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The performance of school boards as a governmental body has been a source of often well-deserved critique in both policy and academic outlets. In this article, we explore approaches to school board governance to conceptualize possible approaches to increasing effective governance in service of students -- namely effective governance, district operations, and student learning. We explore both alternative structures to replace traditional school boards and the ways in which relationships between actors in the system might offer routes for more effective governance within traditional school boards.

Purpose: We examine the ways state education agency (SEA) and local education agency (LEA) leaders interpret and use educational policy to guide the provision of services for multilingual students classified as English learners (ELs) in their contexts. Our inquiry focuses on the external factors leaders describe that either enable or constrain their ability to interpret and implement policies designed to expand equity for EL students. Research Method: We conduct semi-structured interviews with 17 SEA and LEA leaders across three states. We use an interview-based approach to understand how educational leaders leverage policy to guide EL services in their states and districts. Findings: Three external factors (resources to serve EL students, networks to share EL expertise, and concrete policy monitoring and guidance from the state) interact with leaders' individual understandings of and approaches to policy implementation to shape the ultimate degree to which equity is enabled or constrained for EL students in their contexts. Implications: Educational policy intends to provide SEA and LEA leaders with guidance to expand equity for ELs. However, our study suggests that the degree to which these policies expand equity for ELs in practice depends not only on the leader's understanding of the policy, but also their access to resources, human capital, and professional networks. SEA and LEA leaders that take a deep, transformative approach to implementation may partner to assess how SEAs can create external conditions that help to expand equity for ELs.

New reforms and the Next Generation Science Standards call for three-dimensional learning through the integration of the crosscutting concepts (CCCs) with the science and engineering practices (SEPs) and disciplinary core ideas (DCIs). However, teachers face challenges in knowing how and why to incorporate the CCCs in their planning and teaching, and more information is needed about the use of CCCs in three-dimensional learning and teaching. In this qualitative study, we consider how 31 elementary teachers use the CCCs in their planning for three-dimensional learning and how the teachers describe their successes, challenges, and use of the CCCs in their classrooms. The teachers engaged in a week-long professional development focused on writing three-dimensional lesson plans with an explicit focus on the use of the CCCs in elementary classrooms. Our analyses showed that all the lesson plans included use of the CCCs to support students' 3D sensemaking. However, certain CCCs were used more than others and explicit use of the CCCs by students was uncommon. In addition, a mismatch existed between what CCCs the teachers claimed to use in their lesson plans and what was used in their lessons. In describing their successes and challenges with use of the CCCs in the classroom, the teachers typically discussed students' experiences and knowledge with the CCCs. Implications for teacher educators and curriculum developers are discussed.

Differentiation is an instructional practice teachers employ to modify their classroom content, process, and products based on student readiness, interest, and learning profile. Many school districts recognize the benefits of differentiated instruction and thus mandate allotted classroom time for its implementation. In this article, we investigate how teachers in one such district resolved differentiation policy to practice in a high-stakes testing environment. We found, during the designated time for differentiation, teachers regularly remediated small groups but did not similarly address the academic needs of advanced students, thus not enacting the disciplinary standard for differentiation. We suggest teachers are recoupling practice and policy but misaligning it to the disciplinary definition of differentiation, which we contend has broader implications for instructional policymaking.

STEM preparation--especially high school math course-taking--is a key predictor of college entrance. Previous research suggests that high school English learners (ELs) not only take fewer advanced math courses but also enroll in college at much lower rates than non-ELs--a group that includes former ELs. In the present study, we alter the analytic lens to examine whether "ever-EL" status, i.e. ever being identified for and receiving EL services, moderates the relationship between advanced math and college enrollment. Essentially, do ever-EL students experience the same boost to college enrollment from advanced math as their peers? We employ multilevel models to analyze statewide, longitudinal, administrative K-12 and higher education data to examine how ever-EL status and advanced math--and the interaction between the two--predict high school graduation, college application and enrollment, and level of college attended. Results show that both measures are associated with a greater likelihood of graduating from high school, applying to a four-year college, and enrolling in any college. We also find that ever-EL status moderates the relationship between advanced math and college enrollment, with important implications for students' access to four-year colleges. Ultimately, ever-EL students experience different returns on advanced math relative to never-ELs.

In response to recent interest in K-12th students' mathematics identity formation and its implications for achievement, the present study examines the relationship between learners' mathematics identity and student achievement while simultaneously accounting for teacher-enacted instructional practices in mathematics. Drawing from HSLS:2009, a nationally representative dataset of 9th-12th students within the United States, we use multiple linear regression analyses to examine how teachers' mathematical pedagogies and 9th grade students' perceptions of teacher equity are associated, first, with students' mathematics identity, and, subsequently, math achievement after accounting for students' mathematics identity. Ultimately, results from our models reveal a statistically significant relationship between students' mathematics identity and their mathematics achievement, even after accounting for prior achievement and other covariates. Moreover, teachers' reported use of reform-oriented mathematics pedagogy (i.e. developing problem-solving skills, learning how to reason mathematically, and exploring logical structures in mathematics) and students' perceptions of teacher equity are strongly associated with students' mathematics identity. We close with recommendations for future research examining learners' mathematics identity and implications for educational policy and teachers' pedagogical practice.

BACKGROUND: Current guidelines recommend annual community-wide mass administration of azithromycin for trachoma. Targeting treatments to those most likely to be infected could reduce the amount of unnecessary antibiotics distributed. METHODS: In a cluster-randomized trial conducted from 1 November 2010 through 8 November 2013, 48 Ethiopian communities previously treated with annual mass azithromycin distributions for trachoma were randomized in equal numbers to (1) annual azithromycin distributions targeted to children aged 0-5 years, (2) annual azithromycin distributions targeted to households with a child aged 0-5 years found to have clinically active trachoma, (3) continued annual mass azithromycin distributions to the entire community, or (4) cessation of treatment. The primary outcome was the community prevalence of ocular chlamydia infection among children aged 0-9 years at month 36. Laboratory personnel were masked to treatment allocation. RESULTS: The prevalence of ocular chlamydia infection among children aged 0-9 years increased from 4.3% (95% confidence interval [CI], .9%-8.6%) at baseline to 8.7% (95% CI, 4.2%-13.9%) at month 36 in the age-targeted arm, and from 2.8% (95% CI, .8%-5.3%) at baseline to 6.3% (95% CI, 2.9%-10.6%) at month 36 in the household-targeted arm. After adjusting for baseline chlamydia prevalence, the 36-month prevalence of ocular chlamydia was 2.4 percentage points greater in the age-targeted group (95% CI, -4.8% to 9.6%; P = .50; prespecified primary analysis). No adverse events were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Targeting azithromycin treatment to preschool children was no different than targeting azithromycin to households with a child with clinically active trachoma. Neither approach reduced ocular chlamydia over the 3-year study. CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION: NCT01202331.

Although research suggests that school psychologists are generally satisfied with their experiences in the field, scholars have yet to examine how exposure to racial microaggressions, or subtle race-based insults, may impact satisfaction. The purpose of the current study was to examine the relation between exposure to microaggressions and satisfaction among practicing school psychologists, students, and university faculty. We were particularly interested in the role of race. We collected survey data from 93 school psychologists, and found that exposure to microaggressions predicted reported satisfaction with jobs and placements, but that the relation was only relevant for People of Color (POC). We also found that the relation between microaggression exposure and satisfaction was moderated by the demographic of one's work setting, as POC in settings that were primarily Black and Brown reported less satisfaction when they experienced high levels of microaggressions. Future directions and implications for the field of school psychology are discussed.

Gifted education policies vary across the United States. Previous studies have demonstrated a disconnect between these policies at state and district levels, but alignment of school-level practices with state and/or district policies is unknown. To further examine these relationships, we examined via qualitative document analysis state and district-level gifted policies and district and school-level reported practices in two states' gifted services. Although state and district policies reflected fairly close alignment with recommended practices, district and school reported practices reflected only partial alignment. We discuss implications of these findings for gifted programs and policy at the state and local levels.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by social communication and interaction deficits, as well as restricted and repetitive behaviors. Previous research has examined the role that social deficits play on the development of daily living skills in children with ASD. However, there is a lack of research on this specific relationship. This study was conducted to examine the relationship between social functioning, as measured by the Socialization/Nonverbal Communication factor of the "Baby and Infant Screen for Children with aUtIsm Traits (BISCUIT)" and daily living skills, as measured by the Daily Living Skills subdomain of the "Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales - 2rd edition (VABS-2)" in three groups of children; those who received a diagnosis of ASD, those who received a diagnosis other than ASD, and those who received no diagnosis, resulting in a total of 140 participants. A one-way MANOVA was run to assess for significant differences across groups, and three linear regression were run to evaluate the impact socialization deficits had on daily living skills. Results showed that socialization significantly predicts daily living skills, and that this relationship is most impacted in those who have received a diagnosis other than ASD. Clinical implications of the findings and future directions are discussed.