binding sites. This work is an important step for future projects about the influence of low temperatures upon sugarcane maturation and productivity under low-temperature stresses from a molecular perspective.

Glandular trichomes are epidermal appendages capable of producing, storing, and releasing metabolites of economic and ecological importance that, among other functions, have a fundamental role in plant defense. The developmental path of these trichomes remains unclear since most of the studies involve the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, in which multicellular trichomes are absent. The genus Solanum has a great diversity of trichomes, especially glandular types (I, IV, VI, and VII). Wild species such as S. galapagense and S. pennellii are sources of genetic resources for tomato (S. lycopersicum) because they have natural genetic variations that provide them with greater resistance to herbivore attacks. Among these variations, there is the presence of type-IV glandular trichomes, a source of acylsugar (AS), a multifunctional substance in the herbivores control. In this work, we sought to elucidate the genetic bases that control the development of type-IV glandular trichomes, in addition to understand the relationship of this structure with herbivory resistance. For this, two introgression lines were created in which the ability of both S. galapagense and S. pennellii to develop type-IV trichomes was introgressed into the cv. Micro-Tom. In the first chapter, we explored the Galapagos enhanced trichomes (MT-Get) line, which was produced from a crossing with S. galapagense. Although the lineage had a high density of type-IV trichomes, the plants remained susceptible to whitefly (Bemisia tabaci). Analysis of GC-MS, LC-MS, and gene expression showed that the presence of type-IV trichomes was not enough for AS high production. Furthermore, MT-Get mapping-by-sequencing revealed that five chromosomal regions containing S. galapagense alleles are associated with this phenotype. Thus, these results provide the basis for understanding the development of glandular trichomes, showing their polygenic nature in S. galapagense. Besides, they also subsidize the creation of insect-resistant tomatoes from varieties with a high density of type-IV trichomes, to be later complemented by pyramidization with the metabolic pathways associated with AS production. In the second chapter, the line Pennelli enhanced trichomes (MT-Pet) was obtained. In it, a single chromosomal region of S. pennellii is related to the presence of type-IV trichomes. The plants did not show any pleiotropic traits linked to the presence of type-IV trichomes, but GC-MS analyses and Rhodamine-B assay revealed a lack of AS. Although the type-IV trichome density in MT-Pet is much lower than in MT-Get, the monogenic trait of MT-Pet may facilitate the isolation of a critical ontogenic gene, thus helping to unravel the genetic basis for the formation of glandular trichomes, a development path that is still virtually unknown. Os tricomas glandulares são apêndices epidérmicos capazes de produzir, estocar e liberar metabólitos de importância econômica e ecológica que, dentre outras funções, têm papel fundamental na defesa das plantas. A via de desenvolvimento desses tricomas ainda permanece obscura, uma vez que a maior parte dos estudos desenvolvidos envolve a planta modelo Arabidopsis thaliana, na qual os tricomas multicelulares são ausentes. O gênero Solanum possui uma grande diversidade de tipos de tricomas, em especial os glandulares (tipos I, IV, VI e VII). Espécies selvagens como S. galapagense e S. pennellii são fontes de recursos genéticos para o tomateiro (S. lycopersicum) por possuírem variações genéticas naturais que lhes conferem maior resistência ao ataque de herbívoros. Dentre essas variações, está a presença de tricomas glandulares do tipo IV, sendo eles fontes do aleloquímico acilaçúcar (AS), uma substância multifuncional no controle de herbívoros. No presente trabalho, avançou-se na elucidação das bases genéticas que controlam o desenvolvimento dos tricomas tipo IV, além de entender a relação dessa estrutura com a resistência a herbívoros. Para isso, criou-se duas linhas de introgressão nas quais a capacidade de desenvolver tricomas IV tanto de S. galapagense quanto de S. pennelli foi introgredida na cv. Micro-Tom. No primeiro capítulo, encontram-se os resultados da linhagem Galapagos enhanced trichomes (MT-Get), produzida a partir do cruzamento com S. galapagense. Embora, a linhagem tenha apresentado alta densidade de tricomas do tipo IV, as plantas continuaram suscetíveis à mosca branca (Bemisia tabaci). As análises de GC-MS, LC-MS e expressão gênica demonstraram que a presença de tricomas IV não é suficiente para alta produção de AS. Além disso, o mapeamento por sequenciamento de MT-Get revelou que cinco regiões cromossômicas contendo alelos de S. galapagense estão associadas ao fenótipo apresentado. Assim, esses resultados fornecem a base para a compreensão do desenvolvimento de tricomas glandulares, mostrando seu caráter poligênico em S. galapagense. Além disso, os resultados subsidiam a obtenção de tomateiros resistentes a insetos a partir de variedades com alta densidade de tricomas IV, a serem posteriormente complementada pela piramidação das vias metabólicas associadas à produção de AS. No segundo capítulo, a linhagem Pennelli enhanced trichomes (MT-Pet) foi obtida e analisada. Nela, uma única região cromossômica de S. pennellii está relacionada com a presença de tricomas IV. As plantas não apresentaram caracteres pleiotrópicos ligados à presença do tricoma IV e as análises de GC-MS e ensaio de Rodamina-B apontam uma ausência de AS. Embora a quantidade de tricomas IV seja bem menor que em Get, o caráter monogênico de Pet poderá facilitar o isolamento de um dos principais genes envolvidos no desenvolvimento dessa estrutura, assim contribuindo para desvendar a base genética da formação de tricomas glandulares, um via de desenvolvimento ainda praticamente desconhecida.

Após a descoberta do primeiro peptídeo hormonal em 1991, uma nova família de moléculas de origem proteica, com características hormonais e que atuam na comunicação intracelular regulando crescimento, desenvolvimento, defesa e reprodução, vem sendo estudada em plantas. Após a descoberta das sisteminas em tabaco, foi isolada uma proteína com 5kDa que induz uma rápida alcalinização no meio de cultivo de células em suspensão. Este peptídeo, denominado RALF (Rapid ALkalinization Factor), é ubíquo no reino vegetal e na planta modelo Arabidopsis forma uma família de 37 isoformas (AtRALFs). O peptídeo AtRALF1 regula, negativamente, a expansão celular, atuando de forma antagônica aos brassinosteróides (BRs). Durante a busca por proteínas que interagissem com o AtRALF1, foi identificada a proteína de ligação a esteróide de membrana MSBP1 (MEMBRANE STEROID BINDING PROTEIN-1). A MSBP1 também atua como reguladora negativa da expansão celular e da sinalização de BRs. Este trabalho teve como objetivo a elucidação do papel da MSBP1 nas respostas mediadas por AtRALF1. Para tanto, buscou-se através de ferramentas genéticas e bioquímicas, um melhor entendimento da relação entre estas proteínas. No sistema de duplo híbrido de levedura, MSBP1 interage com AtRALF1, BAK1 e CML38, enquanto que BAK1 interage com AtRALF1, mas não interage com CML38. No mesmo sistema o peptídeo AtRALF1 interage com todas as proteínas, podendo então ser um ligante chave dessas interações, sugerindo a formação de um complexo. Plantas com baixa expressão de MSBP1 (irmsbp1) são, parcialmente, insensíveis ao peptídeo AtRALF1 e exibem raízes mais longas e células da endoderme maiores que as de plantas selvagens (Wt). Plantas com alta expressão de MSBP1 (35S:MSBP1) exibem raízes curtas e células da endoderme menores que as de plantas Wt. Resultados de expressão gênica em mutantes mostram que MSBP1 é essencial para a indução de genes responsivos ao peptídeo, que AtRALF1 induz a expressão do gene MSBP1 e que BAK1 é essencial para a indução de MSBP1 por AtRALF1. Os mutantes irmsbp1 mostraram uma alcalinização do meio quando tratados com AtRALF1, sugerindo que MSBP1 não é necessária para esta atividade. Com base nos resultados obtidos, conclui-se que a proteína MSBP1 interage com o peptídeo AtRALF1, está envolvida na percepção do peptídeo, é essencial para a inibição do crescimento da raiz primária causada pelo AtRALF1 e para a indução dos genes responsivos ao AtRALF1. After the discovery of the first hormonal peptide in 1991, a new family of peptide with hormonal characteristics and that act in the intracellular communication regulating growth, development, defense and reproduction, has been studied in plants. After the discovery of the sistemins in tobacco, a protein with 5kDa was isolated that induces a quick alkalinization in the culture medium of cells in suspension. This peptide, called RALF (Rapid AL kalinization Factor), is ubiquitous in the plant kingdom and in the model plant arabidopsis forms a family of 37 isoforms (AtRALFs). The AtRALF1 peptide negatively regulates cell expansion, acting in an antagonistic way to the brassinosteroids (BRs). During the search for proteins that interacted with AtRALF1, the membrane steroid binding protein MSBP1 (MEMBRANE STEROID BINDING PROTEIN-1) was identified. MSBP1 also acts as a negative regulator of cellular expansion and BRs signaling. This work aimed to elucidate the role of MSBP1 in the responses mediated by AtRALF1. In order to do so, a better understanding of the relationship between these proteins was sought through genetic and biochemical tools. In two-hybrid system, MSBP1 interacts with AtRALF1, BAK1 and CML38, whereas BAK1 interacts with AtRALF1, but does not interact with CML38. In the same system the AtRALF1 peptide interacts with all the proteins, being able to be a key ligand of these interactions, suggesting the formation of a complex. Plants with low expression of MSBP1 (irmsbp1) are partially insensitive to the AtRALF1 peptide and exhibit longer roots and endodermal cells larger than those of wild-type plants. Plants with high expression of MSBP1 (35S:MSBP1) exhibit short roots and endodermal cells smaller than those of Wt plants. Results of gene expression in mutants show that MSBP1 is essential for the induction of peptide responsive genes, that AtRALF1 induces MSBP1 gene expression and that BAK1 is essential for the induction of MSBP1 by AtRALF1. The irmsbp1 mutants did show an alkalinization of the medium when treated with AtRALF1, suggesting that MSBP1 is not required for this activity. Based on the results obtained, it is concluded that the MSBP1 protein interacts with the peptide AtRALF1, is involved in the perception of the peptide, is essential for the inhibition of primary root growth caused by AtRALF1 and for the induction of genes responsive to AtRALF1.

As reações luminosas da fotossíntese em plantas envolvem quatro complexos proteicos multi-unidades na membrana dos tilacóides incluindo o fotossistema II (PSII), o complexo citocromo b6f, o fotossistema I (PSI) e o complexo ATP sintase. Uma atividade apropriada desse processo exige um mecanismo de controle de qualidade mediado por chaperonas, DnaJs e proteases, como o complexo FtsH. Esse conjunto de proteínas garantem um dobramento correto de proteínas, as montagens devidas dos complexos e a degradação de algumas subunidades danificadas quando necessário. Neste trabalho nós mostramos o envolvimento de FIP, uma proteína com um domínio dedo-de-zinco localizada nos tilacóides de cloroplastos de A. thaliana, no mecanismo de resposta à estresses abióticos. Plantas mutantes fip foram, fenotipicamente, mais tolerantes à estresses abióticos de alta luminosidade, elevado potencial osmótico e excesso de sal. Também mostramos que a expressão de FIP é diminuída em resposta às diferentes condições de estresse, assim como o acúmulo de transcritos de genes relacionados à estresse foi menor nas plantas mutantes fip. Análises por immunoblot mostraram que os mutantes fip acumulam menos proteínas PsaA e PsaB do fotossistema I e plastocianina (PC) do que as plantas selvagens, no entanto não são afetados quanto ao acúmulo de proteínas do fotossistema II e do Complexo do Citocromo b6f sob condições controle. Esses mutantes também acumulam menos FtsH5 nos tilacóides, sem afetar a eficiência dos fotossistemas I e II. Foi testado também o potencial redutase do domínio dedo-de-zinco da proteína recombinante FIP (6xHis-FIP) em ensaios in vitro de redução de insulina. Vimos que FIP apresenta atividade redutase, significantemente, maior que o controle negativo nas condições testadas. Considerando todos os resultados obtidos até o momento, acreditamos que FIP possa estar agindo como uma redutase na membrana dos tilacóides, tendo como alvos não somente FtsH5, mas também outras proteínas com resíduos de cisteína nas suas estruturas, e que sua atividade tem influência no acúmulo de proteínas dependentes de redução para a maturação como PsaA, PsaB e PC. Uma investigação mais aprofundada da atividade de FIP nos cloroplastos ainda é necessária para o completo entendimento da sua função. The light-driven photosynthetic reactions in plants take place within four multi- subunit protein complexes in the thylakoid membranes, including photosystem II (PSII), the cytochrome b6f complex, photosystem I (PSI) and the ATP synthase complex. Regulation of all these molecular machineries requires a fine-tuning control mechanism mediated by specific proteins, including chaperones, DnaJs, and proteases, such as the FtsH complex. These set of proteins guarantee the proper folding, assembly and degradation of the photosynthetic complexes\' subunits. In this work we showed the involvement of FIP, a zinc-finger protein localized in the thylakoid membranes in A. thaliana, in the abiotic stress response mechanism. Mutants fip knockdown plants were phenotypically more tolerant to abiotic stresses like high light, increased osmotic potential and salt excess. We also showed that FIP is down-regulated by different abiotic stresses, with lower levels of stress-related gene transcripts accumulation in mutant fip plants. Analysis of accumulation of photosynthetic proteins by immunoblot under control conditions showed that mutants fip displayed lower levels of PsaA, PsaB (PSI) and Plastocyanin (PC) proteins than wild-type plants, however are not affected for PSII and Cyt b6f proteins accumulation under the same growth conditions. In addition, the mutants accumulated slightly less FtsH5 proteins in thylakoid membranes, without affecting PSII and PSI efficiency. We tested the putative reductase activity probably mediated by FIP zinc-finger domain, using the recombinant form of the protein 6xHis-FIP in in vitro insulin reduction assays. FIP presented a reductase activity higher than the negative control under the same assay conditions. Taking all together, these results suggest that FIP may be acting as a reductase in the thylakoid membranes, having as targets not only FtsH5 but other targets with available cysteine residues, depending on the reduction step for proper accumulation such as PsaA, PsaB and PC. Further investigations regarding the role of FIP in chloroplasts are still necessary to completely understand its function.

Em cana-de-açúcar, a colonização do caule por fungos oportunistas, como Fusarium verticillioides e Colletotrichum falcatum, está diretamente ligada ao ataque da lagarta Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae). Duas proteínas, SUGARWIN1 e SUGARWIN2 são produzidas em cana-de-açúcar, em resposta ao dano mecânico e ao ataque de D. saccharalis, porém estas proteínas não afetam o inseto, e sim ocasionam alterações fisiológicas e morfológicas em F. verticillioides e C. falcatum, ocasionando a morte destes fungos por apoptose. Dietas artificiais suplementadas com estes fungos oportunistas ocasionaram o ganho de peso da D. saccharalis. Esses dados indicam uma interação mais íntima entre o inseto e estes patógenos de cana, sendo que, neste estudo procuramos identificar relações simbióticas entre os indivíduos, analisando se a forma de transmissão desses fungos é mediado pela D. saccharalis. Os resultados mostraram a presença do F. verticillioides em todas as fases de desenvolvimento da D. saccharalis após contato com o fungo, ou seja, depois de se alimentarem em dieta suplementada por F. verticillioides no 4º instar, permaneceram infectadas pelo fungo ao longo de toda a fase pupal e adulta, em ambos os sexos. Além disso, o F. verticillioides foi transmitido para os descendentes de D. saccharalis, sendo que o fungo foi detectado nos ovos, ou seja, um caso original de transmissão vertical. Por meio de microscopia, também foi possível verificar a alta intensidade de F. verticillioides no interior do intestino de lagartas. Estes dados inferem em uma relação simbiótica entre F. verticillioides e D. saccharalis, onde o simbionte é transferido verticalmente para as gerações subsequentes. As respostas obtidas com o fungo C. falcatum diferiram daquelas obtidas com F. verticillioides, uma vez que não se detectou a presença do fungo a partir da fase pupal. Neste caso, a relação de simbiose entre o fungo e o inseto pode resultar em uma transmissão horizontal. Com este estudo foi possível identificar diferentes formas de transmissão por D. saccharalis para dois fungos envolvidos em podridão de colmo em cana-de-açúcar. Estes dados mudam a forma como é vista a transmissão de F. verticillioides por D. saccharalis em cana-de-açúcar, podendo influenciar a forma de manejo da podridão de Fusarium e da broca nos canaviais. In sugarcane, stem colonization by opportunistic fungi, such as Fusarium verticillioides and Colletotrichum falcatum, is directly linked to the attack of Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) caterpillar. Two proteins, SUGARWIN1 and SUGARWIN2 are produced in sugarcane, in response to mechanical damage and attack of D. saccharalis, however these proteins do not affect the insect, but cause physiological and morphological changes in F. verticillioides and C. falcatum, causing the death of these fungi by apoptosis. Artificial diets supplemented with these opportunistic fungi caused the weight gain of D. saccharalis. These data indicate a more intimate interaction between the insect and the sugarcane pathogens. In this study, we sought to identify symbiotic relationship among individuals, analyzing whether the transmission of these fungi is mediated by D. saccharalis. The results showed the presence of F. verticillioides in all stages of D. saccharalis development after contact with the fungus, in the 4th instar. The caterpillars remained infect by the fungus throughout the pupal and adult phase, in both sexes. In addition, F. verticillioides was transmitted to D. saccharalis offspring, being detected in eggs, an original case of vertical transmission. Through the microscopy results, it was also possible to verify the high intensity of F. verticillioides inside the intestines of caterpillar. These data infer in a symbiotic relationship between F. verticillioides and D. saccharalis, where the symbiont is transferred vertically to the offspring. The responses obtained with C. falcatum differed from those obtained with F. verticillioides, since the presence of the fungus was not detected from the pupal phase. In this case, the symbiont relationship between fungus and insect can result in a horizontal transmission. With this study was possible to identify different forms of fungi transmission by D. saccharalis. These data change the way the transmission of F. verticillioides by D. saccharalis in sugarcane is viewed, and may influence the management of Fusarium rot and sugarcane borer attack in sugarcane.

A \"vassoura-de-bruxa\" é uma importante doença que acomete o cacaueiro, limitando a produção de cacau na América do Sul. O basidiomiceto Moniliophthora perniciosa, agente etiológico da doença, apresenta estilo de vida hemibiotrófico, causando sintomas de inchamento e indução de brotações laterais nos ramos infectados. O tomateiro (Solanum lycopersicum) cv. \'Micro-Tom\' (MT) demonstrou ser um modelo genético adequado para o estudo da interação com o biótipo-S de M. perniciosa, exibindo sintomas característicos da infecção. Considerando-se a escassez de conhecimentos referentes aos mecanismos bioquímicos e fisiológicos da patogênese de M. perniciosa, este estudo visou investigar as alterações fisiológicas e metabólicas durante a infecção por M. perniciosa em MT. A infecção induziu sintomas de engrossamento de caule, clorose de folhas e redução de raízes e frutos em MT. Foram também observados a redução na taxa fotossintética, fechamento de estômatos, aumento na concentração intercelular de CO2 e redução na transpiração em folhas, e aumento da condutância e condutividade hidráulica no caule de plantas infectadas. A análise de metabólitos revelou o aumento de valina e metionina e a redução de ácido glicólico e mio-inositol-1 fosfato no início da infecção (4 dias após a infecção - DAI), enquanto que aos 10 DAI, foi detectada a diminuição de metabólitos associados à respiração e repressão de genes associados à fotossíntese e à biossíntese de amido. Aos 20 DAI, o aumento no metabolismo respiratório, a redução de sacarose e o aumento de frutose e poliaminas, e a indução de genes de degradação, transporte e sinalização de açúcares demonstrou uma alta demanda de energia e a realocação de carbono na região de infecção, sugerindo a formação de possível dreno. O aumento na translocação de 14C glicose para a região sintomática de MT infectado não foi observado nas linhas transgênicas 35S::AtCKX2, com baixos níveis de citocinina, enquanto que a aplicação de benzil-adenina aumentou a translocação de 14C glicose, sugerindo um papel da citocinina à formação de dreno em MT. A indução da via de fenilpropanoides e a provável produção de ascorbato indicam a produção de compostos antimicrobianos na tentativa de contenção da infecção. No entanto, aparentemente, a formação de flavonoides e ácido clorogênico é limitada. Além disso, o aumento na lignina poderia funcionar como nutriente para M. perniciosa na fase necrotrófica. A oxidação de prolina, poliaminas e ascorbato exibe um ambiente de estresse oxidativo na região de sintomas, enquanto que o aumento de rafinose e GABA sugere a neutralização de ROS, amenizando seu efeito prejudicial. Aos 30 DAI, a realocação de carbono e as vias de sinalização de açúcares foram alteradas. A aplicação de sacarose em plantas infectadas reduziu os sintomas de engrossamento do caule. A infecção do mutante single-flower truss e do seu oposto 35S::SFT demonstrou que M. perniciosa não afeta a transição do meristema vegetativo para reprodutivo, mas atrasa o desenvolvimento de flores. Por fim, a infecção dos mutantes para senescência lutescent e green flesh não alterou sintomas, nem permitiu a observação de necrose do tecido infectado. Um modelo bioquímico e fisiológico para infecção por M. perniciosa em MT foi proposto Witches\' broom is a major disease of cacao, limiting cocoa production in South America. The basidiomycete Moniliophthora perniciosa, the disease causative agent, presents hemibiotrophic lifestyle with an extensive biotrophic period, promoting typical symptoms of hypertrophic growth of stems and proliferation of axillary shoots. The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) cv. \'Micro-Tom\' (MT) is a suitable genetic model to study pathogenic interaction of S-biotype M. perniciosa, exhibiting typical symptoms of the infection. Considering the lack of knowledge regarding biochemical and physiological mechanisms of M. perniciosa pathogenesis, this study aimed to investigate physiological and metabolic changes during MT infection of M. perniciosa. Inoculation of M. perniciosa caused stem thickening, leaf chlorosis and reduction in root growth and fruits in MT. We also observed a decline in photosynthetic rate (A), stomatal closure, increase in intracellular CO2, decrease in leaf transpiration and an increase on stem hydraulic conductance and conductivity in MT infected plants. Analysis of metabolites revealed an increase of methionine and valine content and a decrease in glycolic acid and mio-inositol-1-phosphate content at the beginning of MT infection (4 day after inoculation - DAI), whereas at 10 DAI, a decrease in metabolites associated with cell respiration, and downregulation of genes related to photosynthesis and starch biosynthesis was detected. At 20 DAI, an increase in respiratory metabolism, decrease in sucrose content and the accumulation of fructose and polyamines, and upregulation of genes related to sugar breakdown, transport, and signaling demonstrated high energy demand and carbon reallocation to infected stem, suggesting a possible sink formation. Major translocation of 14C glucose towards symptomatic MT stem infected was not observed in infected transgenic lines 35S::AtCKX2, with low levels of cytokinin, whereas benzyl-adenine application increased 14C-glucose translocation, suggesting a presumable role of cytokinin on inducing metabolic sink in MT. Upregulation of the phenylpropanoid pathway and the probable production of ascorbate suggest the production of antimicrobial compounds by the host in an attempt to contain the infection. However, apparently, the formation of flavonoids and chlorogenic acid is limited. Additionally, the increase in lignin could function as a nutrient for M. perniciosa consumption in the necrotrophic phase of infection. Proline, polyamines, and ascorbate oxidation exhibits an oxidative stress environment at the site of MT infection, whereas the accumulation of raffinose and GABA suggests ROS neutralization, mitigating its harmful effects. At 30 DAI, carbon reallocation and sugar signaling pathways were shifted. Sucrose exogenous application in MT infected plants by M. perniciosa reduced symptoms of stem swelling, but did not reduce root growth or number of fruits. Inoculation of single-flower truss sft mutant and its opposite 35S::SFT with M. pernciosa demonstrated that pathogen infection did not affect transition from vegetative to reproductive meristem, but decreased the development of flowers. Finally, inoculation of lutescent and green flesh senescence mutants neither altered symptoms of infection, nor enabled the observation of necrosis of infected tissue in MT background, as observed in cacao infected by M. perniciosa. A model for biochemical and physiological changes during MT infection by M. perniciosa was proposed

As respostas comportamentais do bicudo-do-algodoeiro aos compostos orgânicos voláteis de plantas em fase vegetativa, plantas com botão floral, botão floral, flor e maçã e plantas em floração do algodoeiro, e a presença dos semioquímicos que responsáveis pela interação inseto-planta foram investigadas neste trabalho. Todos os experimentos foram realizados em condições de laboratório usando insetos criados em dieta artificial e planta cultivadas em casa de vegetação. Bioensaios usando olfatômetro em ípsilon demonstraram que macho são atraídos pelos voláteis das plantas em fase vegetativa e flores, e as fêmeas pelos voláteis das flores e plantas em floração. Ambos os sexos do bicudo-do-algodoeiro não foram traídos pelos voláteis de planta com botão floral, botão flora e maçã. Compostos voláteis destes tratamentos foram coletados por oito horas e analisados por GC-MS, revelando 13 compostos liberados pelas plantas em floração e 11 nas flores e plantas em fase vegetativa. As plantas em sus respectivas fases de desenvolvimento liberam maiores quantidades de compostos que as flores. As antenas de machos e fêmeas foram eletrofisiologicamente responsivas aos extratos voláteis destes tratamentos, confirmando o mesmo padrão de resposta observado nos bioensaios de olfatometria. Os compostos sintéticos β-caryophyllene e cis-3-hexenyl-acetate presentes em maiores quantidades em plantas em floração não foram atrativos para as fêmeas na concentração utilizada nos bioensaios de olfatometria. Os resultados encontrados neste trabalho demonstram que machos e fêmeas exploram os compostos orgânicos voláteis liberados pelas diferentes fases desenvolvimento da planta e pelas flores, aportando assim, com novas evidencias sobre a interação entre A. grandis e seu principal hospedeiro, G. hirsutum, abrindo a possibilidade de realizar novos estudos visando a aplicabilidade de estes semioquímicos no monitoramento e controle deste importante inseto-praga. The behavioral responses of the cotton boll weevil to the volatile organic compounds of plants in the vegetative stage, plants with square, squares, flower, boll and flowering plants of cotton, and the presence of semiochemicals responsible for the insect-plant interaction were investigated in this work. All experiments were carried out in laboratory conditions using insects raised in artificial diet and plant grown under greenhouse conditions. Y-tube olfactometer bioassays showed that male were attracted by volatiles of plants in vegetative phase and flowers, and the females by flowers and flowering plants volatiles. Both sexes of the cotton boll weevil were not attracted by plant with squares, squares and boll volatiles. Volatile compounds of these treatments were collected for eight hours and analyzed by GC-MS, revealing 13 compounds released by flowering plants and 11 by flowers and plants in the vegetative stage. Plants in their respective stages of development release larger amounts of compounds than flowers. Male and female antennae were electrophysiologically responsive to the volatile extracts of these treatments, confirming the same response pattern observed in the olfactory bioassays. The synthetic compounds β-caryophyllene and cis-3-hexenyl-acetate present in larger quantities at flowering plants were not attractive for females at the concentration used in Y-tube olfactometer bioassays. The results obtained in this work demonstrate that males and females exploit the volatile organic compounds released by cotton plant at different development stages and by the flowers, thus contributing with new evidence about the interaction between A. grandis and their major host plant, G. hirsutum, which will serve as support for studies aiming at the applicability of these semiochemicals in the monitoring and control of the cotton boll weevil.

RALF é um peptídeo hormonal de aproximadamente 5kDa presente em diferentes espécies do reino vegetal regulando negativamente a expansão celular. AtRALF1 é uma isoforma específica de raiz das 37 presentes em Arabidopsis thaliana que regula negativamente o crescimento de raízes seguido de uma mobilização de Ca+2 intracelular e inibição na secreção de prótons (H+). Neste trabalho foi caraterizado a localização e tráfego intracelular do peptídeo AtRALF1. RALF is a 5kDa peptide hormone ubiquitous in different species of the plant kingdom that regulates cell expansion. AtRALF1 is a root-specific isoform of 37 present in Arabidopsis thaliana that negatively regulates root growth by intracellular calcium mobilization and inhibition of proton secretion (H+). In this work was studied the localization and intracellular trafficking of the AtRALF1 peptide.

Plants respond to insect and pathogen attack by inducing and accumulating a large set of defense proteins. Colonization of sugarcane stalk by opportunistic fungi, such as Fusarium verticillioides and Colletotrichum falcatum, usually occurs after Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Cambridae) caterpillars attack increasing the damage caused by the borer. Two homologous of BARWIN protein were identified in sugarcane, SUGARWIN1 and SUGARWIN2. Their gene expression is induced in response to wound and Diatraea saccharalis damage. However, the recombinant SUGARWIN protein does not affect insect development; but promotes significant morphological and physiological changes in Fusarium verticillioides and Colletotrichum falcatum, which lead to fungal cell death via apoptosis, indicating that SUGARWINs may work as a first layer of defense against the fungi infection. In this study, we deepen our understanding of the role of SUGARWINs in plant defense and the molecular mechanisms by which these proteins affect fungi by elucidating their molecular targets. Our results show that SUGARWINs play an important role in plant defense against opportunistic pathogens. We demonstrated that SUGARWINs are induced by C. falcatum, and the induction of SUGARWINs can vary among sugarcane varieties. The sugarcane variety exhibiting the highest level of SUGARWIN induction exhibited a considerable reduction in C. falcatum infection. Furthermore, SUGARWIN1 exhibited ribonuclease and chitinase activity, whereas SUGARWIN2 exhibited only chitinase activity. This variable enzymatic specificity seems to be the result of divergent amino acid composition within the substrate-binding site. Additionally, plants attacked by insects and pathogens display profound physiological, morphological and chemical changes or adaptations, which may result in organism attraction or avoidance. In this study, we also aimed to understand the insect-fungi association in sugarcane and the role of fungal volatile compounds in this association. Our results have shown that D. saccharalis positively influences C. falcatum infection on sugarcane, inducing a fast growing when compared to C. falcatum treatment without D. saccharalis attack. In addition, both fungi, C. falcatum and F. verticillioides, have been shown a double effect on D. saccharalis caterpillar, they promoted a strong attraction for insects due volatile organic compound emission and positively influenced D. saccharalis feeding and weight gain in diets supplemented with fungi. Fungal volatile organic compounds from C. falcatum and F. verticillioides were identified and quantified; acoradiene and acorenol were specifically induced by the fungi. These data suggest a synergistic interaction, mediated by organic volatile compounds, between D. saccharalis and the fungi C. falcatum and F. verticillioides in sugarcane. As plantas respondem ao ataque de insetos e patógenos induzindo e acumulando um grande conjunto de proteínas de defesa. A colonização do caule de cana por fungos oportunistas, como Fusarium verticillioides e Colletotrichum falcatum, geralmente ocorre após o ataque de lagartas de Diatraea saccharalis (Lepidoptera: Cambridae), resultando no aumento do dano causado pelo inseto. Dois homólogos da proteína BARWIN foram identificados em cana-de-açúcar, SUGARWIN1 e SUGARWIN2. A expressão desses genes é induzida em resposta ao ferimento mecânico e ao ataque de Diatraea saccharalis, entretanto, a proteína não afeta o desenvolvimento do inseto, mas promove alterações morfológicas e fisiológicas significativas em Fusarium verticillioides e Colletotrichum falcatum, causando a morte destes fungos por apoptose. Esses dados indicam que as SUGARWINs podem funcionar como uma defesa inicial contra a infecção fúngica. Neste estudo, aprofundamos nosso entendimento do papel das SUGARWINs na defesa de plantas e os mecanismos moleculares pelos quais essas proteínas afetam os fungos, elucidando seus alvos moleculares. Nossos resultados mostraram que as SUGARWINs desempenham um papel importante na defesa da planta contra patógenos oportunistas. Foi demonstrado que essas proteínas também são induzidas por C. falcatum em cana-de-açúcar, e sua indução pode variar entre as variedades de cana-de-açúcar. A variedade de cana-de-açúcar que apresentou o maior nível de indução de SUGARWINs apresentou uma redução considerável na infecção por C. falcatum. Além disso, SUGARWIN1 exibiu atividade de ribonuclease e quitinase, enquanto que SUGARWIN2 exibiu apenas atividade de quitinase. Esta especificidade enzimática parece ser o resultado da composição divergente de aminoácidos no sítio de ligação do substrato. Além disso, as plantas atacadas por insetos e patógenos exibem profundas alterações fisiológicas, morfológicas e químicas ou adaptações, que podem resultar em atração ou repelência do organismo, dessa forma, estudamos também a associação inseto-fungos na cana-de-açúcar, e o papel dos compostos voláteis fúngicos nessa associação. Nossos resultados mostraram que D. saccharalis influencia positivamente a infecção por C. falcatum em cana-de-açúcar, induzindo crescimento rápido do fungo quando comparado ao tratamento com C. falcatum sem ataque de D. saccharalis. Além disso, ambos os fungos, C. falcatum e F. verticillioides, mostraram um efeito duplo sobre lagartas de D. saccharalis, promovendo uma forte atração desses insetos devido à emissão de compostos orgânicos voláteis e influenciando positivamente a alimentação de D. saccharalis e ganho de peso em dietas suplementadas com fungos. Os compostos orgânicos voláteis fúngicos de C. falcatum e F. verticillioides foram identificados e quantificados; acoradieno e acorenol foram especificamente induzidos pelos fungos. Estes dados sugerem uma interação sinergistica, mediada por compostos orgânicos voláteis, entre D. saccharalis e os fungos C. falcatum e F. verticillioides em cana-de-açúcar.

Pequenos peptídeos são importantes sinalizadores celulares e estão envolvidos na comunicação célula-a-célula em diversos aspectos do desenvolvimento da planta. Durante a reprodução sexual, moléculas sinalizadoras atuam na interação entre o gametófito feminino e o masculino, controlando processos como germinação do grão de pólen, alongamento do tubo polínico e liberação das células espermáticas, entre outros. RALF é um peptídeo de sinalização codificado por genes de expressão ubíqua ou tecido-especifica e que regulam negativamente a expansão celular. Em arabidopsis, peptídeos AtRALFs podem ser agrupados em uma família de 39 membros e, interessantemente, os maiores níveis de expressão gênica dessa família são encontrados nos AtRALFs expressos em tecidos reprodutivos. Small peptides are important cell signaling involved in several aspects of plant development. During sexual reproduction, signaling molecules act in the interaction between female and male gametophyte, controlling processes such as pollen grains germination, pollen tube elongation and sperm cells release. RALF is a signaling peptide ubiquitous or tissuespecific that negatively regulates cell growth. In arabidopsis, AtRALFs peptides can be grouped into a family of 39 members and, interestingly, the highest levels of gene expression of this family are found in AtRALFs expressed in reproductive tissues.

The study of natural genetic variations affecting organogenic capacity in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is attractive due to the existence of several tomato wild relatives with enhanced organogenic capacity. The characterization of such variations is relevant not only in order to manipulate plant development, but also to understand its ecological and evolutionary significance. The objective of this work was to characterize three tomato loci whose alleles from the wild relative S. pennellii enhance in vitro shoot and root regeneration, and analyze their involvement in the acquisition of competence phase. In the first manuscript, we report the genetic and physiological characterization of the loci Rg3C, Rg7H and Rg8F. The S. pennellii alleles were introgressed into the tomato genetic model cv. Micro-Tom (MT), creating the near isogenic lines (NILs) MT-Rg3C, MT-Rg7H and MT-Rg8F. In the second manuscript we present a comparative analysis between the Near-Isogenic Lines (NILs) MT-Rg3C and MT-Rg1. Since Rg1 was proposed to be a key gene in the acquisition of competence, and was mapped in the chromosome three, it is believed that Rg3C is probably equivalent to the Rg1 allele from S. peruvianum. After the introgression of the loci into the MT background, the NILs presented enhanced regeneration of both roots and shoots, confirming that the loci were successfully introgressed. The analysis of the time for acquisition of competence and induction, together with the molecular characterization of the NILs, indicate that the genes present in the loci Rg3C, Rg7H and Rg8F affect in vitro regeneration by distinct pathways. While Rg3C decreased the time required for both acquisition of competence and induction, the other loci seem to influence only the time of acquisition of competence, in the case of Rg8F, or the time of induction, in the case of Rg7H. Additionally, although MT-Rg3C has an enhanced shoot branching phenotype, MT-Rg7H and MT-Rg8F did not differ from MT in this trait. This indicates that enhanced in vitro shoot formation in tomato is not necessarily related to a deleterious high branching phenotype. Comparative analyses of MT-Rg1 and MT-Rg3C strongly indicate that Rg1 and Rg3C are alleles of a same gene controlling regeneration capacity. Integrating Rg1 and Rg3C mapping information, we were able to narrow the number of candidate genes for Rg1/Rg3C to only 27, which were also analyzed and discussed. O estudo de variações genéticas naturais afetando a capacidade de organogênese in vitro em tomateiro (Solanum lycopersicum) é promissor devido a existência de uma série de espécies selvagens relacionadas ao tomateiro, que apresentam alta capacidade organogênica in vitro. A caracterização de tais variações é relevante não apenas com o objetivo de manipulação do desenvolvimento vegetal, mas também com o intuito de entender o significado ecológico e evolutivo de tal característica. O objetivo desse trabalho foi caracterizar três loci de tomateiro, cujos alelos vindos de seu parente selvagem S. pennellii aumentam a capacidade de regeneração de gemas caulinares e radiculares in vitro, e analisar o envolvimento de tais loci na fase de aquisição de competência para regeneração. Nós apresentamos no primeiro capítulo a caracterização genética e fisiológica dos loci Rg3C, Rg7H e Rg8F. Os alelos de S. pennellii foram introgredidos na cultivar modelo Micro-Tom (MT), criando as linhagens quase isogênicas (Near Isogenic Lines - NILs) MT-Rg3C, MT-Rg7H e MT-Rg8F. No segundo capítulo nós analisamos comparativamente as NILs MT-Rg3C e MT-Rg1. Uma vez que Rg1 foi proposto como gene chave na aquisição de competência, e assim como Rg3C está localizado no cromossomo 3, acredita-se que Rg3C seja provavelmente ortólogo ao gene Rg1 de S. peruvianum. Após a introgressão dos loci na cultivar MT, as NILs, assim como esperado, apresentaram alta taxa de regeneração tanto de gemas caulinares, quanto de radiculares in vitro, confirmando que os loci foram devidamente introgredidos. A análise do tempo de aquisição de competência e indução, juntamente com a caracterização molecular das NILs, indicam que os genes localizados nos loci Rg3C, Rg7H e Rg8F afetam a regeneração in vitro através de rotas distintas. Enquanto Rg3C diminui o tempo necessário tanto para a aquisição de competência quanto para indução de gemas caulinares, os outros dois loci parecem influenciar apenas a aquisição de competência, no caso de Rg8F, ou a indução de gemas caulinares, no caso de Rg7H. Além disso, apesar de MT-Rg3C apresentar alta ramificação, MT-Rg7H e MT-Rg8F não diferiram de MT nesse aspecto, o que evidencia que a formação de gemas caulinares in vitro não está necessariamente relacionada ao aumento da ramificação. As análises comparativas entre MT-Rg3C e MT-Rg1 indicam fortemente que Rg1 e Rg3C sejam dois alelos de um mesmo gene controlando a alta capacidade de regeneração. Através do cruzamento dos dados de mapeamento disponíveis para esses dois alelos foi possível diminuir o número de genes candidatos à Rg1/Rg3C para apenas 27 genes, que são apresentados nesse trabalho.

Salinity is a challenge for crop productivity. Hence, plants exposed to saline environments reduce their vegetative and reproductive growth due to adverse effects of specific ions on metabolism and water relations. In order to cope with salinity, plants display physiological mechanisms based on three main aspects: i) source-sink relationships, ii) resource allocation and iii) alterations in endogenous hormone levels. The roles of developmental and hormonal mechanisms in salt response were investigated here. We employed mutants and transgenic tomato plants affecting different aspects of plant development and hormone response in the same genetic background (cultivar Micro-Tom). The following genotypes were used: Galapagos dwarf (Gdw), Lanata (Ln), lutescent (l), single flower truss (sft), sft heterozygous (sft/+), diageotropica (dgt), entire (e), Never ripe (Nr), epinastic (epi), procera (pro), notabilis (not), anti sense Chloroplastic carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 7 (35S::asCCD7) and Salicylate hydroxylase (35S::nahG). Among the developmental genotypes studied, sft and l, involved in flower induction and senescence, respectively, were less affected when exposed to salt stress. Although l is considered deleterious due to its precocious senescence, it presented greater shoot biomass and leaf area during salinity. The heterozygous sft/+, whose high productivity was recently linked to an improved vegetative-to-reproductive balance, changed this balance and lowered its yield more than the control MT upon salt treatment. In the analysis of genotypes affecting hormonal status/signaling four kinds of salt responses among the genotypes were observed: i) High shoot growth in spite of high Na:K ratio presented by the strigolactone deficient and high branching CCD7 transgene; ii) High shoot growth and reduced accumulation of Na in tissues (probably due to dilution) presented by the auxin constitutive response e mutant; iii) The opposite response observed in \"ii\" presented by the low auxin sensitivity dgt mutant and iv) growth inhibition combined with reduced levels of Na and higher accumulation of K presented by the not mutant, which produces less ABA. Taken together, the results presented here points to novel developmental mechanisms, such as the promotion of moderate senescence and vegetative growth, and hormonal imbalances to be explored in the pursuing of crops resistant to salt stress. A salinidade é um desafio para a produtividade agrícola, uma vez que plantas expostas à salinidade tem o crescimento vegetativo e reprodutivo reduzido devido aos efeitos adversos de íons específicos no metabolismo e nas relações hídricas. A fim de lidar com a salinidade, as plantas desempenham mecanismos fisiológicos baseados em três principais características: i) relações fonte-dreno; ii) alocação de reservas e iii) alterações nos níveis endógenos de hormônios. Nesse trabalho, investigamos a relação entre os processos de desenvolvimento e de regulação hormonal com a resposta à salinidade. Para tanto foram usados genótipos de tomateiro com alteração em diferentes vias de desenvolvimento e de produção ou sinalização de hormônios vegetais. Os seguintes genótipos foram usados: Galapagos dwarf (Gdw), Lanata (Ln), lutescent (l), single flower truss (sft), sft heterozygous (sft/+), diageotropica (dgt), entire (e), Never ripe (Nr), epinastic (epi), procera (pro), notabilis (not), anti sense Dioxigenase cloroplastídica de carotenoide 7 (35S::asCCD7) e Salicilato hidroxilase (35S::nahG). Entre os genótipos de desenvolvimento estudados, sft e l, relacionados à menor indução floral e senescência respectivamente, foram os menos afetados quando expostos à salinidade. O genótipo l acumulou maior biomassa e área foliar, apesar de ser considerado deletério devido à senescência precoce. As plantas heterozigotas, sft/+, cuja maior produtividade foi recentemente relacionada a um melhor balanço vegetativo/reprodutivo, alteraram esse balanço sob salinidade e reduziram sua produtividade mais que o controle MT sob estresse salino. Na análise dos genótipos com alteração hormonais foram observados quatro tipos de respostas à salinidade: i) elevado crescimento da parte aérea, apesar da razão Na:K ser alta no genótipo CCD7 cujo transgene induz deficiência de estrigolactona e excessiva ramificação; ii) elevado crescimento e acúmulo reduzido de Na nos tecidos (devido provavelmente a diluição) apresentada pelo mutante de resposta constitutiva a auxina e; iii) o oposto da resposta anterior foi apresentado pelo mutante pouco sensível à auxina , dgt; iv) inibição do crescimento combinado com nível reduzido de Na e alto acúmulo de K apresentada pelo mutante not que produz menos ácido abscísico. Considerados em conjunto, os resultados apresentaram temas para novos mecanismos de desenvolvimento, como a promoção moderada de senescência e do crescimento vegetativo além dos desbalanços hormonais, para serem explorados na busca de culturas resistentes ao estresse salino.

Nos eucariotos, a evolução dos sistemas de transporte molecular foi essencial pois seu alto grau de compartimentalização requer mecanismos com maior especificidade para a localização de proteínas. Com o estabelecimento das mitocôndrias e plastídeos como organelas da célula eucariota, grande parte dos genes específicos para sua atividade e manutenção foram transferidos ao núcleo. Após a transferência gênica, a maioria das proteínas passaram a ser codificadas pelo núcleo, sintetizadas no citosol e direcionadas às organelas por uma maquinaria complexa que envolve receptores nas membranas das organelas, sequências de direcionamento nas proteínas e proteínas citossólicas que auxiliam o transporte. A importação depende em grande parte de uma sequência na região N-terminal das proteínas que contém sinais reconhecidos pelas membranas organelares. No entanto, muito ainda não é compreendido sobre o transporte de proteínas organelares e fatores ainda desconhecidos podem influenciar o direcionamento sub-celular. O objetivo deste trabalho foi a caracterização da General Regulatory Factor 9 (GRF9), uma proteína da família 14-3-3 de Arabidopsis thaliana potencialmente envolvida no direcionamento de proteínas organelares, e a geração de um genótipo para ser utilizado na obtenção de uma população mutante para genes que afetam o direcionamento da proteína Tiamina Monofosfato Sintetase (TH-1). Após experimentos in vivo e in planta, foi observado que GRF9 interage com as proteínas duplo-direcionadas Mercaptopyruvate Sulfurtransferase1 (MST1) e a Thiazole Biosynthetic Enzyme (THI1), e com a proteína direcionada aos cloroplastos TH-1. Experimentos de deleção e interação in vivo mostraram que a região Box1 de GRF9 é essencial para a interação com THI1 e MST1. Com a finalidade de dar continuidade a caracterização da GRF9 e para realização de testes com relação a sua função no direcionamento de proteínas organelares foi gerada uma linhagem homozigota que superexpressa GRF9. Plantas expressando o transgene TH-1 fusionado a Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) em genótipo deficiente na TH-1 (CS3469/TH-1-GFP) foram obtidas para a geração de população mutante que possibilitará a descoberta de componentes genéticos ainda desconhecidos e responsáveis pelo direcionamento de proteínas aos cloroplastos. In Eukaryotes, the evolution of molecular transport in the cell was essential due to their increase in compartmentalization, which requires more specific mechanisms for the correct localization of proteins. With the establishment of mitochondria and plastids as organelles, a great number of their genes, either specific for their metabolic functions or maintenance of their own transcription/translation processes, were transferred to the nucleus of the cell. These transfers caused most of the organellar proteins to be coded by the nucleus, then synthesized in the cytosol and targeted to the organelles by a complex machinery which involves membrane receptors in the organelles, targeting sequences in the proteins, and cytosolic proteins which assist them with the transport. Protein import depends greatly on an N-terminal sequence in proteins which has recognizable signals for the organellar membrane receptors. However, much is still not understood about the transport of organellar proteins, and unknown factors may still influence subcellular targeting. The goal of this work was the characterization of General Regulatory Factor 9 (GRF9), a protein of the 14-3-3 family in Arabidopsis thaliana potentially involved in the targeting of organellar proteins, and generating a genotype to be used in obtaining a mutant population for genes affecting the targeting of the protein Thiamine Requiring 1 (TH-1). After in vivo and in planta experiments it was observed that GRF9 interacts with the dual-targeted proteins Mercaptopyruvate Sulfurtransferase1 (MST1) and Thiazole Biosynthetic Enzyme (THI1), and with the chloroplast targeted protein TH-1. Deletion experiments followed by in vivo interaction assays showed that Box 1 region of GRF9 is essential for the interaction with THI1 and MST1. For the continuing characterization of GRF9 and for following tests of its function in the targeting of organellar proteins, a homozygous line was generated overexpressing GRF9. Plants expressing the transgene TH-1 fused to the Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP) in a TH-1 deficient genotype (CS3469/TH-1-GFP) were obtained for the generation of a mutant population which will allow the discovery of genetic components still unknown responsible for targeting proteins to the chloroplasts.

This work investigated the subcellular dynamics of the plant elicitor peptide AtPep1 and its interplay with plant defense responses. First, an introduction of the plant innate immunity system is provided with emphasis on pattern trigger immunity (PTI), which is based on the recognition of \"non-self\" and \"self\" elicitor molecules by surface-localized patternrecognition receptors (PRRs). Then, the Arabidopsis endogenous peptides that act as selfelicitor molecules are presented, with details on AtPep1 and its PEPR receptors. Plant endomembrane trafficking is described, encompassing endocytic pathways, clathrin mediated endocytosis (CME) and receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME). In the next chapter, we explored strategies for the in vivo study of the subcellular behavior of AtPep1; to this end, we fused the precursor protein of AtPep1 (PROPEP1) to GFP and assessed its localization. We found that PROPEP1 was associated with the tonoplast and accumulated in the vacuole, suggesting that this organelle could work as the station where PROPEP1 is stored and later released, only in a danger situation, hence initiating AtPep1. Moreover, we generated AtPep1 versions labeled with fluorescent dyes and demonstrated that this peptide could be fluorescently tagged without loss of its biological activity. In chapter 3, we combined classical and chemical genetics with life imaging to study the behavior of a bioactive fluorescently labeled AtPep1 in the Arabidopsis root meristem. We discovered that the labeled AtPep1 was able to bind the plasma membrane very quickly in a receptor-dependent manner. Subsequently, the PEPR-AtPep1 complex was internalized via CME and transported to the lytic vacuole, passing through early and late endosomal compartments. Impairment of CME compromised the AtPep1 responses. Our findings provide for the first time an in vivo visualization of a signaling peptide in plant cells, thus giving insights into its intracellular fate and dynamics. The role of the coregulatory receptor BRI1-associated kinase 1 (BAK1) in AtPep1-responses was also investigated (chapter 4). Our results confirmed that BAK1 interacts with PEPRs in a ligand-dependent manner and indicate that BAK1 modulates AtPep1 signaling and endocytosis, but that, when absent, it might be replaced by homologous SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE (SERK) proteins that could have additional functions during the AtPep1 signaling. Furthermore, phosphorylation events after the formation of PEPR-BAK1 complexes seem to dictate the molecular bases of AtPep1 internalization and signaling. Finally, we discussed our findings in a more general perspective, highlighting the important findings for the plant endomembrane trafficking field, the potential use of fluorescently labeled ligands as a tool to study ligand-receptors pairs, the availability of AtPep1-PEPRs as an excellent model to study endocytosis and its interplay with signaling, and the future challenges in the field. Neste trabalho, foi investigada a dinâmica subcelular do peptídeo elicitor de planta AtPep1 e suas implicações nas respostas de defesa. Primeiramente, é fornecida uma introdução do sistema imune inato de plantas com ênfase na imunidade ativada por moléculas elicitoras derivadas de organismos invasores ou da mesma planta, após seu reconhecimento por receptores localizados na membrana plasmática (PTI responses). Peptídeos endógenos que têm sido reportados em Arabidopsis como ativadores de PTI são descritos, dando especial destaque para o peptídeo AtPep1 e seus receptores PEPRs. O tráfego de endomembranas em plantas é introduzido, abrangendo as vias de internalização, endocitose mediada por proteínas clathrinas (CME) e endocitose mediada por receptor (RME). No capítulo seguinte, foram avaliadas estratégias para o estudo in vivo da dinâmica subcelular do AtPep1. Para isso a proteína precursora do AtPep1 (PROPEP1) foi fusionada a GFP e sua localização visualizada, encontrando que PROPEP1 é associado com o tonoplasto e acumula dentro do vacúolo, fato que sugere uma função de armazenamento do PROPEP1 para esta organela, desde onde é liberado em caso de uma situação de perigo dando origem ao AtPep1. Adicionalmente, foram produzidas versões biologicamente ativas do AtPep1 marcado com fluróforos. No capítulo três foram combinados genética clássica e genética química com visualizações in vivo para estudar o comportamento de um AtPep1 bioativo e marcado fluorescentemente na células meristemática da ponta da raiz de Arabidopsis, sendo encontrado que AtPep1 se liga rapidamente na membrana plasmática numa forma dependente de receptor. Em seguida, o complexo AtPep1-PEPR foi internalizado via CME e transportado para o vacúolo, passando através do endossomo primário e secundário. Quando o funcionamento da CME foi comprometido, as respostas ao AtPep1 também foram afetadas. Estes resultados fornecem a primeira visualização in vivo de um peptídeo de sinalização em plantas, mostrando sua dinâmica e destino intracelular. O papel regulatório durante as respostas induzidas pelo AtPep1 do co-receptor BRI1-associated kinase 1 (BAK1) foram investigadas (Capítulo quatro). Nossos resultados confirmaram que BAK1 interage com PEPRs numa forma dependente do ligante e indicam que BAK1 modula sinalização e endocitose do AtPep1, no entanto quando ausente, BAK1 pode ser substituído por seus homólogos SOMATIC EMBRYOGENESIS RECEPTOR-LIKE KINASE os quais poderiam ter funções adicionais durante as repostas induzidas pelo AtPep1. Eventos de fosforilação após a formação do complexo PEPR-BAK1 parecem ditar as bases moleculares da internalização e sinalização do AtPep1. Finalmente, são discutidos os resultados encontrados nesta pesquisa numa perspectiva geral, destacando a relevância destas descobertas na área de pesquisa em que estão inseridos, o potencial que representa o uso de ligantes marcados fluorescentemente como ferramenta para o estudo de complexos entre ligante-receptor, a disponibilidade do sistema AtPep1-PEPRs como modelo de estudo da endocitose em plantas e sua relação com sinalização, e os futuros desafios na área.

Peptídeos sinais determinam o crescimento, desenvolvimento e defesa das plantas. RALF (Rapid Alkalinization Factor) é um peptídeo de sinalização ubíquo no reino vegetal e que está envolvido com a expansão celular. Os peptídeos RALF em arabidopsis estão organizados em uma família multigênica de 37 membros, alguns com expressão tecido-específica, outros expressos em toda a planta. Os mecanismos envolvidos na expansão celular são regulados por vários hormônios, entre os quais as citocininas. A relação existente entre os peptídeos RALF e os demais hormônios é pouco conhecida e um melhor entendimento dessa relação poderá auxiliar na modulação dos processos de crescimento e desenvolvimento vegetal por engenharia genética. O objetivo desse trabalho foi estudar a relação entre o peptídeo AtRALF e as citocininas, principalmente no que diz respeito aos efeitos de ambos no crescimento e desenvolvimento das raízes. Para isso, selecionou-se as isoformas AtRALF1, AtRALF19 e AtRALF34 que apresentam diferentes padrões de expressão. Os resultados sugerem que AtRALF19 e AtRALF34, ambas expressas em toda a planta, contribuem mais com a transdução de sinal da citocinina do que a isoforma AtRALF1, com padrão de expressão específico de raízes. Os peptídeos AtRALF19 e 34 reprimem parcialmente a expressão dos genes reguladores de resposta, ARRs tipo-A, que são reguladores negativos da via de sinalização de citocinina. Peptides signals influence the growth, development and plant defense. RALF (Rapid Alkalinization Factor) is a ubiquitous signaling peptide in the plant kingdom and is involved in cell expansion. The RALF peptides in arabidopsis are organized in a multigene family of 37 members, some with tissue-specific expression, others expressed throughout the plant. The mechanisms involved in cellular growth are regulated by various hormones, including cytokinins. The relationship between RALF peptides and other hormones is poorly understood and a better understanding of this relationship assists in modulating the processes of plant growth and development. The aim of this work was to study the relationship of AtRALF peptide with cytokinins, especially with regard to the effects of both in the growth and development of roots. For this, we selected the AtRALF1, AtRALF19 and AtRALF34 isoforms that have different expression patterns. The results suggest that AtRALF19 and AtRALF34, both expressed throughout the plant, contribute more to cytokinin signal transduction than isoform AtRALF1, with specific expression pattern in roots. The AtRALF19 and 34 repressed the expression of type-A Arabidopsis Response Regulators (ARRs), whose products act as negative regulators of cytokinin signaling.

Peptídeos sinais são moléculas envolvidas no crescimento, desenvolvimento e defesa de plantas. RALF (Rapid Alkalinization Factor) é um peptídeo sinal ubíquo no reino vegetal e que está envolvido com a expansão celular. Peptídeos RALF em Arabidopsis estão organizados em uma família multigênica de 37 membros, alguns com expressão tecido-específica, outros expressos em toda a planta. Este trabalho se insere dentro de um projeto maior que tem por objetivo esclarecer a função dos peptídeos RALF em plantas e determinar seu mecanismo de ação. Este trabalho teve dois objetivos específicos distintos. O primeiro consistiu em caracterizar as isoformas AtRALF19, AtRALF23, AtRALF31, AtRALF33 e AtRALF34 utilizando-se plantas mutantes, plantas superexpressoras e a análise dos promotores. O segundo objetivo específico foi identificar proteínas que interagem com o peptídeo AtRALF1 com o uso da técnica de purificação por afinidade em tandem (TAP) in planta. As análises fenotípicas das plantas transgênicas mostraram que plantas que superexpressam o gene que codifica o AtRALF33 apresentam fenótipo semi-anão, células foliares com área menor e com menor número de lóbulos. As plantas mutantes atralf33 e atralf23 apresentaram hastes e folhas maiores e células foliares com área maior. Plantas mutantes atralf34 não mostraram diferenças significativas quando comparadas com plantas selvagens e a análise do promotor do AtRALF34 mostrou uma expressão específica em estômatos, hipocótilo e ápice radicular. Com relação a purificação por afinidade, plantas mutantes mcca foram transformadas com a construção 35S:AtRALF1:HPB e usadas para obtenção dos extratos proteicos. Peptides signals are molecules involved with growth, development and defense in plants. RALF (Rapid Alkalinization Factor) is an ubiquous peptide in plant kingdom and it is involved with cell expansion. RALF peptides are organized in a multigenic family with 37 members, some are tissue-specific expressed, others are expressed in whole plant. This work is part of a larger project that has the approach to clarify the RALF peptides functions in plants and to determine its mechanism of action. This work has two distinct approaches. The first specific approach was to characterize the isoforms AtRALF19, AtRALF23, AtRALF31, AtRALF33 and AtRALF34 using mutant plants, overexpression plants and promoters analysis. The second specific approach was to identify proteins that interact with AtRALF1 peptide using in planta tandem affinity purification (TAP). The phenotype analysis of transgenic plants showed that the overexpression of the gene which codifies AtRALF33 plants presented a semi-dwarf phenotype, smaller leaf cells area and number of lobes. The mutant plants atralf33 and atralf23 presented larger stalks and leaf cells. The mutant plants atralf34 did not show significant differences when compared to wild-type plants. The promoter analysis of AtRALF34 showed a specific expression in stomata, hypocotyls and root shoot. Regarding the TAP, mcca mutant plants were transformed with the construction 35S:AtRALF1:HPB.

Dentre as substâncias químicas secretadas pelas plantas, contra os insetos herbívoros, os inibidores de peptidases são de grande interesse. A atenção dada a esses inibidores deve-se ao fato, de eles serem uma boa alternativa no controle de insetos praga, uma vez que não causam danos ao meio ambiente. Contudo, muitas espécies de insetos são capazes de escapar dos efeitos negativos dos inibidores de peptidases das plantas, via diferentes mecanismos adaptativos. Devido a esse fato, é importante compreender os mecanismos desenvolvidos pelos insetos para burlar os efeitos dos inibidores de peptidases das plantas. Diante desse panorama, este trabalho teve como objetivo estudar o mecanismo adaptativo das serina endopeptidases de Spodoptera frugiperda aos inibidores de endopeptidases de soja. Foram realizadas análises do transcriptoma dos intestinos das lagartas mantidas em exposição crônica ao inibidor. Para averiguar os efeitos causados devido à exposição crônica ao inibidor, foram realizadas comparações da expressão relativa, dos genes de tripsinas e quimotripsinas, de intestinos de lagartas de sexto instar. Contudo, para entender o efeito da exposição aguda ao inibidor, lagartas de S. frugiperda foram criadas em dieta artificial controle até o primeiro dia do sexto instar, após esse período elas foram transferidas para dieta artificial acrescida com 0,5 % dos inibidores de endopeptidases de soja, durante 48 horas. Para verificar a ocorrência de um possível controle epigenético na expressão dos genes, as lagartas foram conduzidas até a fase adulta e os adultos, de cada tratamento, foram acasalados entre si, constituindo uma segunda geração. Dados de expressão relativa foram obtidos, de indivíduos da primeira e segunda geração, e foram então comparados. Foram identificados 14 possíveis genes de quimotripsinas e nove possíveis genes de tripsinas. Os genes de tripsina foram divididos em dois grupos distintos em relação a sua sensibilidade aos inibidores de endopepetidases de soja e expressão relativa. Houve uma resposta diferenciada na ativação dos genes de serina endopeptidases de S. frugiperda, a qual dividiu os genes em dois grupos, os responsivos e os não responsivos ao inibidor. A exposição aguda ao inibidor ativou um pequeno grupo de genes, enquanto que a exposição crônica promoveu uma maior amplitude de expressão gênica, sugerindo mecanismos temporalmente regulados. Por último, evidências indicam, pela primeira vez, a possível ocorrência de um mecanismo epigenético, na resposta das enzimas digestivas aos inibidores de serina endopeptidases de soja. Among the chemicals secreted by plants against insect herbivores, peptidase inhibitors (PIs) are of great interest. The attention given to PIs is due to the fact that they are a good alternative to control insect pests since they do not cause damage to human health and the environment. However, many species of insects are able to escape the negative effects of PIs plants via different adaptive mechanisms. Because of this, it is important to understand the mechanisms developed by insects to circumvent the effects of PIs plants. Against this background, this research aimed to study the adaptive mechanism of serine endopeptidases Spodoptera frugiperda to soybean endopeptidase inhibitors. For this purpose, larvae of S. frugiperda were reared on artificial diet and control artificial diet plus 0.5% of endopeptidase inhibitors of soybean. We conducted a transcriptome midgut of worms maintained in chronic ingestion of the inhibitor. The relative expression of the genes, trypsin and chymotrypsin, was also compared the midgut of sixth instar larvae kept in these diets. In another experiment, the larvae were conducted to moth, then the treatments were mated forming a second generation. Relative expression data were obtained for individuals of the first and second generation, and then compared. Identified 14 genes with potential of chymotrypsin and 9 trypsin like genes. The trypsin gene were divided into two groups for both their sensitivity to PI soybean endopeptidase, and for their relative expression pattern. There was a differentiated response on the genes activation of S. frugiperda serina endopeptidases. The genes were clustered in 2 groups, the responsive ones and the non responsive to the inhibitor. The acute exposition to the inhibitor activated a small group of genes and the chronic exposition affected several genes, indicating the existence of temporal regulated mechanism. Besides, there is a possible occurance of an epigenetic mechanism, which is related to the digestive serina endopeptidases inhibitors of soybean.

A regulação da localização de proteínas é um dos aspectos fundamentais na biologia celular vegetal. Os cloroplastos importam mais de 90% de suas proteínas do citosol, portanto, é importante caracterizar os fatores citosólicos que podem estar envolvidos no direcionamento de proteínas para as organelas. Um ensaio de duplohíbrido em leveduras com as proteínas cloroplastidiais HMPPK/TMPPase (TH1) e Glutamina Sintetase (GS) II usados como iscas revelou que a forma citosólica da glutamil-tRNA sintetase - GluRS (At5g26710) de Arabidopsis thaliana interagiu com ambas as proteínas. Estudos de Complementação da Fluorescência Bimolecular (BiFC) confirmaram tais interações in planta. Estudos com deleções na região Nterminal da GluRS mostraram que esta região é responsável pelas interações com HMPPK/TMPPase e GSII. Além disso, seis resíduos de aminoácidos parecem ser cruciais para a interação entre as proteínas. Curiosamente, foi mostrado que a GluRS está envolvida na localização de proteínas em leveduras. A fim de obter mais informações sobre o envolvimento da GluRS ns localização de proteínas nos cloroplastos, foram produzidos plantas de tabaco transgênicas expressando uma proteína quimérica, feita pela fusão do gene codificador da HMPPK/TMPPase, TH1- GFP, e GSII-GFP e posteriormente usados em ensaios de agroinfiltração com RNA de interferência (RNAi) para GluRS. Análises em microscópio confocal mostraram que TH1-GFP e GSII-GFP acumulam no citosol em vez de serem direcionados aos cloroplastos. Neste trabalho, mostramos pela primeira vez que a GluRS está envolvida na localização de proteínas cloroplastidiais em plantas e esse mecanismo é também conservado em Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Regulation of protein localization is one of the key aspects in plant cell biology. Chloroplasts import more than 90% of their proteins from the cytosol, therefore, it is important to identify and characterize cytosolic factors that might be involved in protein delivery to the organelar envelope. A yeast two-hybrid screen with a chloroplastlocalized HMPPK/TMPPase protein and glutamine synthetase (GS), used as baits, revealed that the cytosolic form of the glutamyl-tRNA synthetase (GluRS) (At5g26710) from Arabidopsis thaliana interacted with both proteins. Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) studies confirmed such interactions in planta. Deletion studies of GluRS showed that the N-terminal region of the protein is responsible for proteinprotein interactions (PPI) with TH1 and GS. In addition, six amino acid residues appeared to be crucial for PPI. Interestingly, GluRS has been also shown to be involved in regulating protein localization in yeast. In order to gain more information about the involvement of GluRS on protein localization in chloroplasts, we produced transgenic tobacco plants expressing a chimeric protein made by the fusion of TH1- GFP and GSIIGFP and agroinfiltrated with a RNA interference (RNAi) construct against GluRS. Confocal analysis showed that TH1-GFP and GSII-GFP accumulated in the cytosol instead of being targeted to chloroplasts. Here, we show for the same time that GluRS is involved in protein localization in plants and this mechanism is also conserved in Saccharomyces cerevisiae.