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The production of Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) and related energy recovery in the European cement industry represents the state of the art in waste management, having evolved into a highly important part of a sustainable and circular economy. This paper describes the production and quality of eight Solid Recovered Fuels (SRF) of PREMIUM quality that are produced from Municipal (Mixed) and selected Commercial Wastes (i.e. Bulky and Lightweight Fraction from Plastic Sorting Plants) in three types of treatment plants located in four European countries, namely Austria, Croatia, Slovenia and Slovakia. The investigated SRF PREMIUM Quality was produced in three different Plant Types applying various process technologies. All three types have been investigated and are described in detail (i.e. flow sheet). Eight SRF PREMIUM Qualities have been comprehensively investigated by sorting, sieving, and physical-chemical analyses. Analyses performed are in accordance with (inter)national standards (i.e. Austrian “ÖNORM”, European “EN” standards and CEN TC 343 guidelines). The results gained show that all investigated SRF fulfil the Austrian quality requirements for heavy metals before co-incineration in the cement industry and it can be confirmed that SRF produced in the investigated plants in Austria, Croatia, Slovenia and Slovakia in fact may be declared as “SRF PREMIUM Quality” that can be used for energy recovery on the European SRF market and utilized in the European cement industry.

The subject matter of this paper is the functioning of a highly effective waste management system. Assumptions of the Energy Recovery Waste Processing (ERWP) model, being a universal solution for towns and regions irrespective of their population, are presented here. The result of simulations illustrating the energetic potential of municipal waste stored and processed in biological and physicochemical processes are also presented. Calculations were performed for the municipality of Koszalin (Poland), with a population of 106,000. Mixed household and commercial waste, organic waste, waste from selective collection and sewage sludge from a municipal wastewater treatment plant were considered in the waste mass balance. Empirical equations and unit coefficients describing the energetic efficiency of particular processes originating from the author’s own research work as well as from the results available from the scientific literature were used in the calculations. The developed ERWP model is based on the functioning of four objects constituting a comprehensive technical infrastructure, i.e., biological stabilisation in air condition (BSAC), mechanical treatment plant (MTP), cogeneration system plant (CSP) and gas production plant (GPP) where two independent modules operate, namely, dry/wet methane fermentation (DMF and WMF). Each day, this system generates highly energetic refuse-derived fuel (RDF) for combustion in amounts of 82.2 t for CSP and 127.3 t for GPP, generating 5519 m3 of gas/d. The value of the energy contained in such generated gas and in waste making up an alternative fuel is 1027.4 GJ, which is equivalent to 285.4 MWh. It should be noted that the creation of a waste management system based on the ERWP model assumptions fulfills the criteria of energetic recycling and allows for recovery of energy in the form of gas and heat equivalent to 79,917.6 MWh/a, i.e., 754 kWh/inhabitant/a.

Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are found globally in the environment, but for Taiwan there is a lack of studies on PFAS occurrence, source apportionment, and health risks in drinking water sources. We collected surface water samples from the Baoshan Reservoir of Taiwan and used Positive Matrix Factorization to attribute PFAS contaminants to possible sources. The health index (HI) was used to evaluate the health risk, which was then compared to various international advisory level guidelines. PFOA and PFOS were found to be the most predominant compounds, with concentrations averaging 20.2 ng/L and 16.7 ng/L, respectively. The joint contribution of domestic and commercial waste totaled 61.2% as the predominant source of pollution, followed by urban activities as a secondary source contributing 38.8%. Using the USEPA reference dose, a health risk analysis of Baoshan Reservoir drinking water did not reflect a formal high health risk (HI 1.0), however potential risks to human health may be present since the sum of PFOA and PFOS (130 ng/L) exceeded the USEPA Lifetime Health Advisory level (70 ng/L). This investigation provides information and reference points for further reviews of PFAS presence in public water supplies.

Vapor degreasing with the chlorinated solvents trichloroethylene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, and perchloroethylene is a historically important source of environmental release and contamination. After describing how a vapor degreaser works and the solvents used, we provide a brief history of vapor degreasing in the United States, focusing on specific time periods. The practice originated in about 1930 and was quickly adopted, including by key manufacturers. Its use grew rapidly, particularly during World War II. However, it wasn't until about 1976 with the passage of RCRA that commercial waste haulers became available. During an interim period after the passage of RCRA disposal of liquid spent solvents and sludges was to landfills, thereby simply moving the location of the eventual contamination. Finally, we discuss the most common types of vapor degreaser releases to the environment and some ways that they can be identified. Understanding how a release occurred can help in allocating liability or deve...

Propylene glycol monomethyl ether (PGME) and propylene glycol monomethyl ether acetate (PGMEA) are representative photoresistor thinners used extensively and generated as waste during the display and semiconductor material manufacturing processes. Although the waste thinner is normally retrieved by distillation, the azeotropes of these two thinner components with water limit the distillation performance. In this paper, an extensive design study of enhanced distillation processes was carried out to determine a favorable path for waste thinner recovery. Appropriate thermodynamic models for the design of a waste thinner recovery process were obtained through the regression and validation of experimental vapor-liquid-liquid equilibrium data. An optimal direct sequence using three conventional distillation columns with a decanter was introduced as a base design to overcome the distillation boundary by azeotropes. Several advanced distillation configurations were examined to further improve the energy efficiency of the conventional recovery process. A novel heterogeneous azeotropic dividing-wall column was developed based on process intensification and integration. The proposed enhanced recovery process reduced the energy requirement for waste thinner recovery significantly by 33.1%. The advanced distillation configuration can be an attractive option for improving the economic and environmental efficiency of the commercial waste thinner recovery and recycling processes.

Integrated waste management can bring about huge economic gains. This is applicable in dealing with municipal solid waste, or in any other sector including the commercial sector. Reluctance to invest in the analysis to understand the flow of quantifiable items within the system is the main challenge among the stakeholders, especially from the small and medium enterprises. Failure to comprehend the existence and management of the components within their system boundaries will result in significant economic loss, particularly in the form of waste. Thus, this paper is aimed to study the input and output of materials in a commercial sector, namely a hypermarket, to develop a material flow chart using Substance Flow Analysis software (STAN) and to postulate possible waste reduction via 3R practices. Total consumption at the study premise was then analysed through material flow system analysis, namely via the use of STAN and Microsoft Excel, to produce the material flow balance. The electricity consumption was 3,060 kWh/d while water consumption was 20 m3 and material input averaged at 650 kg per day. The output for energy loss was 3,060 kWh, water discharged was 19 m3, recyclable wastes were 224 kg/day and non-recyclable wastes were 96 kg/day. The premise wasted approximately 2% electricity, 5% water and 43% recyclable materials. Thus, proposed actions by adopting sustainable use of resources and 3R were listed to determine the economic benefits. The study indicated that with appropriate data collection on the input and output of materials one could initiate sustainable practices in resource utilization. Material flow results can be very useful to postulate possible waste reduction via 3R practices. Significant cost reduction can be obtained with the implementation of appropriate sustainable resource usage strategies and 3R practices. Therefore, it is crucially important that the management takes a proactive action to promote sustainable housekeeping practices in the commercial areas.

In debates about recycling and the circular economy, the role of existing organisations that already facilitate the circulation of materials through society can be neglected. Indeed, the social enterprise sector may currently be more significant than the commercial waste management sector in facilitating the circular economy within Australia. Drawing on interviews with organisations involved in collecting and reprocessing used electronics and scrap metal in Australia, the authors detail some of the synergies and tensions between the social enterprises and commercial organisations that have emerged as recycling gains traction through government policy and various forms of product stewardship. The authors conclude with suggestions for policy and governance approaches most likely to facilitate productive and perhaps symbiotic relationships between the two sectors in the future.

MSc (Environmental Science), North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2018 "Abstract not copied" Masters

Garbage problem is often very complex in urban areas. The handling pattern of collecting, transporting and disposing that has been applied up to this day has not yet produced an appropriate solution. This is evident from the data of statistic centre institution in 2015 that 76.31% of the existing waste in the community has not been sorted, while 10.28% sorted to be used and 13.41% sorted to be discarded, showing the community amount of unsorted garbage large enough to necessitate managerial efforts at the waste sources. In designing a systematic and structured waste management system, the generations, compositions, and characteristics of the waste are indispensable. Therefore, a research is conducted on these three dimensions to the non-domestic waste in Semarang City, which involves commercial waste (from the markets, restaurants, and hotels), institutional waste (from the offices and schools). From the research result the average of 0,24kgs/person/day in weight unit of the City’s non-domestical waste generation is derived. The waste composition is dominated by organic waste of around 61.95%, while the rest percentage is inorganic. The management policy is directed with the application of Management Information System model based on Information Technology because of the system’s abilities to effectuate the waste management.

Waste companies need to reduce the cost of collection of the municipal waste, to increase the separation rate of different types of waste, or site of waste source. The collection of waste is an important logistic activity within any city. In this paper, we mainly focus on the daily commercial waste collection problem. One of the approaches for how to resolve this problem is to use optimization algorithms. Ant colony optimisation metaheuristic algorithm (ACO) was used to solve the problem in this paper. This algorithm was adapted for a real data set (Waste Collection). The aim of this paper is to adapt the ACO algorithm and run it on HPC infrastructure to resolve the waste collection problem. We used High-End Application Execution Middleware (HEAppE), that provides smart access to the supercomputing infrastructure (in our case Salomon cluster operated by IT4Innovations National Supercomputing Centre in the Czech Republic). The results showed that the paralelisation of the algorithm is beneficial and brings together with the supercomputing power the possibility to solve larger problems of this type.

The chapter presents an overview of the United Kingdom (UK) waste strategy, highlights the need for more focus on tackling food disposal rates and discusses alternate ways of handling the issue of food waste. A number of studies have drawn attention to the high proportion of food-related waste present in municipal solid waste (MSW). Estimates show that the UK produces around 400 million tonnes of waste annually, of which 29.3 million tonnes is MSW, most of which is disposed of in landfill. The waste strategy for England and Wales published in 2000 sets clear targets for commercial waste, including food waste that is disposed of in landfills. Following the adoption of the strategy requirements, the UK government published a strategy proposal in December 1995 for the sustainable management of waste in England and Wales, entitled Making Waste Work. Certain document sets out the government's waste management policies by building upon the ideas set out in the government's Sustainable Development Strategy.

Aquest document conté originàriament altre material i/o programari només consultable a la Biblioteca de Ciència i Tecnologia Actualment, la Directiva 2008/98/UE estableix un ordre de vies de gestió preferents dels residus. Aquesta jerarquia prioritza la Prevenció de la generació de residus davant de la Preparació per a la reutilització i aquesta sobre la valorització material i després la valorització energètica. En darrer lloc, s'opta per la deposició dels residus en dipòsits controlats. La gestió dels residus a Catalunya en general, i la dels assimilables a municipals del sector comercial i industrial en particular, estan planificades dins d'aquest marc legal a partir del qual ha sorgit un principi molt clar; el residu és un recurs. En els darrers cinc anys a Catalunya la generació d'aquesta tipologia de residus ha augmentat d'un 19'37% l'any 2010 a un 23'90% l'any 2015, a Malgrat de mar, la generació d'aquesta tipologia de residus ha fluctuat incrementant-se i disminuint en aquest període. Malgrat de Mar, avui dia, té implementat el model de recollida segregat per les fraccions del vidre, matèria orgànica i el paper i cartró que es recullen als comerços acollits voluntàriament al Porta a Porta. Quant als envasos només es fa el Porta a Porta per les dependències municipals i tots els hotels del municipi. Des de l'any 2009 que es va començar a implementar el Porta a Porta dels residus comercials i industrials assimilables a municipals, va suposar un augment del 60% de la recollida selectiva. A l'agost hi ha un pic en la producció de residus per tractar-se d'una població turística però encara essent el moment de màxima generació de residus, no s'arriben a omplir els bujols de les diferents activitats econòmiques, en cap cas s'omplen més del 60% de la seva capacitat. També cal destacar que la generació de residus és molt variable entre les diferents tipologies d'activitat (118 litres de mitjana als supermercats i 71 litres al comerç d'electrònica) per tant, és injust que la seva taxa sigui tant similar. La gestió dels residus municipals té unes despeses i uns costos, per tant, des dels Ens Locals s'estableixen sistemes fiscals amb el pagament d'una taxa per part dels productors dels residus però darrerament, altres municipis com Canet de Mar o Argentona ho realitzen mitjançant el Pagament per generació, sistema que ha augmentat el percentatge de recollida selectiva, des d'un mínim d'un 3'5% fins un màxim d'un 74%, en tots els municipis on s'ha aplicat. En aquest treball, per una banda, s'analitza el sistema de recollida de residus comercials Porta a Porta a Malgrat de Mar des d'una perspectiva econòmica, política, logística i ambiental. De l'altra banda i paral·lelament, s'estudia les experiències dels municipis que ja tenen implantat el sistema del Pagament per generació i a continuació, es caracteritza la recollida de la fracció del paper i el cartró al municipi d'estudi. Posteriorment, a partir dels resultats de l'anàlisi del model vigent a Malgrat de Mar s'aprofundeix en els seus punts forts però especialment en els seus punts dèbils, a fi de discutir les principals estratègies polítiques, logístiques i econòmiques de millora per conduir al municipi a un grau de maduresa tal que se li faciliti la transició cap al Pagament per generació. At present, the Directive 2008/98/UE lays down an order of preference of the waste management routes. This hierarchy gives priority to the Prevention of waste generation in front of the Preparation for the reuse and this about the waste value and then the energy value. Finally, you opt for the deposition of the waste in controlled deposits. Waste management in Catalonia in general, and that of the waste assimilated to municipal of the commercial and industrial sector in particular, are planned within this legal framework from which there was a very clear principle; the residue is a resource. In the last five years in Catalonia, the generation of this type of waste has increased from 19 to 37% in 2010 to 23'90% in 2015, in Malgrat de Mar, the generation of this type of waste has been fluctuating by increasing and decreasing in this period. Malgrat de Mar, today, has implemented the model of separated collection to the fractions of glass, organic material and paper and cardboard collected from the shops voluntarily adhered to Door-to-Door. As for containers only the Door-to-Door is applied for the municipal dependencies and all the hotels of the municipality. Since in 2009 it began to implement the Door-to-Door to commercial and industrial waste assimilated to municipal, marked an increase of 60% of the selective collection. In August there is a peak in the production of waste because of the tourism in town but even being the moment of maximum waste generation, do not get to fill in the buckets of the different economic activities, in no case will fill more than 60% of its capacity. It should also be noted that waste generation is highly variable among the different types of activity (118 liters on average in supermarkets and 71 liter in electronics shops) therefore, it is unfair that their waste rates are so similar. The management of municipal waste has expenses and costs, therefore, from the local authorities establish tax systems with the payment of a fee by producers of the waste but lately, other municipalities as Canet de Mar and Argentona do it with using the Pay as you throw. This system has increased the percentage of separate collection, from a minimum of a 3'5% up to a maximum of 74%, in all municipalities where it has been applied. In this paper, firstly, the commercial waste collection Door-to-Door system is analysed in Malgrat de Mar from an economic, political, logistics and environmental point of view. On the other hand and parallely, there is a study of the experiences of the municipalities that have already introduced the system of Pay as you throw. Subsequently, based on the results of the analysis of the present model in Malgrat de Mar we studying depth their strengths but especially their weaknesses in order to discuss the main political, logistics and economic improvement strategies to lead the municipality to a step of maturity so that the transition to Pay as you throw is facilitated.

Rapid growth of urbanization and industrialization in Bangladesh has been coupled with increasing environmental pollution. The coastal and estuarine ecosystems of the country are now facing increasing pollution pressures because of the elevated level of waste discharges from various sources. Major sources of pollution include domestic sewage, industrial waste, commercial waste, agricultural waste, institutional waste, street sweepings, construction debris, mining activities and sanitation residues etc. In this review, status and effect of solid waste pollution, heavy metal pollution, organochlorine pesticides pollution and oil pollution along with the Karnafully River Estuary is assessed by a comprehensive review, recorded by researchers especially on water, sediment and aquatic biota. Different study show that metal concentrations in estuarine water relatively higher due to rapid acceleration of industrial sector. Metal concentrations is higher in fish than water and sediment. Elevated level of trace metals is highly detrimental for fish and human mechanism shown by different studies. Oil pollution is responsible for environmental deterioration due to its adverse effects on estuarine biota, fish and shellfishes, phytoplankton and zooplankton. Industrialization is needed for the development of the country. But it should be eco-friendly for the effective and sustainable development and for the protection of the environment (aquatic).

Residential heat accounts for a large share of final energy consumption in European countries. Hence it offers a large CO2 savings potential: either through reducing heat demand by energy-efficiency retrofitting of buildings or by substituting CO2 intensive heating fuels. Industrial and commercial waste heat could be one such substitute. Using it for residential heating purposes could postpone or even avoid the costly energy-efficiency refurbishing of the building stock. Urban areas differ in their potential for using waste heat in residential space and water heating, depending not only on supply and demand of heat in the aggregate, but also on the makeup of the building stock, waste heat temperature levels and their spatial distribution. Case studies of real-world neighborhoods will help us understand these relationships. The work presented here offers such a case study for Lokstedt, a rather typical neighborhood in the North German city of Hamburg. Residential heat demand in Lokstedt was estimated based on building age, floor space and volume. The potential of industrial and commercial waste heat supply was estimated with data collection from companies in the neighborhood, combined with waste heat characteristics for different sectors taken from literature. We estimated a heat demand of 12.8 GWh/a for the area and a waste heat potential of 0.47–0.93 GWh/a. The available waste heat could, in theory cover about 5% of residential heat demand, accounting for the heat demand that could be saved within 8 years of refurbishing the building stock at the current rate.

This essay explores the cultural economy of commercial waste. Drawing from ethnographic research with Dumpster divers in Seattle, Washington, and other cities with comparable waste streams, it explores the ways in which waste may constitute a distinct cultural-economic logic with the capacity to produce value. In particular, I argue that massive quantities of unspoiled food and other discarded commercial goods with persistent use values constitute a kind of abject capital, the economic significance of which is precisely that it is removed from circulation. Drawing on Giorgio Agamben’s description of the nature of political exclusion, and Julia Kristeva’s work on abjection, I locate this abject capital at the intersection of cultural logics of capitalist exchange and consumer aesthetics. Quarantined in exceptional spaces like the retail or wholesale Dumpster, its economic and cultural value is paradoxically evacuated and preserved in the imprint of its absence from the market and as such is conferred upon those goods remaining upon the shelves. Exception and abjection, therefore, respectively describe the biopolitical and affective dimensions of waste and the preconditions of commodity exchange. I conclude that abject capital may thereby constitute both a functional boundary to capital and a threshold for the inception of those forms of life, such as Dumpster diving and squatting, that are anathema to the dominant market calculus.

Greece has been a full member of the European Union since 1981. The country currently produces about 4.5 million tonnes of municipal and commercial waste annually, equivalent to a per capita waste generation rate of between 400/500 kilograms. Of the total amount of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) generated in 2010, 80% was landfilled contrary to the expectations of the EU landfill directives. In this respect, Greece was among the few EU countries that missed the target of diverting 75% of 1995 levels of biodegradable waste from landfills. Since then, the country has continued to struggle in achieving the minimum targets of the Landfill Directive. This paper critically reviews MSW legislation and compliance in Greece, from the context of the EU Landfill Directive (1999/31/EC). The paper recommends drastic actions to reduce the amount of waste sent to landfill in Greece, if the EU Directive (1999/31/EC) target for 2020 of 35% were to be realised. The paper also recommends encouragement of greater participation in recycling by citizens to meet the 50% recycling target set by the Revised Waste Framework Directive (2008/98/EC).

The high development of the commercial area in Jakarta starting in the 90s which shopping centers sprawling across the city with the concept of a modern market or mall. These commercial wastes generated a high amount of wastes which contains a very high mass fraction of combustibles (such as plastic, paper, and textile). Waste that characterized by a high calorific value would suitable for direct combustion in waste-to-energy (WtE) plants. The objective of this study is to apply the waste to energy concept for utilizing commercial waste as the potential energy of Jakarta’s. The result showed that the energy content of Jakarta’s commercial waste 189.78 ± 23.51 GWh/month, with waste composition 36.33% (paper), 35.71% (plastic) and 14.54% (organic). That potential energy is equivalent to 7.19% of the total energy needed in Jakarta every month.

This article deals with studies on the grain size-related characterization of various types of waste for the production of Solid Recovered Fuel (SRF) for the cement industry. By implementing a suitable combination of the mechanical processes and adjusting the proportions of the waste types used, different properties of SRF in certain parameters can be set. In addition to the process technology, the treated solid waste types themselves have the greatest impact on the final quality of SRF. Here, the practical investigation for the characterization of various grain size classes generated of different solid waste types (packaging waste and commercial waste) used for the production of SRF is described. These investigations have been divided into a series of tests (12) with an industrial waste screen and in further tests with a laboratory screen and chemical analyses of all of the produced grain size classes. The mass distribution of the investigated grain size classes for each type of waste show significant differences. As assumed, the parameters calorific value and dry mass content of all types of waste increase with growing grain size. For most heavy metals and chlorine, no clear trend can be shown. For example, nickel accumulates in the commercial waste types in the grain size class 0 - 20 mm, in the packaging waste in class > 65 mm. The data on waste input material and generation of proper input waste mix is required for production of quality assured and homogeneous SRF for energy recovery in cement industry.

This study provided a detailed description of the waste generation, composition, and characterisation of the commercial activities in a tourism city in Vietnam. Whereby, solid waste from 55 restaurants, 110 shops, 27 handcraft facilities and five markets were collected and classified into 17 categories. Then, physical and chemical characterisations of waste were analysed. The results showed that the commercial waste accounted for 35.1% of municipal waste, in which restaurants were the most significant waste source by 74.5%. The composition of commercial waste was 66.8% for biodegradable waste, 20.1% for recycling materials, 11.3% for combustible waste, and 1.8% for the others. Also, the high moisture content and density, and the low heating value were the characteristics of the commercial waste in a tourism city in Vietnam. Solutions of waste minimisation and improvement of waste quality for incineration were suggested toward the sustainable solid waste management practice.

Zinc (Zn) is a chemical element that has gained more attention lately owing to its possibility to form corrosive deposits in large boilers, such as Waste-to-Energy plants. Zn enters the boilers in many different forms and particularly in waste, the amount of Zn is hard to determine due to both the heterogeneity of waste in general but also due to the fact that little is yet published specifically about the Zn levels in waste. This study aimed to determine the Zn in Swedish waste fuels by taking regular samples from seven different and geographically separate waste combustion plants over a 12-month period. The analysis shows that there is a relation between the municipal solid waste (MSW) content and the Zn-content; high MSW-content gives lower Zn-content. This means that waste combustion plants with a higher share of industrial and commercial waste and/or building and demolition waste would have a higher share of Zn in the fuel. The study also shows that in Sweden, the geographic location of the plant does not have any effect on the Zn-content. Furthermore, it is concluded that different seasons appear not to affect the Zn concentrations significantly. In some plants there was a clear correlation between the Zn-content and the content of other trace metals.

Waste combustion for power production is associated with many problems due to the composition and inhomogeneity of the fuel stream. A reduction of alkaline and chlorine products in the superheater ...

There is a need for Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) stream characterization and composition analysis to allow for an accurate estimation of its recycling potential and for effective management of the entire system. Recycling provides employment and a livelihood for vulnerable social groups such as refugees. The aim of this paper is to determine the composition of MSW in Zaatari Syrian Refugee Camp, where approximately 430,000 Syrian refugees have passed through the camp. The representative waste samples and analysis included household waste and commercial waste produced by the refugees in the selected districts in Zaatari. The waste sampling was performed in 2015 over two seasons to ensure that the seasonal fluctuations in the composition of the waste stream are taken into consideration. Hand sorting was used for classifying the collected wastes into the categories and subcategories. The organic waste represents the main waste category with 53% of the total MSW, while plastics, textile, and paper and cardboard are 12.85%, 10.22% and 9%, respectively. Moreover, the MSW composition percentage in Zaatari Camp is similar to that in municipalities in Jordan with slight disparity. The potential recyclable materials market has been investigated in this study. Plastics and paper and cardboard have significant potential to be separated and collected for recycling purposes. Financial revenues of potential recyclables have been analyzed based on local prices. Recycling model in the camp is also proposed based on the present study findings. Consequently, these results should be taken as a baseline for all Syrian refugees camps in the Middle East, as well as, in Europe.

The push for creating a more competitive and liberalized system for traditional public services, including waste management, has been on the European agenda since the late 1980s. In 2008, changes were made in EU waste legislation allowing source-separated industrial/commercial waste that is suitable for incineration to be traded within the European market. This change has had broad implications for the Danish waste sector, which is characterized by institutionalized municipal control with all streams of waste and municipal ownership of the major treatment facilities allowing the municipal sector to integrate combustible waste in local heat and power generation. This article, applying an institutional approach, maps the institutions and actors of the Danish waste sector and analyses how the regulatory as well as normative pressure to liberalize has been met and partly neutralized in the institutional and political context. The new Danish regulation of 2010 has thus accommodated the specific requirement for liberalization, but in fact only represents a very small step towards a market-based waste management system. On the one hand, by only liberalizing industrial/commercial waste, the Danish Government chose to retain the main features of the established waste system favouring municipal control and hence the institutionalized principles of decentralized enforcement of environmental legislation as well as welfare state considerations. On the other hand, this has led to a technological and financial deadlock, particularly when it comes to reaching the recycling targets of EU, which calls for further adjustments of the Danish waste sector.

Although commercial and household wastes are compositionally similar, common UK practice is for separate collections. This paper uses vehicle routing and scheduling software to predict the benefits of allowing household and commercial wastes to be collected together by a common vehicle fleet. This was compared in a case study in which collections were made from over 25,000 households on an alternate-weekly basis and from 577 commercial premises having one or more collections each week. Modelled joint collections reduced vehicle mileage by up to 9.8%, equating to an annual saving of around £36,800 and a carbon equivalent saving of 2688 kg per annum. The modelled benefits were greatest when a common starting time (6 a.m.) was adopted for the commercial and household collections. The modelled rounds were estimated to have sufficient time and vehicle capacity available to allow an additional 50% of commercial waste to be collected, equating to 35.8 tonnes per week.

Waste management planning requires reliable data concerning waste generation, influencing factors on waste generation and forecasts of waste quantities based on facts. This paper aims at identifying and quantifying differences between different municipalities' municipal solid waste (MSW) collection quantities based on data from waste management and on socio-economic indicators. A large set of 116 indicators from 542 municipalities in the Province of Styria was investigated. The resulting regression model included municipal tax revenue per capita, household size and the percentage of buildings with solid fuel heating systems. The model explains 74.3% of the MSW variation and the model assumptions are met. Other factors such as tourism, home composting or age distribution of the population did not significantly improve the model. According to the model, 21% of MSW collected in Styria was commercial waste and 18% of the generated MSW was burned in domestic heating systems. While the percentage of commercial waste is consistent with literature data, practically no literature data are available for the quantity of MSW burned, which seems to be overestimated by the model. The resulting regression model was used as basis for a waste prognosis model (Beigl and Lebersorger, in preparation).

Solid waste is a major disutility of urbanization in Nigeria as rapid urbanization combined with industrialization in Nigerian cities have created greater concentration of wastes than what these cities’ systems can possibly assimilate. One state where this problem is most severe is Lagos State. The size of the state, coupled with the other factors like population trend, topography, concentration of industries act as potential threat to the limited carrying capacity of the environment. Therefore, if the present annual growth rate in population of 6-8% is to be sustained, there should be an urgent need to de-link economic activities from environmental degradation via an efficient waste management strategy that focuses on waste minimization among others. This research analyzed the impact of user charges, recycling incentive (price of recyclables) and weather variables on both residential and commercial sectors. In addition, income and population density variables were included for the household model using the OLS and ARIMA model. The author found that user charges negatively impacts on waste quantities. Weather variable (temperature) positively influenced wastes quantities. The author recommends the use of variable user charges set appropriately and the encouragement of recycling in the state.

This paper analyzes the amount and characteristics of municipal solid waste (MSW) according to the inhabitant density of population and the business concentration in 25 districts in Seoul. Further, the heat energy recovery and avoided CO 2 emissions of four incineration plants located in residential and commercial areas in Seoul are examined. The amount of residential waste per capita tended to increase as the density of inhabitants decreased. The amount of commercial waste per capita tended to increase as the business concentration increased. The examination of the heat energy recovery characteristics indicated that the four incineration plants produced heat energy that depended on residential or commercial areas based on population and business. The most important result regarding avoided CO 2 emissions was that commercial areas with many office-type businesses had the most effective CO 2 emission savings by combusting 1 kg of waste. Assuming the full-scale operation of the four incineration plants, the amount of saved CO 2 emissions per year was 444 Gg CO 2 and 57,006 households in Seoul can be provided with heat energy equivalent to 542,711 Nm 3 of LNG.

Complications with garment sizing and poor fit inconvenience many consumers who become dissatisfied with such provision on the high street. It is evident that human measurement and classification of the human body based on size and shape are precedent to accurate clothing fit and therefore fundamental to production and consumption. With advancement in technology, automated 3D body scanners designed to capture the shape and size of a human body in seconds and further produce its true-to-scale 3D body model have been developed. The use of data generated is extensive; and include anthropometric dimensions and morphology for the creation of avatars and mannequins. This technology is currently viewed as the frontier in solving fit problems, for instance by generating accurate data for the development of size charts, enabling a pragmatic approach to the offer of mass customisation and also facilitating virtual model fit trials that enhance online clothing shopping experiences. Consumers have become savvier than ever and as the demand for well-fitted garments is increasing, 3D body scanning technology is being viewed as a significant bridge between craftsmanship and computer-aided design technologies. Currently being explored by academic research and not as yet widely implemented across retail sectors, it is expected to facilitate consumer satisfaction and reduce commercial waste due to ‘ill-fit’ returns. There is therefore a vital need to authenticate procedures and establish systems for practice. This paper seeks to assess the application of one such technology to human measurement for clothing provision and tests procedures for its implementation. The methodology presents a case study approach involving the use of one such stateof-the-art technology in the acquisition of measurement data at a metropolitan university in the UK, and advises on the application of the 3D body scanner in research and sampling activities.

The management of municipal solid waste and the associated environmental impacts are subject of growing attention in industrialized countries. European Union has recently strongly emphasized the role of LCA in its waste and resource strategies. The development of sustainable solid waste management systems applying a life cycle perspective requires readily understandable tools for modeling the life cycle impacts of waste management systems. The aim of the paper is to demonstrate the structure, functionalities, and LCA modeling capabilities of the PC-based life cycle-oriented waste management model EASEWASTE, developed at the Technical University of Denmark specifically to meet the needs of the waste system developer with the objective to evaluate the environmental performance of the various elements of existing or proposed solid waste management systems. The EASEWASTE model supports a full life cycle assessment of any user-defined residential, bulky, or garden waste management system. The model focuses on the major components of the waste and reviews each component in terms of the available waste management options, including biogasification and composting, thermal treatment, use on land, material sorting and recycling, bottom and fly ash handling, material and energy utilization, and landfilling. In order to allow the use of the model in an early stage where local data may be limited, default data sets are provided for waste composition and quantities as well as for the waste technologies mentioned above. The model calculates environmental impacts and resource consumptions and allows the user to trace all impacts to their source in a waste treatment processes or in a specific waste material fraction. In addition to the traditional impact indicators, EASEWASTE incorporates impact categories on stored ecotoxicity, specifically developed for representation of the long-term impacts of persistent pollutants in landfilled waste. The model reports data at any stage of the LCA and supports identification of most sensitive parameters as well as overall sensitivity analysis and material balances for all substances passing through the system. The structure of the model is presented, and its functionalities are demonstrated on a hypothetical case study based on waste data from a large Danish municipality. The aim of the case is to demonstrate new waste treatment technologies and their modeling capabilities as well as the LCA modeling capabilities in EASEWASTE to identify the most important impact categories and the main sources of contributions to these in the system for treating the waste. Based on the results, the modeling features, user flexibility, and transparency of the EASEWASTE model are discussed. EASEWASTE is demonstrated to be a versatile and detailed (engineering) model with a strong differentiation of individual fractions, but it requires an engineering background to use all the features. The model is especially developed for the modeling of the handling of municipal solid wastes, and therefore, it does not support other wastes such as demolition and large commercial waste. The model is useful for an iterative approach to waste system modeling; its database access supports a quick primary calculation of the impacts from a designed waste system using default data, and based on this, a gradually refined focusing on the parts which contribute the most to the total impacts. The EASEWASTE model allows the user to supply detailed data for waste generation, waste composition including material fractions and chemical properties, sorting efficiencies, waste collection, and waste treatment technologies. More generic LCA modeling tools developed for LCA of products do not support these steps of the modeling to the same extent, and also the creation and evaluation of waste collection, waste transportation, and waste treatment technology individually or in a designed scenario is much easier in EASEWASTE. EASEWASTE has been used in the modeling of a number of real case studies, and much data have been incorporated into it. Several research projects are currently underway under the Danish 3R (Residual Resources Recovery) research school in support of its further development. There are, however, still many issues that have to be improved significantly to facilitate application by other users than model developers. The improvements in consideration are to provide data for more treatment and disposal technologies and more flexibility. The current version of the model supports the environmental assessment (environmental impacts and resource consumption) of household and small commercial business units waste treatment systems in a Danish context, but it is the ambition that future versions of the model shall support the inclusion of other waste types as well as economic evaluation and that the geographical coverage shall be extended to other countries.

In recent years thermal utilization of mixed wastes and solid recovered fuels has become of increasing importance in European waste management. Since wastes or solid recovered fuels are generally composed of fossil and biogenic materials, only part of the CO(2) emissions is accounted for in greenhouse gas inventories or emission trading schemes. A promising approach for determining this fraction is the so-called radiocarbon method. It is based on different ratios of the carbon isotopes (14)C and (12)C in fossil and biogenic fuels. Fossil fuels have zero radiocarbon, whereas biogenic materials are enriched in (14)C and reflect the (14)CO(2) abundance of the ambient atmosphere. Due to nuclear weapons tests in the past century, the radiocarbon content in the atmosphere has not been constant, which has resulted in a varying (14)C content of biogenic matter, depending on the period of growth. In the present paper (14)C contents of different biogenic waste fractions (e.g., kitchen waste, paper, wood), as well as mixtures of different wastes (household, bulky waste, and commercial waste), and solid recovered fuels are determined. The calculated (14)C content of the materials investigated ranges between 98 and 135pMC.

Both planning and design of integrated municipal solid waste management systems require accurate prediction of waste generation. This research predicted the quantity and distribution of biodegradable municipal waste (BMW) generation within a diverse 'landscape' of residential areas, as well as from a variety of commercial establishments (restaurants, hotels, hospitals, etc.) in the Dublin (Ireland) region. Socio-economic variables, housing types, and the sizes and main activities of commercial establishments were hypothesized as the key determinants contributing to the spatial variability of BMW generation. A geographical information system (GIS) 'model' of BMW generation was created using ArcMap, a component of ArcGIS 9. Statistical data including socio-economic status and household size were mapped on an electoral district basis. Historical research and data from scientific literature were used to assign BMW generation rates to residential and commercial establishments. These predictions were combined to give overall BMW estimates for the region, which can aid waste planning and policy decisions. This technique will also aid the design of future waste management strategies, leading to policy and practice alterations as a function of demographic changes and development. The household prediction technique gave a more accurate overall estimate of household waste generation than did the social class technique. Both techniques produced estimates that differed from the reported local authority data; however, given that local authority reported figures for the region are below the national average, with some of the waste generated from apartment complexes being reported as commercial waste, predictions arising from this research are believed to be closer to actual waste generation than a comparison to reported data would suggest. By changing the input data, this estimation tool can be adapted for use in other locations. Although focusing on waste in the Dublin region, this method of waste prediction can have significant potential benefits if a universal method can be found to apply it effectively.

Data on the development and operating costs for a proposed commercial waste heat aquaculture facility dedicated to culture two species on a diseasonal sequence are presented in this paper. The facility would be located at the Mercer Generating Station, a coal-fired electric power plant, near Trenton, New Jersey. The concept of reliability indices associated with each of the principal cost and income elements of the proposed aquaculture facility is also introduced. Plots of Return-on-Investment vs economic factors and reliability indices are used to depict the venture profitability and confidence of success expected with some of the aquaculture species being studied and the production plans under consideration. Rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri [Richardson]) is the principal income-producing species at the present time and channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus [Rafinesque]) is being tested as the warm weather species. High density culture experiments with freshwater shrimp (Macrobrachium rosenbergii [de Man]) have not met the criteria for profitability to date; however, because of the market potential for this species, additional studies are underway. Return-on-investment analyses were run by varying the principal parameters determining the profitability of a commercial venture. These included the culture species, production density, plant size and useful life, processing facilities, sale price of products and type of financing for venture. The project is jointly sponsored by the National Science Foundation (Division of Problem Focused Research Applications) and PSE&G Company. The venture analyses are based on experimental studies being conducted by Trenton State College and Rutgers University.

Municipal waste charges in Spain are very widespread, although their application varies significantly among different municipalities. Most commonly, waste charges are implemented as a flat rate, but some of them depend on indicators such as household water consumption, the land area of the property or the value of the real estate. Only one residential pay-as-you-throw scheme has been applied so far. It was a pay-per-bag scheme implemented in Torrelles de Llobregat, Barcelona. A number of other systems focussing only on commercial waste have been implemented in Spain. Several factors suggest that new pay-as-you-throw schemes will be adopted in the near future. In 2000 no municipalities had door-to-door collection schemes; since then over 70 municipalities have implemented them. In addition to this, some regions encourage the separate collection of commercial waste, by means of doorstep schemes. In all of these areas, variable charging systems could be easily adopted. Additionally, regarding waste charges, the National Waste Plan (2000-2006) advocated for the implementation of "pilot experiences for the quantitative application of the polluter-pays-principle". The tendency towards these variable charging systems in Europe will also favour their introduction in Spain.

The recovery of solid waste is required by waste legislation, and also by the public. In some industries, however, waste is mostly disposed of in landfills despite of its high recoverability. Practical experiences show that the fast food industry is one example of these industries. A majority of the solid waste generated in the fast food industry is packaging waste, which is highly recoverable. The main research problem of this study was to find out the means of promoting the recovery of packaging waste generated in the fast food industry. Additionally, the goal of this article was to widen academic understanding on packaging waste management in the fast food industry, as the subject has not gained large academic interest previously. The study showed that the theoretical recovery rate of packaging waste in the fast food industry is high, 93% of the total annual amount, while the actual recovery rate is only 29% of the total annual amount. The total recovery potential of packaging waste is 64% of the total annual amount. The achievable recovery potential, 33% of the total annual amount, could be recovered, but is not mainly because of non-working waste management practices. The theoretical recovery potential of 31% of the total annual amount of packaging waste cannot be recovered by the existing solid waste infrastructure because of the obscure status of commercial waste, the improper operation of producer organisations, and the municipal autonomy. The research indicated that it is possible to reach the achievable recovery potential in the existing solid waste infrastructure through new waste management practices, which are designed and operated according to waste producers’ needs and demands. The theoretical recovery potential can be reached by increasing the consistency of the solid waste infrastructure through governmental action.

This article focuses on systematically highlighting the ways to optimize waste-to-energy plants in terms of their energy efficiency as an indicator of the positive effect with regard to climate control. Potentials for increasing energy efficiency are identified and grouped into categories. The measures mentioned are illustrated by real-world examples. As an example, district cooling as a means for increasing energy efficiency in the district heating network of Vienna is described. Furthermore a scenario analysis shows the relevance of energy efficiency in waste management scenarios based on thermal treatment of waste with regard to climate control. The description is based on a model that comprises all relevant processes from the collection and transportation up to the thermal treatment of waste. The model has been applied for household-like commercial waste. The alternatives compared are a combined heat and power incinerator, which is being introduced in many places as an industrial utility boiler or in metropolitan areas where there is a demand for district heating and a classical municipal solid waste incinerator producing solely electrical power. For comparative purposes a direct landfilling scenario has been included in the scenario analysis. It is shown that the energy efficiency of thermal treatment facilities is crucial to the quantity of greenhouse gases emitted. Energie-Umweltmanagement

Convenience food manufacture generates considerable waste due to the planning of production being undertaken based upon forecasted orders. This problem is particularly acute for products that have a very short shelf-life and are subject to considerable volatility in demand, such as ready-meals. Overproduction wastes (OPWs) typically result in finished products being disposed of through commercial waste channels, which is both costly for manufacturers and represents poor and unsustainable use of resources. This paper reports on a hybrid two-stage planning technique for the reduction of OPW by utilizing the advantages offered through both static and dynamic approaches to production scheduling. The application of this planning approach to a case study ready-meal manufacturer through the development of commercially available planning software is also described.

In this investigation aerobic and thermophilic (57°C) biodegradation of raw and partly digested municipal sludges and night soils is optimised at a commercial waste treatment centre. The feed is monitored to 5–7% dry solids and BOD7 concentration of 30–50 g kg−1. BOD7 removal exceeds 85%. Effluents are accepted for land infiltration.

In many regions and countries, national and international targets have been set for municipal solid waste (MSW) recycling, recovery and diversion from landfill. To develop and implement effective strategies to meet these targets requires reliable information on the composition of all parts of the MSW stream. Previous studies on the composition of MSW in the United Kingdom have covered only some components of the waste stream or very localised geographical areas. This research was designed to obtain and analyse representative samples of all the components of the MSW stream across Wales. Samples were taken of household-colleted waste, civic amenity site waste, commercial waste and litter in nine local authority areas across the country and the waste samples were sorted into categories by material type. A questionnaire survey was also undertaken among the households sampled. The results from the research estimate that 36% of MSW in Wales consists of recyclable material and a further 28% is compostable. Sixty-two percent of this MSW is classed as biodegradable and packaging material accounts for 17% of the total. Electrical and electronic goods account for 2% and 0.8% of the MSW consists of potentially hazardous material.

The move from landfill-based to resource-based waste management systems requires a greater knowledge of the composition of municipal solid waste. This paper draws together the findings of municipal solid waste (MSW) compositional surveys undertaken in the United Kingdom. The results from recent surveys show a good agreement over the composition of household-collected waste, but less agreement over civic amenity site waste composition. There is insufficient data to allow comparisons of the commercial waste element of municipal waste or of the other components, and further work is necessary to produce more reliable estimates of the composition of these streams. The use of questionnaire surveys and analysis of the results suggests that the size and age profile of a household influence the generation of household-collected waste. Some research suggests that the waste container provided by the local authority and the socio-economic classification of a household also influence household-collected waste generation, but other studies failed to find this link. Further research is required to investigate this by surveying all of the waste disposal routes available to specific households.

Controlled field experiments were carried out for monitoring the emissions of three plastic commercial household waste bins, which were adapted for studying the effect of aeration process in the evolved volatiles, during house storing of green food waste for 2 weeks, prior to collection. Three experimental scenarios were examined based on no aeration (“NA,” closed commercial waste bin), diffusion-based aeration (“DA,” closed commercial waste bin with tiny holes), and enforced aeration (“EA,” closed commercial waste bin with tiny holes and enforced aeration). The monitoring of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from organic household kitchen waste was performed using solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) analysis. Portable sensors were also used for monitoring selected gases and parameters of environmental, bioprocess, and health interest (e.g., CO2, O2, H2S, CH4, NH3, % RH, waste temperatures). VOC emissions are strongly dependent on the waste material. The most frequent VOCs identified over the storing waste, showing over 50 % appearance in all examined samples, were terpenes (e.g., di-limonene, beta-myrcene, delta-3-carene, alpha-pinene, alpha-terpinolene, linalool, etc.), sulfides (dimethyl disulfide), aromatics (benzene, 1-methyl-2-(2-propenyl)), alkanes (e.g., decane, dodecane), ketones (2-propanone), esters (e.g., acetic acid ethyl ester, acetic acid methyl ester), and alcohols (e.g., 3-cyclohexen-1-ol, 4-methyl-1-(1-methylethyl)). The prominent role of terpenes in the “pre-compost” odor and especially that of di-limonene was highlighted. In all examined scenarios, the emitted volatiles were increased at raised temperatures and later decreased in time. Aeration of waste bins slightly affected the volatilization process resulting in higher profiles of VOCs uniformity in the composition of VOCs was also noted. Slight modifications of commercial waste bins may favor the initiation of home composting. © 2016, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. 23 9 8890 8901 Cited By :3

Waste generation is an issue which has caused wide public concern in modern societies, not only for the quantitative rise of the amount of waste generated, but also for the increasing complexity of some products and components. Waste collection is a highly relevant activity in the reverse logistics system and how to collect waste in an efficient way is an area that needs to be improved. This paper analyzes the major contribution about Waste Collection Vehicle Routing Problem (WCVRP) in literature. Based on a classification of waste collection (residential, commercial and industrial), firstly the key findings for these three types of waste collection are presented. Therefore, according to the model (Node Routing Problems and Arc Routing problems) used to represent WCVRP, different methods and techniques are analyzed in this paper to solve WCVRP. This paper attempts to serve as a roadmap of research literature produced in the field of WCVRP.

A by product from steel industry mainly known as blast furnace slag is a waste product which was tested for the removal of As(III), from ground water. Steel slag is a commercial waste material mainly consisting of SiO2, Al2O3 and CaO, the former two chemicals being major components of zeolites and the latter a major component of Hydroxyapatite (HAP). Arsenic is highly toxic, mobile and predominant species present in groundwater. Batch experiment was performed to determine the feasibility of steel industry waste as an adsorbent for treatment of heavy metal present in ground water at a wide range of pH 3-12. The results suggest that steel slag is a suitable candidate for As(V) remediation and economically viable to apply in the areas where cost of a purification process is high.

International audience; Convenience food manufacture generates considerable waste through poor planning of production. This problem is particularly acute for products that have a very short shelf life and will be disposed of as waste should their shelf life expire. Chilled ready-meals are convenience foods with relatively short shelf lives and volatile consumer demands; their manufacture is based on forecasted volumes and when demand has been over-predicted, considerable wastes are created. This is referred to as OverProduction Waste which typically sees finished product disposed of through commercial waste channels due to lack of demand. The research reported in this paper has investigated the generation of a responsive demand management framework for the reduction of overproduction wastes.

In this paper, we address a real life waste collection vehicle routing problem with time windows (VRPTW) with consideration of multiple disposal trips and drivers' lunch breaks. Solomon's well-known insertion algorithm is extended for the problem. While minimizing the number of vehicles and total traveling time is the major objective of vehicle routing problems in the literature, here we also consider the route compactness and workload balancing of a solution since they are very important aspects in practical applications. In order to improve the route compactness and workload balancing, a capacitated clustering-based waste collection VRPTW algorithm is developed. The proposed algorithms have been successfully implemented and deployed for the real life waste collection problems at Waste Management, Inc. A set of waste collection VRPTW benchmark problems is also presented in this paper.Waste collection problems are frequently considered as arc routing problems without time windows. However, that point of view can be applied only to residential waste collection problems. In the waste collection industry, there are three major areas: commercial waste collection, residential waste collection and roll-on-roll-off. In this paper, we mainly focus on the commercial waste collection problem. The problem can be characterized as a variant of VRPTW since commercial waste collection stops may have time windows. The major variation from a standard VRPTW is due to disposal operations and driver's lunch break. When a vehicle is full, it needs to go to one of the disposal facilities (landfill or transfer station). Each vehicle can, and typically does, make multiple disposal trips per day. The purpose of this paper is to introduce the waste collection VRPTW, benchmark problem sets, and a solution approach for the problem. The proposed algorithms have been successfully implemented and deployed for the real life waste collection problems of Waste Management, the leading provider of comprehensive waste management services in North America with nearly 26,000 collection and transfer vehicles.

Solid waste reduction through recycling is widely viewed as a viable strategy. This has been promoted in many countries by government policies and legislation with more drive towards organised recycling. Organised recycling refers to the programmes where municipalities require waste generators to set aside certain materials so that they do not enter the mixed waste stream but can be collected and delivered for recycling. In developing countries, its promotion is often not preceded by an objective assessment of practical conditions on the ground in terms of potential constraints and opportunities. This paper discusses the existing state of recycling in Gaborone and highlights the potential constraints and opportunities of such an approach. A field investigation was carried out to examine possible constraints and opportunities to recycling. The investigation involved characterisation of household and commercial waste, a survey of secondary materials markets, key informant interviews and physical observations. It was found that some of the constraints to organised recycling are lack of specific incentives to promote recycling, limited municipal implementation capacity and lack of reform of the municipal waste management departments. Fragmentation of the recycling industry, sourcing materials free of charge and municipal officials'attitudes that favour the status quo are also possible constraints. However, there are also some opportunities for the enhancement of recycling, such as policy and legislative support and high recovery for some selected materials by the private sector that operates relatively unaided. The paper concludes that on the basis of the identified constraints and opportunities, adopting organised recycling may not be a viable option. The emphasis of a recycling strategy for Gaborone and other cities with similar characteristics should be on supporting private sector initiatives through appropriate incentives.

Waste sorts were conducted during each of the four quarters (or seasons) of 1996 at the City of Columbia Sanitary Landfill. A detailed physical sampling protocol was outlined. Weight fractions of 32 waste components were quantified from all geographic areas that contribute to the Columbia Sanitary Landfill using a two-way stratification method, which accounted for variations in geographical regions and seasons. Comparisons of solid waste generated between locations and seasons were conducted at the 80% confidence level. The composition of the entire waste stream was 41% paper, 21% organic, 16% plastic, 6% metal, 3% glass and 13% other waste. Paper was the largest composition and glass was the smallest composition for all geographical regions. The result of this study was also compared with a 1987 Columbia, Missouri study conducted by EIERA (1987), with studies conducted in other states such as Minnesota, Wisconsin, Oregon and with national study conducted by the USEPA (USEPA 530-R-96-001, PB96-152 160. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste, Washington, DC). The results of studies from other states are different from this study due to different local conditions, different methodologies and a different scope. There was a small (5%) increase in per capita weight from 1987 to 1996. The total per capita weight in the present study was 60% greater than the national per capita weight reported by the USEPA (1996) due to that the USEPA report excluded industrial, construction and certain commercial waste. The total per capita weight agrees with the national per capita weight for municipal waste reported by Tchobanoglous (1993), which included industrial, construction and commercial sources. The geographical and seasonal effects on the waste composition are evaluated and discussed. Statistical analysis indicates that waste characteristics are different among geographical regions and seasons. The potential for waste recovery and reduction is also discussed.

The Waste Disposal Regulation which became effective March 1, 2001 stipulates that from June 1, 2005 biodegradable residential household and commercial waste may only be deposited on landfills after thermal or mechanical-biological pre-treatment. The Regulation aims at preventing generation of landfill gases that are detrimental to health and climate, and discharge of pollutants from landfills into the groundwater. Waste calculations for the year 2005 predict a volume of 28 million tons. Existing incineration and mechanical-biological treatment plants cover volumes of 14 and 2.5 million tons, respectively. Consequently, their capacity does not meet the demand in Germany. Waste disposal plans have been prepared in the German Federal State of Saxony-Anhalt since 1996 and potential sites for garbage incineration plants have been identified. Energy and waste management companies have initiated application procedures for thermal waste treatment plants and utilization of energy. Health Departments and the Hygiene Institute contributed to the approval procedure by providing the required Health Impact Assessment. We recommended selecting sites in the vicinity of large cities and conurbations and - taking into account the main wind direction - preferably in the northeast. Long-distance transport should be avoided. Based on immission forecasts for territorial background pollution, additional noise and air pollution were examined for reasonableness. In addition, providing structural safety of plants and guaranteeing continuous monitoring of emission limit values of air pollutants, was a prerequisite for strict observance of the 17 (th) BImSchV (Federal Decree on the Prevention of Immissions). The paper informs about planning, construction and conditions for operating the combined garbage heating and power station in Magdeburg-Rothensee (600,000 t/a). Saxony-Anhalt's waste legislation requires non-recyclable waste to be disposed of at the place of its generation, if possible, and utilized as a renewable energy source. This requirement is satisfied in this location. The potential health hazard for residents living in the impact radius is rated low.