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The World Wide Web has become a common platform for interactive software development. Most web applications feature custom user interfaces used by millions of people every day. Information architecture addresses the structural design of information to build quality web applications with improved usability of content, navigation, and findability. One of the most frequently utilized information architecture methods is card sorting—an affordable, user-centered approach for eliciting and evaluating categories and navigable items. Card sorting facilitates decision-making during the development process based on users' mental models of a given application domain. However, although the qualitative analysis of card sorts has become common practice in information architecture, the quantitative analysis of card sorting is less widely applied. The reason for this gap is that quantitative analysis often requires the use of customized techniques to extract meaningful information for decision-making. To facilitate this process and support the structuring of information, we propose a methodology for the quantitative analysis of card-sorting results in this paper. The suggested approach can be systematically applied to provide clues and support for decisions. These might significantly impact the design and, thus, the final quality of the web application. Therefore, the approach includes proper goodness values that enable comparisons among the results of the methods and techniques used and ensure the suitability of the analyses performed. Two publicly available datasets were used to demonstrate the key issues related to the interpretation of card sorting results and the overall suitability and validity of the proposed methodology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The debate as to whether language influences cognition has been long standing but has yielded conflicting findings across domains such as colour and kinship categories. Fewer studies have investigated systems such as nominal classification (gender, classifiers) across different languages to examine the effects of linguistic categorisation on cognition. Effective categorisation needs to be informative to maximise communicative efficiency but also simple to minimise cognitive load. It therefore seems plausible to suggest that different systems of nominal classification have implications for the way speakers conceptualise relevant entities. A suite of seven experiments was designed to test this; here we focus on our card sorting experiment, which contains two sub-tasks — a free sort and a structured sort. Participants were 119 adults across six Oceanic languages from Vanuatu and New Caledonia, with classifier inventories ranging from two to 23. The results of the card sorting experiment reveal that classifiers appear to provide structure for cognition in tasks where they are explicit and salient. The free sort task did not incite categorisation through classifiers, arguably as it required subjective judgement, rather than explicit instruction. This was evident from our quantitative and qualitative analyses. Furthermore, the languages employing more extreme categorisation systems displayed smaller variation in comparison to more moderate systems. Thus, systems that are more informative or more rigid appear to be more efficient. The study implies that the influence of language on cognition may vary across languages, and that not all nominal classification systems employ this optimal trade-off between simplicity and informativeness. These novel data provide a new perspective on the origin and nature of nominal classification.

The study of visual content using qualitative methods currently involves much scholarly work in the field of digital humanities. Documentary films are considered among those objects defined as visual content and are therefore not the focus of most attention within Film Studies. One of the best-known researchers in this area, Bill Nichols, proposed a theoretical classification of six documentary voices that is widely recognized in academic circles. However, the classification is based on induction and intuition which, until now, have not been verified in accordance with the evidence. This study proposes a mixed qualitative and quantitative methodology that allows the authors to surpass Nichols' model and generate a new classification based on empirical criteria. To that end, they study the opinions of users of and experts on Nichols' theory through the card sorting technique borrowed from cognitive science that is based on multivariate statistics. In this way, they generate a hierarchy of formal cinematographic elements grouped into four documentary voices and Nicholas' classification proposal is partly replaced as two of the voices in his model disappear but the four others are confirmed. In addition, this new model allows the authors to determine which formal elements are assigned to each one of the confirmed documentary modes and with what relative weights, thereby opening up the possibility of generating a predictive model. The article therefore demonstrates that cluster analysis and other techniques borrowed from multivariate statistics can be used to empirically and quantitatively verify theories in film studies as well as in other areas such as poetics. This suggests that it is possible to verify empirically and use quantitative models for the study of visual content and complement other methods based on induction and intuition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Card sorting has been widely used in information architecture to analyze and improve web content and navigation. This is an intuitive and cost-effective technique also useful in user research and evaluation. However, while the implementation of sorting tasks comprises a constructive and easy-toaccomplish process, the quantitative analysis of resulting card-sorting data can be a challenge for non-skilled evaluators. Several tools exist to support sorting tasks and data analysis, but still some users utilize custom spreadsheets or statistical packages in order to enhance analysis and obtain more expressive and comparable results. One of the most utilized diagrams for analyzing card-sorting results is the dendrogram, also known as a tree diagram, which is commonly based on an agglomerative clustering representation depicting groupings of related cards. However, several issues have to be considered by evaluators in order to produce meaningful dendrograms for decisionmaking. In fact, the distance method and the linkage criterion greatly influence the final dendrogram obtained. In this paper, an analysis on distance methods and linkage criteria for obtaining suitable dendrograms is proposed. The main aim is to guide evaluators and usability engineers to produce appropriate dendrograms based on available cardsorting data. In this sense, the provided clues can be widely applied to any card-sorting domain and sample size, improving card-sorting analysis by comparing different solutions through goodness indicators. Analyses applied to a publicly available dataset indicate that the results are highly dependent of the data type, so the right selection of both distance method and linkage criterion is essential for obtaining a suitable dendrogram and correctly interpreting the results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Code review is a widely used technique of systematic examination of code changes which aims at increasing software quality. Code reviews provide several benefits for the project, including finding bugs, knowledge transfer, and assurance of adherence to project guidelines and coding style. However, code reviews have a major cost: they can delay the merge of the code change, and thus, impact the overall development process. This cost can be even higher if developers do not understand something, i.e., when developers face confusion during the code review. Objective: This paper studies the phenomenon of confusion in code reviews. Understanding confusion is an important starting point to help reducing the cost of code reviews and enhance the effectiveness of this practice, and hence, improve the development process. Method: We conducted two complementary studies. The first one aimed at identifying the reasons for confusion in code reviews, its impacts, and the coping strategies developers use to deal with it. Then, we surveyed developers to identify the most frequently experienced reasons for confusion, and conducted a systematic mapping study of solutions proposed for those reasons in the scientific literature. Results: From the first study, we build a framework with 30 reasons for confusion, 14 impacts, and 13 coping strategies. The results of the systematic mapping study shows 38 articles addressing the most frequent reasons for confusion. From those articles, we found 13 different solutions for confusion proposed in the literature, and five impacts were established related to the most frequent reasons for confusion. Conclusions: Based on the solutions identified in the mapping study, or the lack of them, we propose an actionable guideline for developers on how to cope with confusion during code reviews; we also make several suggestions how tool builders can support code reviews. Additionally, we propose a research agenda for researchers studying code reviews. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introductory biochemistry courses are often challenging for students because they require the integration of chemistry, biology, physics, math, and physiology knowledge and frameworks to understand and apply a large body of knowledge. This can be complicated by students' persistent misconceptions of fundamental concepts and lack of fluency with the extensive visual and symbolic literacy used in biochemistry. Card sorting tasks and game‐based activities have been used to reveal insights into how students are assimilating, organizing, and structuring disciplinary knowledge, and how they are progressing along a continuum from disciplinary novice to expert. In this study, game‐based activities and card sorting tasks were used to promote and evaluate students' understanding of fundamental structure–function relationships in biochemistry. Our results suggest that while many markers of expertise increased for both the control and intervention groups over the course of the semester, students involved in the intervention activities tended to move further towards expert‐like sorting. This indicates that intentional visual literacy game‐based activities have the ability to build underdeveloped skills in undergraduate students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Card sorting is one method for obtaining direct user feedback. It consists ofusers imposing their own organization on a set of ideas, andworks well for developing or evaluating website and menu structure. Participants are asked togroup terms or concepts in a way meaningful to them, and may also be asked to name resulting groups. Participants not only provide insight on how to arrange various items, but can also highlight terms that are confusing or ambiguous.In early 2011, the University of California, San Diego library conducted a card sorting exercise to learn how real library users were likely to categorize menu items on its homepage. The study involved a row of 7 primary tabs that appear in the persistent header on the library’s homepage and all other library web pages, as well as the 37 entries in drop-down menus below the primary tabs. Though limited in our ability to change the names of the primary tabs, we were greatly interested in how users might arrange menu entries among the tabs. We were also interested in whether users understood the language currently on the menu entries, user preferences for ranking or placement of entries within a given menu, and whether the majority of information to which users might want easy access did in fact exist within the current menu structure.Participant preferences for how entries should be ranked within the menus was moderately consistent. Likewise, significant uniformity was seen in participant preference for the headings under which individual entries should appear. Placement of 4 of the 37 entries were particularly troublesome, with results being less clear and more variable among participants. However, testing revealed strikingly different thinking between librarians and users in some instances. Testing also identified areas where new information could be added and new entries created, and others where entries could be renamed or consolidated. Findings confirmed some of the library’s practices and dispelled others, identifying several areas where user preferences diverged from the library’s current menu structure.

Organizational ambidexterity (OA) is an essential capability for organizations in turbulent environments, as it facilitates the simultaneous pursuit of exploitation and exploration. Over the last years, knowledge on OA has continuously matured, covering outcomes, moderators, and types of OA. However, little is known about how to build an ambidextrous organization in terms of what capabilities are needed and how they can be developed. To address this gap, we developed an organizational ambidexterity maturity model (OAMM) that assists organizations in becoming ambidextrous based on actionable practices (APs) structured according to five capability areas. In developing the OAMM, we conducted a structured literature review to compile APs and used card sorting to assign APs to maturity stages. We evaluated the OAMM based on literature-backed design objectives and discussions with practitioners. We also conducted an initial empirical validation of the APs' assignment to maturity stages. The OAMM extends the descriptive and prescriptive knowledge on OA by taking a holistic view on OA, by shedding light on the interrelation of different OA types, and by enabling the assessment of an organization's as-is and to-be OA maturity based on implemented APs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Grounded on organization of information, this study used card sorting method to investigate female consumers’ preferred classification scheme, and adopted in-depth interview method to identify the organizing rules they lived by. The results of card sorting analysis were able to identified 14 categories of health food package information, and they were price, flavor, award and remarks, product liability insurance, disposal information, research development information, function claims, consumer complaints, production information and logo, nutritional ingredient, advertisement and national certificate, food instructions, manufacturer information, and others. This study found that the consumer-perceived most important food package information were product name, brand name, ingredient information, food additives information, and information on certified functions. It suggests that these five types of information should be prominently displayed in a conspicuous place to enable consumers make rationale and efficient choices. The 14 categories of food package information and their labels resulted from the card sorting experiment may provide a guide as to how the information should be organized and grouped in a way that facilitates making sense of the information. This study may also facilitate consumers to efficiently and accurately locate the information they need when making purchasing decision of health food. (Article content in Chinese with English extended abstract)

Se propone la utilización de metodologías propias de la disciplina de la Arquitectura de la información para mejorar el acceso a los contenidos de los repositorios universitarios o institucionales. Se ha observado que en la mayoría (80%) de los repositorios universitarios se utiliza una implementación por defecto del software DSpace. El hecho de no adecuar la arquitectura del repositorio a las necesidades de la universidad y sus usuarios puede generar una mala experiencia de usuario llegando a generar búsquedas insatisfactorias en una de cada tres interacciones. Este obstáculo en la recuperación de documentos puede evolucionar en una falta de visibilidad de la producción científica de la institución. Por ello se hace una propuesta metodológica para mejorar la arquitectura de los repositorios basada en las técnicas de User Persona y de Card Sorting empleando herramientas gratuitas como Google Forms, y se aplica la metodología a un estudio de caso: el Dipòsit Digital de la UB.

The ability of Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) systems to mimic the real world has made it possible to use this technology to create environments for remote collaborative work. This study aimed to understand the feasibility of immersive virtual reality when conducting a collaborative Information Architecture (IA) design task-card sorting, with geographically dispersed participants. Using a between-subjects experimental design, thirty groups of two individuals each completed a card sorting activity using conventional in-person, video screen-sharing method or immersive virtual reality methods. The dependent measures included total time, percentage match with master card set, usability, presence and perceived workload. Overall usability was found to be significantly higher for the immersive virtual reality condition when compared to conventional in-person card sorting. In addition, the new immersive virtual reality technology performed as well as the other two conditions for other dependent variables. Qualitative data from the participants also indicated a positive reaction to the use of immersive virtual reality for this task. Overall, the participants felt they were productive and enjoyed the IVR condition, indicating the potential of IVR-based approaches as an alternative to conventional approaches for IA design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Pairwise similarity judgments and card sorting methodologies are different ways of generating data for similarity matrices used in various analyses such as multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis. Pairwise similarity judgments are considered the gold standard methodology, but can be cumbersome for large numbers of stimuli given the geometric increase in number of judgments necessary to fill the matrix. Card sorting methods provide a more expedient means of gathering this information, although they typically generate only binary data. Nonetheless, aggregated matrices generated from card sorts approximate pairwise similarity matrices. The current study used pairwise similarity and card sorting results from two existing studies that used the same stimuli to determine the optimal number of participants needed in a card sorting task to approximate the similarity matrix of pairwise data collection. In these studies, approximately 10–15 participants provided optimal estimation of the similarity matrix, with minimal increases for higher numbers of participants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article proposes the use of methodologies of the discipline of Information Architecture to improve access to the contents of institutional repositories. It has been observed that in the majority (80%) of the university repositories a default implementation of the DSpace software is used. The fact of not adapting the architecture of the repository to the needs of the university and its users can generate a bad user experience, generating unsatisfactory searches in one of every three interactions. This obstacle in the recovery of documents can evolve in a lack of visibility of the scientific production of the institution. Therefore, a methodological proposal is made to improve the architecture (organization system, mainly) of the repositories based on the techniques of user persona and card sorting using free tools such as Google Forms, and this methodology is applied to a case study: Depósito Digital of the UB. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of this paper is to highlight the benefits of applying card sorting techniques and performance testing for improve digital products. A case study was developed at the Federal University of Amazonas (UFAM) with the creation of the monitoring module in the campus system, aka ecampus. This study was directed with support of the project E methodology (MEURER and SZABLUK, 2012), that was divided in four steps: (1) strategy, (2) scope, structure and skeleton, (3) aesthetics and (4) execution. As result we had a better understanding about the needs of users utilizing classification and labeling. This information allowed us to create a better user experience: a interface that communicates with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2016, Utah State University (USU) Libraries redesigned the library website's main menu and underlying information architecture (IA) in response to a number of known usability problems and limitations. Card sorting studies were conducted with a group of USU undergraduate students and a mixed group of faculty and graduate students to help develop a better understanding of users' mental models of library-related research and service tasks. Participants worked in teams to sort, rank and label cards pertaining to the content and feature of the library's website. Afterwards, participants discussed and performed usability tasks on each other's categories. Results were used to inform the design of a new IA and menu structure, while best practices from usability studies and trends in academic library website design were used to help with menu and link labeling. The final design was validated through follow-up discussions with staff, usability tests, and category/reverse category tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meeting international emission targets will require major changes in the energy system. This paper addresses the public perception of different pathways to energy transition, and their mental representation in particular. A study is reported that employed card sorting to explore how laypeople categorize possible pathway components with respect to their perceived similarity (Norwegian sample, n = 61; German sample, n = 71). Data sets that were obtained by this method were subjected to multidimensional scaling and cluster analysis. Results for both samples consistently indicate that people differentiate components located at the individual level (e.g., vegetarian food, avoid long flights, walking and cycling), components located at the societal level (e.g., taxes, regulations, urban planning), and components concerned with technological solutions (e.g., hydropower, wind farms, solar panels). These results give reason to assume that laypeople from Norway and Germany share a multifaceted understanding of energy transition, yet some differences between samples were present with regard to the substructure of the individual level category. Future research can build on the present results to explore the subjective meanings of these structures, possibly identifying barriers to public engagement with energy transition.