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Homosexual activity was one of the many strands that composed the fabric of male experience, one that not only grew out of established social bonds and patterns of collective life but it even contributed in creative ways to fashioning and reinforcing them. However it was only in the last few decades that historians have· begun to study homosexuality. In past cultures the term was normally associated with sex between males which was not only a common and integral feature of daily life but it also formed part of a universe of experience and values that differed substantially from our own. Past cultures did not clearly separate persons into the categories of 'homosexuals' and 'heterosexuals'. The terms 'sodomy' and 'sodomite' were standard in the juridical and religious language of Malta, as in the rest of pre-modem Europe, for conveying same-sex relations. The terms might however seem to work as substitutes to each other, for in some contexts they appear to have much the same meanings. Sexual interactions were usually structured by age where the passive partner in same-sex sodomy was usually relatively young., peer-reviewed

In early modern Malta, as in the rest of Europe, there existed two major systems by which one could explain health and sickness, life and death or, general success and failure in everyday life. The first was based on the general belief that God's omnipresence in the world served as an active force in which the good were rewarded and the impious Were punished. God showed his hand on the malevolence of the world in the devastation caused by warring activities or, the infliction of famine and plague. It was believed that the only way these scourges could be controlled was by resorting to supernatural power, Belief in supernatural healing may have been largely circular reasoning but since it was mostly ecclesiastical in nature it was believed to be supernatural and had a vast spiritual and therapeutic effect on the majority of the people. The other view was that put forward by learned medicine, based as it was on natural philosophy, which it largely borrowed from the Graeco-Roman world of antiquity and adapted to the Christian tradition. It was a view in which elements and humours were believed to govern everything in the natural world from meteorology to medicine. Pseudo-sciences such as astrology, magic and alchemy formed an integral part of this worldview and claimed to offer ways to understand and control the environment. In essence learned medicine was little different from popular magical healing since the practitioners had no real understanding of the circulation of blood, the nervous system, the digestive system nor anything else. The prescriptions they prepared were of little or no help and were indeed often potentially lethal. In order to give the impression that they were doing something useful physicians normally subjected their patients to a regime of emetics, purges and bleeding, as the normal forms of intervention available. Nonetheless one must admit that for all its weaknesses the medicinal healing of the times had a very powerful effect on the worldview of people from all social levels. In short the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries were a time when the appeal of medical knowledge was almost entirely influenced by classical texts based on Greek, and to some extent Roman, popular knowledge. Medical practice was essentially based on Galenic medicine, which changed very little over the centuries until the late eighteenth century., peer-reviewed

On their expulsion from Rhodes in January 1523 the Knights of St John were followed by a Greek refugee community which originally numbered around 5,000 in 1530. Most of these had eventually settled in Birgu and came to form three Greek parishes there. It seems that during the first few decades of the Order's rule matters went relatively well for the Greek Catholic minority. Thus during his Apostolic Visit to Malta between 1574-1575 Mgr Pietro Dusina noted that the three of them catered for 74 households within the city renamed Vittoriosa. Mgr Dusina even interviewed three Greek rite priests namely Papas Manoli Greco, Papas Joanne de Jasorino and Papas Angelino Metaxi all of whom were asked questions about their ordination and several other general questions. The priests gave details on the rituals involved during baptism, marriage and burial. They also explained that they did not confess penitents because only the elderly priests did so in the Greek rite but they performed the extreme unction to sick. All rituals were carried out according to the Greek rite and they followed Greek rite books closely. Most importantly Papas Manoli declared that he taught Christian doctrine to children in conformity to the Greek rite. By 1587, the most important of these parishes, the one dedicated to Our Lady of Damascus, was transferred to Valletta, while by 1617 the other two parishes had ceased to function. The existence of the Greek community was already flagging by the end of the sixteenth century, though the use of the Greek language survived well into the seventeenth century. Those Greeks, attracted by commerce and work opportunities, who settled in Malta naturally abided to the Byzantine rite whose representatives made their utmost to remain undisturbed in their jurisdiction. But the number of faithful who adhered to such congregations continued to diminish so that a general decline in the Greek community could be noticed by the middle of the seventeenth century. However, one can still find records and evidence of the existence of this community in Malta., peer-reviewed

The educational achievements of early modern Malta must be set against a background of the widespread illiteracy in Europe at the time. It is probable that half the men and a much higher percentage of women were illiterate, even in the more advanced states of Europe. Nonetheless, there is evidence that literacy was far more widespread than is often thought, especially if one takes into account the number of persons accused of owning or perusing prohibited books in various parts of Catholic Europe. By the middle of the 16th century, the printed book had been produced in sufficient quantities that made it accessible to anyone who could read. Why could such a situation develop? It was perhaps thanks to the better opportunities for instruction that had, by the 16th century, become more extensive than before. Yet popular education hardly ever included Latin-the language of instruction par excellence-which was usually taught at grammar schools and universities for specialised learning. It seems though that non-Latinists made some progress in their studies through private reading in the vernacular. This may point out to a greater accessibility of elementary education to a larger number of people than had been possible in the late Middle Ages. Such teaching mainly consisted of reading, writing, simple arithmetic and the learning of catechism. It was at that time that Latin began to lose ground in Europe. The reading public was becoming increasingly a lay public comprising women, tradesmen, and others with hardly any knowledge of the language. This was the main reason why the leaders of the Reformation had chosen to write in the vernacular, while Latin survived only because it continued to serve as the official language of the Catholic Church. This process also took place in Hospitaller Malta., peer-reviewed

Since times immemorial the Maltese islands were heavily dependent on the importation of food from abroad which was carried out by means of seaward communications. Thus, until modern times inland transport has played second fiddle and was for long stretches of lime, even neglected, by various administrations ruling the islands. During this period the best way to get around the island was by mule or donkey, although this was not always possible during the winter months. This resulted in the development of a trade centred on the purchase and sale of donkeys and mules, both for use in Malta and for export to Sicily and beyond. This state of affairs remained until the early years of British rule., peer-reviewed

Books reviewed: Joseph A. FITZMYER, Romans (Anchor Bible 33, Doubleday; New York 1993) xxxiv, 793 pp. -- Baruch A.LEVINE, Numbers. 1-20 (Anchor Bible 4, Doubleday; New York 1993) xvi, 528pp. -- Piero CODA, Dio tra gli uomini. Breve eris/ologia, (Edizioni Piemme; Casale Monferrato 1991) 250pp., N/A

In his description of Malta, Jean Quintin d'Autun observed that 'the people have a Sicilian character, with a mixture of African ... The people are very devoted to their religion ... [which] is wonderfully practised in the whole island.' Apart from Mdina 'and some houses in the suburb', the Maltese lived in makeshift houses roofed with tiles or reeds, 'which one would take … for African huts'. Above all, the Maltese depended on Sicily for their grain supplies and used thistles and cow dung for fuel, as timber had to be imported: 'the people, conscious of their country's sterility, live a very frugal life'. In the late eighteenth century, Malta was described as a country of growing material prosperity. The Order's rule had brought law and order, security as well as prosperity to the Maltese. The population, which in the early sixteenth century had barely reached 17,000 Souls, nearly toppled the 100,000 mark in 1798. Splendid buildings and a relatively high standard of living, 'higher than anywhere else in the Mediterranean, had changed life in this outpost of Europe dramatically'. The income derived from the corso, the profits of trade, and the steady flow of the Order's revenues (in the form of responsiones) were among the most important driving forces behind such change. The Order was the single most important driving factor behind this complete transformation., peer-reviewed

The incredible richness and diversity of the Inquisition sources makes possible their use to shed light on virtually every aspect of early modern social, religious, legal and cultural history. This is particularly true of the criminal proceedings which in their concern for accuracy, often catch the spoken word with apparent precision. The instructions to interrogators were quite specific on this point, telling them to 'ensure that the notary writes not only all the answers of the accused but also all his comments and gestures and everything that he says under torture, including all his sighs, cries, laments and tears'. Trial records may therefore lead to the discovery of forgotten models of thought and emotion which could not be recovered in any other way., peer-reviewed

This paper analyses two and a half years of witchcraft accusations in mid-seventeenth century Malta before the Inquisition Tribunal. Several individual cases are described and discussed in the light of a particular pattern of behaviour which demonstrate how magic gave the individual confidence in the face of fear and provided an outlet for hostility, by attempting to explain misfortune, failure and reveal the causes of illness. Although often unsuccessful magic assigned a human explanation to terrifying events and in so doing converted these events into a human rather than an extra human context. Socially magic provided an outlet for aggression engendered by the antagonism and frustration of social living. Witchcraft served to regulate sex antagonism and to provide a means of demanding cultural conformity by furnishing a criminal act of which deviants may be accused. The witches served as convenient scape goats for such offences., peer-reviewed

The Bull Licet ab initio, issued on 21 July 1542 by Pope Paul Ill, created a totally reformed Inquisition. It was clearly Inspired by the recent success of the Spanish Inquisition, which in turn had been set up to suit the particular needs of the new and growing nation-empire that was Spain. This new Tribunal, more commonly known as the Holy Office, was mainly intended to oppose the doctrines of Luther and the other flourishing Protestant sects. The Holy Supreme Congregation, under Cardinal Giovanni Pietro Caraffa (later Pope Paul IV), gained among its many privileges that of creating Inquisitors who were to be given the appropriate number of staff to help them in any town, province, or place. The first attempt was also made to compile an Index of prohibited books deemed likely to propagate false teachings., peer-reviewed

A brief account of pilgrims that came to Malta during the 17th century to visit St. Paul's Grotto in Rabat. During the 17th century there was a rise in visits to the Grotto attributed both to the widespread devotion towards St. Paul and the renewed popularity of Malta after the Great Siege of 1565., peer-reviewed

Ad Patriam (O Melita Infelix) was discovered by coincidence in a volume of the Magna Curia Castellania - the Grand Master's courts. In the second volume of a section entitled "Cedulae, Suplicae et Taxationes" for the years 1565-66, I came across this poem signed by "Lucas de Armenia – Patricius Melivetanus". Ad Patriam is to be found on the recto of the last folio. The poem consists of twelve lines and is written in simple Latin verse based on the distribution of long and short syllables. It has rhythm which could be heard when read aloud. Other indications of its rhythm are the scribblings found all over the sheet of paper but notably the signs above the first verse and beside every couple of verses. Underneath the poem one finds a dedication which reads: "AI molto mag. signor mio da fratello honorando". The signature is however illegible and it is difficult to deduce to whom it was really dedicated. One could also note various other attempts at composition. The handwriting of Luca de Armenia is legible and is typical of that of the second half of the sixteenth century, when it, in fact, was written. The formal title of the poem is "Ad Patriam", but de Armenia himself seems to prefer to call it "O Melita Infelix" which constitutes the introductory phrase of the poem. Furthermore this same phrase is found twice again at the end of the poem. The signature shows that de Armenia considered himself to be not only a Patrician but also a Maltese citizen. Details of his life are given in this article., peer-reviewed

The Protestant Reformation, which began in Germany in 1518, met willing sympathizers everywhere in Europe. The condition of the Church had been much the same throughout Christendom: corruption, worldliness, spiritual lassitude, and immorality had everywhere taken the upper hand. It was in consequence of this unchristian attitude of the Church that anticlericalism, together with the Humanist reaction of the Renaissance to these abuses, gained popularity. This was the atmosphere in which Cardinal Carafa, in July 1542, secured from Pope Paul III the bull Licet ab initio, creating a: totally reformed Inquisition for Italy. In this position he had to fight against all kinds of Protestant heresies. Books had to be severely censored, as printing helped the spread of such ideas. But it was only in 1559, the year he was elected Pope as Paul IV, that the Index Librorum Prohibitorum was published. The effect of the Index was soon to become apparent as it enabled the Church to conduct a policing action over all published literature. In Malta the Inquisition enabled the Church to exercise strict control over books and other publications reaching the island, inhibiting their circulation for almost three centuries. In Sicily the first mention of the Lutheran heresy is dated 1529 at the time of Fra Eremio de Tripedibus, an Augustinian monk of Maratea in the kingdom of Naples, who was also master of Theology, In the opinion of C.A. Garufi, this date is doubtful as Lutheran ideas had, by then, just seeped through the Venetian Republic, then considered the most liberal of Italian States. Unlike Malta in the times of the Order of St John's rule, the Kingdoms of Naples and Sicily had steadfastly resisted the establishment of the Roman Inquisition. Liberatore mentions the fact that when Charles V tried to introduce it in 1544, the nobility raised considerable objections. They feared that the Viceroy would exploit it to his own advantage, thereby gaining a stronger position. At times, however, heretics, especially in Naples, were sent to Rome to be tried there. The two Kingdoms, like the rest of the Spanish Empire, including tiny Malta, were greatly influenced by prohibited literature coming mainly through France. Indeed, the presence of this kind of literature in Malta raised fears that Lutheranism would become established in Malta. This prompted the response of the inquisitor who persecuted any Lutheran sympathisers., peer-reviewed

While describing the Maltese character, Frederick M. Lacroix observed that 'the Maltese are intelligent, hardworking, clever and can surely succeed in all fields of work ... but the English Government looks at the occupation of Malta solely and entirely as an important fortress colony and is indifferent towards the interests of its inhabitants.' Lacroix was writing in 1848, at a time when the French and the British were not exactly on friendly terms but his account seems fairly reasonable if compared to that of Senior Nassau who, in 1882, wrote that 'Maltese incomes are so small that the attempt to keep the appearance which the English think only decent, becomes a ruinous expense.' The Maltese maintained a cool relationship with the British, mixing very little at least until the 1930s. The Sliema area was the first part of the island to adapt an Anglicized style and sub-culture. The Church maintained its dominant position in Maltese society. However, as a large part of the population moved to the suburbs of Valletta and the three cities, the rural population shrank and more people became economically dependent on British wages and harbor activities., peer-reviewed

The records of the Tribunal of the Inquisition constitute a great mine of informal ion for most aspects of Maltese history. The evolution of the Tribunal from a department of the Bishop's Curia to an independent jurisdictional power is a significant development, for eventually the Tribunal evolved into the most formidable set-up during the Order's rule in Malta. These developments are discussed in this paper., peer-reviewed