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Coastal environments are highly recognized for their spectacular morphological features and economic activities, such as agriculture, maritime traffic, fishing, and tourism. In the context of climate change and the evolution of physical processes, the occurrence of intense natural phenomena adjacent to populated coastal areas may result in natural hazards, causing human and/or structural losses. As an outcome, scientific interest in researching and assessing multi-hazard susceptibility techniques has increased rapidly in an effort to better understand spatial patterns that are threatening coastal exposed elements, with or without temporal coincidence. The islands of Milos and Thira (Santorini Island) in Greece are prone to natural hazards due to their unique volcano-tectonic setting, the high number of tourist visits annually, and the unplanned expansion of urban fabric within the boundaries of the low-lying coastal zone. The main goal of this research is to analyze the onshore coastal terrain's susceptibility to natural hazards, identifying regions that are vulnerable to soil erosion, torrential flooding, landslides and tsunamis. Therefore, the objective of this work is the development of a multi-hazard approach to the South Aegean Volcanic Arc (SAVA) islands, integrating them into a superimposed susceptibility map utilizing Multi-Criteria Decision-Making (MCDM) analysis. The illustrated geospatial workflow introduces a promising multi-hazard tool that can be implemented in low-lying coastal regions globally, regardless of their morphometric and manmade characteristics. Consequently, findings indicated that more than 30% of built-up areas, 20% of the transportation network, and 50% of seaports are within the high and very high susceptible zones, in terms of the Extended Low Elevation Coastal Zone (ELECZ). Coastal managers and decision-makers must develop a strategic plan in order to minimize potential economic and natural losses, private property damage, and tourism infrastructure degradation from potential inundation and erosion occurrences, which are likely to increase in the foreseeable future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: The population of Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (Sousa chinensis) endemic to the inshore and estuarine waters of western Taiwan was identified as a subspecies (Sousa chinensis ssp. taiwanensis) and designated as "Critically Endangered" by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). This population is at a high risk of extirpation, faces being impacted by some major anthropogenic threats, and numbers fewer than 65 individuals. Through a combination of long-term observations and photographic monitoring of identifiable individuals and stranding responses, accurate identification and classification of human-induced injuries and skin lesions is an effective approach and is particularly important to the management of the declining population. The results showed that the prevalence of skin marks is higher or comparable to the previous studies on the coastal cetacean populations across the globe. As the total population comprises dozens of individuals, radical measures to conserve the population and reduce environmental hazards are considered indispensable. As long-lived apex predators, Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis) are key indicators of marine coastal environmental health. Skin marks can be observed on dorsal body surfaces that are visible during mark–recapture studies that rely on photo-identification (photo-ID) methods. Skin mark prevalence may be an indicator of environmental or anthropogenic stressors in the ecosystem, which may lead to individual and/or population-level health concerns. The prevalence of marks of anthropogenic origin was assessed in the Critically Endangered S. chinensis taiwanensis population along the coasts of central Taiwan. Fifty, twenty-eight, and thirty-four individuals were identified in 2018, 2019, and 2021, respectively. At least one category of injuries was observed in 47 of 57 distinctive individuals (82%), and adults showed a higher prevalence of deep injuries than the other coloration stages. At least one category of skin lesion was observed in 33 of 57 distinctive individuals (58%), and high prevalence of skin lesions was found in mature individuals. Given the difficulty in taking direct observations, skin mark prevalence is proposed as a proxy for estimating habitat health and anthropogenic stressors upon S. chinensis taiwanensis. The moderate-to-high prevalence of skin marks in this study was designated as a warning of risks. This study provides important updated information for the assessment of the health and survival of this population. More effective management measures are urgently needed to reverse the observed population decline. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

All landscapes, including estuarine islands, normally try to restore their geomorphic isostasy in all anthropogenic interventions on land dynamics. Munroe Island has been experiencing drastic environmental degradation, such as land subsidence, severe tidal/monsoon flooding, subsidence of build-ups and a drastic decay in agricultural productivity. This paper examines the role of anthropo-geomorphic interventions causing for the land degradation in Munroe Island through a multidisciplinary approach. Multidated, multiresolution satellite products and published maps, spanning a period of about six decades from 1960 to 2021, were used to understand the different geomorphic and geographical processes in the study area. Evaluation of the temporal bathymetric datasets, salinity measurements of the river and estuary, borehole data logs of the area and electrical resistivity surveys of the island were analyzed to find out the causative factors for the disturbances in the land neutrality, along with the tidal hydrodynamic changes in the region. The study shows about 14% of the total land area was vanished during the study period, and more than 25% of the area is under stress, leading to further land degradation. More than 500 households are forced to vacate their residence due to land subsidence/flooding. Lack of required freshwater and sediment supply from the Kallada river after the construction of the Thenmala reservoir in the Kallada river as well as the uncontrolled sand mining prevailed are the key factors for the environmental degradation of Munroe Island. The paper describes the role and colinkages of human-induced hydrogeomorphic interventions on a geomorphic system, in charge of the environmental degradation and land subsidence crisis of an estuarine island ecosystem and discusses the concerns related to the management strategies of such region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coral reef ecosystem plays an important role as a provider of ecosystem services and has various economic benefits to the coastal community. However, the coral reefs ecosystem continues to degrade by 19% globally. This degradation caused some coastal and archipelagic countries have developed methods of calculating coral reef health index, including Indonesia. However, some literature shows that there is no common standard method for coral reef health index as the analysis depends on the data availability and the purpose of the study. Remote sensing technology that currently provides much open-source data is a potential method/tool to calculate the health index of coral reefs if the required parameters are met. This article review aims to identify remote sensing data used in the existing coral health indexes and then analyze the integration of all spatial data for coral reef health index calculation. Reference searches are sourced from the SCOPUS database combined with search engines Harzing and Mendeley. There are five coral reef health index calculation models from 25 references consisting of 19 publications and six reports out of 209 filtered references using keywords of Coral Reef Health Index. As a result, coral reef cover and algae are commonly used data obtained from remote sensing imagery. However, remote sensing technology cannot estimate other important parameters such as fish biomass. In addition, physical information of the waters, such as sea surface temperature (SST) and water clarity indicators (turbidity and diffused attenuation coefficient), are parameters contained in the five indexes that can be obtained from remote sensing data. In general, the literature review shows that coral reef health indicators (e.g. index or individual benthic cover) are significantly related to the various parameters affecting coral reef degradation such as algae cover, rubble cover, SST and river plump either as an individual or multivariate factors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Macroalgae have been used as indicators of the health of coastal ecosystems, they function as sinks of CO 2 and are essential contributors to primary production. With the increase in anthropogenic activities, it is crucial to assess the impact of such activities on these ecosystems. As traditional surveying techniques, although accurate, are time-consuming and their area coverage is limited, novel techniques are required to monitor the coverage and diversity of intertidal macroalgae. We propose a methodology using the free-source Semi-Automatic Classification Plugin from QGIS to use UAV and multispectral cameras for the spatiotemporal monitoring of intertidal macroalgae. We also compared the performance of six classifiers: Minimum Distance (MD), Maximum Likelihood (ML), Spectral Angle Mapping (SAM), Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP), Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machine (SVM), for three types of macroalgae classification: general, taxonomical groups and species. As proof of concept, an intertidal rocky shore in a marine protected area (NW Spain) was studied for four months. RF and SVM achieved similar results, with both being recommended for the general (OA SVM = 97.4 ± 1.7 and OA RF = 98.3 ± 1.7) and taxonomical groups (OA SVM = 91.6 ± 1.9 and OA RF = 89.2 ± 4.5). SVM and ML were found to be more suitable for species classification (OA SVM = 77.4 ± 11.4 and OA ML = 74.2 ± 9.7). SAM and MLP provided the least performant species classifiers because of the overlap in the macroalgae spectral signatures. The plugin showed limitations when tuning the input parameters of the MLP classifier and did not let to add a validation dataset. Additionally, we present an open-access GIS web application, Alganat 2000 GIS web, to facilitate the monitoring and management of coastal areas. We conclude that the proposed methodology using the SVM or ML classifiers is an effective tool for assessing intertidal macroalgal assemblages. Its easy and rapid implementation is beneficial for researchers who are not very familiar with coding and machine learning frameworks and reduces the time and cost of fieldwork. As future work, we propose the combination of the multispectral bands with topographic and spectral indices and to research the application of deep learning models to the classification of intertidal macroalgae. • Standardization of the methodology for monitoring coastal areas with UAVs. • Creation of free-access GIS Web application. • Comparison of six classifiers for macroalgae classification. • Pixel-based classification of multispectral images. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sea cucumbers play a key role in maintaining the health of coastal marine ecosystems. The aim of this research was to evaluate the presence of anthropogenic particles in sea cucumbers of the species Holothuria sanctori in intertidal pools from Tenerife (Canary Islands, Spain) and in the surrounding seawater. In the case of sea cucumbers (n = 18), the gastrointestinal tract (particles ingested directly from the sediment) and Cuvierian tubules (particles presence as a result of gas exchange with seawater) were analysed separately. Anthropogenic particles were found in all samples, with an average concentration of 20.0 ± 4.4 items per litre in seawater and 11.8 ± 3.9 items per individual in the sea cucumbers, with a higher concentration of particles in the gastrointestinal tract (9.3 ± 3.4 items per gastrointestinal tract) than in the Cuvierian tubules (2.6 ± 3.3 items per Cuvierian tubules). Transparent and blue microfibres were predominant, accounting for over 90 % of the samples analysed. A significant proportion of these fibres were of cellulosic origin (either natural or semisynthetic, comprising 78.7 %), while fully synthetic polymers (microplastics), were also identified, including polyester and polyvinyl chloride (the latter exclusively detected in seawater). [Display omitted] • First assessment of anthropogenic particles in Cuvierian tubules of H. sanctori • An average concentration of 11.8 ± 3.9 items per individual was found. • Transparent and blue microfibres were the most common shape. • μFTIR analysis showed that 78.7 % were cellulosic (natural or semi-synthetic). • H. sanctori could act as a bioindicator to monitor ecosystems health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To ensure the health of vulnerable coastal ecosystems, a transition to sustainable energy solutions is essential. Environmentally friendly systems powered by renewable sources offer not only a reduction in pollution but also the adaptability needed for a flexible and resilient energy future. This study proposes and comprehensively evaluates an integrated solar-based system designed to meet the daily needs of coastal cities. The proposed system incorporates key components such as dual-loop power cycles, parabolic trough solar collectors, liquefied natural gas (LNG) regasification, reverse osmosis, and proton exchange membrane electrolysis. To optimize energy utilization, the inclusion of a thermoelectric generator (TEG) is considered, harnessing the thermal gradient among the LNG stream and the power cycle fluid. We conduct transient modeling, incorporating comprehensive scenarios that account for both thermal and economic aspects. The performance evaluation of the system focuses specifically on coastal regions, with San Francisco serving as a case study. The dynamic simulation results demonstrate the capability of the integrated system in fulfilling the urban needs for one year, delivering 1,134,207 cubic meters of potable water and generating 11,306 MWh of electricity. Financial analysis reveals that the solar unit accounts for over 46 % of the total cost, with an hourly cost rate of $69.61. The levelized cost of electricity is predicted at 4.61 cents/kWh, while the levelized cost of water is calculated at 30.54 cents/m3. These findings provide valuable insights into the cost-effectiveness and competitive advantage of the system in terms of energy and water production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal ecosystems, including tidal flats, are exposed to recreational activity-driven trampling. The white-clawed fiddler crab, Austruca lactea , is endangered in South Korea majorly due to reclamation but recreational trampling also emerged as a potential threat. To assess short-term behavioral responses of individual A. lactea to a single trampling and the long-term population changes under cumulative trampling, we conducted two field experiments for three semilunar tidal cycles. First, we compared the behaviors of two crab individuals, one of whose burrow openings had undergone a single trampling event. Results revealed that trampling delayed the initiation of surface activity, reduced travel distance, and altered the behaviors of the crabs from courting or feeding to vigilance and burrow repair. Second, we constantly exerted trampling on subsets of the crab population for two trampling periods (four and two weeks) and monitored the restoration of their collective behaviors for an additional two weeks. Daily trampling decreased the number of crabs active on the surface and the degree of male courtship indicators, and the rhythms collapsed. After trampling cessation, only courtship indicators recovered after longer trampling treatment. These results imply that continuous coastal visitation without any regulation might aggravate A. lactea population decline in heavily used habitats. Because A. lactea is an indicator species for coastal ecosystem health, we suggest conservation of the habitat area of these crabs based on their behavioral changes caused by human trampling. Our study underscores the importance of assessing the behavioral ecology of benthic animals for tidal flat ecosystem monitoring and conservation areas establishment. [Display omitted] • Locally endangered fiddler crabs inhabit tidal flats vulnerable to human visitation. • A crab exposed to a single trampling altered its' behaviors. • The crab population under consecutive trampling changed the fitness-related activities. • Animal behavior assessment provides criteria for an area-based conservation plan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Natural capital and environmental flows values assessment in North-west Mediterranean. • Natural and anthropogenic variables influence analyzed using Random Forest and questionnaires. • Relevant interactions between nature and human activities for sustainable development. Coastal marine ecosystems are among the most productive ecosystems worldwide, providing essential resources both for the environment itself and for human life. This is the case of the Ligurian Sea, rich in marine biodiversity that characterizes a valuable natural capital that has, however, been damaged by the development of human activities along the coast leading to a decline of this biodiversity and health status of coastal ecosystems. This study analyzes the relationships between the distribution of natural capital and environmental flows values of Ligurian marine coastal habitats, and the natural and anthropogenic variables located along the coast. These variables may influence the capacity of the environment to generate and maintain the natural capital and affect, either directly or indirectly, positively or negatively, its spatial distribution together with that of the environmental flows. These relationships were analyzed using the Random Forest technique, subsequently compared with information from interviews administered to experts in the marine coastal field. Both methods showed that the anthropogenic variables have a greater influence on values' distribution if compared with the natural ones, with a positive effect (namely the settlement of protection measures) showed as an increase in natural capital and environmental flows values, confirming how protection regimes (e.g., anchoring ban and establishment of Special Zones of Conservation) could be crucial for managing and conserving natural capital. This study links the status of natural capital and environmental flows along the coast to the presence of a set of variables, in order to operate on them for a better monitoring and management of the area, as well as a sustainable development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The Ocean Health Index (OHI) framework was customized to assess the ocean health in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area (TMA). • The framework, parameters, and reference points were adapted to fit the specific conditions of the TMA. • Tourism and Recreation, as well as Clean Water, received the highest scores, while Carbon Storage and Biodiversity scored the lowest. • The TMA's ocean health condition was compared with two other OHI regional assessments in East Asia. • The evaluation results provide a current analysis and suggestions for improving ocean health in the TMA and other regions. Ocean ecosystem services are fundamental to coastal economic development and climate regulation. The Tokyo Metropolitan Area (TMA) is one of the world's most significant bay areas, with its economic development and residents relying on a healthy ocean and diverse marine ecosystem services. Post-World War II, the coastal zones of TMA have suffered from various human-induced stresses and impacts, jeopardizing the capacity of ocean ecosystem services and sustainable development. Although recent years have seen improvements in basic marine water quality, other ecosystem health issue, such as biodiversity, carbon storage, coastal protection are remain limited and require comprehensive enhancement. To better understand the current state of ocean health, promote more comprehensive ocean management decisions and plans, and support sustainable development in the region, it is essential to evaluate the ocean's condition in the TMA and to assess future trends and risks. The Ocean Health Index (OHI) offers a comprehensive framework to evaluate global and regional ocean health conditions and their ecosystem services. This study applies the OHI to assess the ocean and coastal health of TMA, with indicators and reference points adjusted based on local conditions. From 2014 to 2019, the OHI assessment results indicate that TMA obtained an overall OHI score of 49 (out of 100), with goals ranging from 13 to 87. The environmental and social goals, such as Tourism and Recreation (87), Clean Water (67), Coastal Livelihoods and Economies (62), Sense of Place (62), and Artisanal Fishery Opportunity (51), are relatively high. In contrast, the ecological goals, such as Biodiversity (14), Carbon Storage (13), Coastal Protection (38), and Food Provision (24), are relatively low. This case study highlights strategies for improving ocean health conditions in TMA from both OHI goals and management structure perspectives. The methods and results provide a quantitative tool for regional marine and coastal management in TMA, aiding regional management organizations to establish quantifiable objectives for actions that were previously difficult to quantify. These results can indirectly promote the establishment of more comprehensive and holistic regional management organizations in TMA, which is currently fragmented, thereby effectively enhancing ocean health in TMA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Post-stress recovery assays separate Meretrix meretrix into proactive and reactive. • Nano-TiO 2 exposure impaired clams' survival and physiological conditions. • High survival rate in proactive clams might change ecosystem population structure. • Proactive clams had better adaptability under nano-TiO 2 exposure. Nano-TiO 2 is inevitably released into aquatic environment with increasing of nanotechnology industries. Study pointed that different individuality showed divergent behavioral and physiological response when facing environmental stress. However, the effects of nano-TiO 2 on tolerance of bivalves with different individualities remain unknown. In the study, clams were divided into two types of individuality - proactive and reactive by post-stress recovery method. It turned out that proactive individuals had quicker shell opening level, stronger burrowing behavior, faster feeding recovery, higher standard metabolic rate and more rapid ammonia excretion ability than reactive individuals after exposed to air. Then, the survival rate, hemocytes response and oxidase activity of classified clams were evaluated after nano-TiO 2 exposure. Results showed that after 30 d exposure, proactive individuals accelerated burrowing behavior with higher survival rate. Moreover, proactive clams had better adaptability and less hemocytes response and oxidative damage than reactive clams. The study highlights the individualities of marine shell fish determine individual capacity to adapt to environmental changes, play important roles in aquaculture and coastal ecosystem health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Equatorial South Atlantic region, spanning over 1700 km, is currently undergoing extensive exploitation through various activities such as oil extraction, desalination plants, marine mineral explorations, and wind power for green hydrogen production. This undoubtedly also contributes to the exacerbation of pre-existing chronic environmental impacts. This study aims to investigate the concentrations of 60 substances, categorized as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) from various classes including: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), as well as Pyrethroids (PPs), Triazines (TPs) and Organophosphates (OPPs) pesticides in consumable fish, shellfish, and crabs. The bivalve (Mytella charruana) , crab (Ucides cordatus) , and catfish (Sciades herzbergii) samples were collected in areas of ecological, environmental and economic importance. This data was used to estimate concentrations in the organisms, and to calculate cancer and human health risk. The most prevalent pollutant classes in the organisms were OCPs, followed by TPs and PPs. Shellfish and fish samples had more compounds indicating health risks, when compared to crabs. The substances causing cancer risks varied across organisms and study areas. The heightened cancer risks linked to specific compounds in various species highlight the urgent need to address persistent pollutants to prevent long-term health impacts on both humans and wildlife. Compounds such as PPs, TPs, and OPPs pose significant risks of neurotoxicity and endocrine disruption. This study underscores the interconnectedness of environmental and human health in coastal ecosystems, calling for continuous monitoring and adaptive management strategies to protect these fragile environments and the communities that rely on them. [Display omitted] • Study showed high levels of CECs from various sources in seafood for the first time in the South America region. • Seafood studies revealed both traditional and globally permitted pesticides in very high concentrations. • The most prevalent pollutant classes in the organisms were OCPs, followed by TPs and PPs. • Compared to crabs, shellfish and fish contained more compounds, indicating greater health risks. • Studied organisms have cancer-linked substances affecting endocrine, immune, and reproductive systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Benthic habitats are coastal ecosystems that provide many benefits and play an important role in the diversity of nature. The maps are developed using random forest method on the Worldview-3 image. Optically shallow water around Nusa Lembongan was selected as the study area. Sunglint and water column correction were applied to surface reflectance data to produce deglint, depth invariant index, and deglint-depth invariant index band for random forest classification. In addition, tuning parameters, including the number of trees and the function to determine the number of randomly selected, are used in the classification. The benthic habitats classification scheme was constructed based on the variations of in situ data, which consisted of coral reefs, seagrass, macroalgae, and substrate. The confusion matrix was used to analyze the accuracy, and the McNemar test to evaluate the level of statistical significance between different processing scenarios. The best benthic habitats map is determined based on the accuracy and spatial distribution of the object. Meanwhile, the random forest algorithm produced 62.72% – 73.00% overall accuracy and these accuracy variations were not statistically significant. According to the findings, surface reflectance data with the parameter setting comprising 500 trees and square root function yielded the best random forest scenario for mapping benthic ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Litter is one of the major environmental problems. These wastes cause adverse health, environmental, and even economic effects. One of the consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic is the impact on litter composition and density due to its changes in lifestyle and consumption patterns. In this study, the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the composition and density of litter on the ten southern beaches of the Caspian Sea in Iran in 1 year was investigated. The results showed that the density of the litters was in the range of 36.5–306 items/m2. The highest and lowest proportions of the COVID-related litters on the locations studied were 2.54 and 5.95%, respectively. The indexes in the areas studied showed that the COVID-19 pandemic has reduced the density of the litter in 90% of the beaches studied by changing the style of citizens, but the emergence of new dumping related to COVID-19 has increased the potential for health and environmental hazards caused by litters. The effects of the COVID-related litters increased the clean environment index by 5 to 12% on the beaches. This study shows that the impact of social phenomena such as a pandemic on litter and its results can be used for the better management of municipal solid wastes, including litter in similar situations in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Greenland Ice Sheet is melting, and the rate of ice loss has increased 6-fold since the 1980s. At the same time, the Arctic sea ice extent is decreasing. Melt water runoff and sea ice reduction both influence light and nutrient availability in the coastal ocean with implications for the timing, distribution and magnitude of phytoplankton production. However, the integrated effect of both glacial and sea ice melt is highly variable in time and space, making it challenging to quantify. In this study, we evaluate the relative importance of these processes for the primary productivity of Disko Bay, West Greenland, one of the most important areas for biodiversity and fisheries around Greenland. We use a high-resolution 3D coupled hydrodynamic-biogeochemical model for 2004 to 2018 validated against in situ observations and remote sensing products. The model estimated net primary production (NPP) varied between 90–147 gC m-2 year-1 during 2004–2018, a period with variable freshwater discharges and sea ice cover. NPP correlated negatively with sea ice cover, and positively with freshwater discharge. Fresh water discharge had a strong local effect within ∼25 km of the source sustaining productive hot spot during summer. When considering the annual NPP at bay scale, sea ice cover was the most important controlling factor. In scenarios with no sea ice in spring, the model predicted ∼30 % increase in annual production compared to a situation with high sea ice cover. Our study indicates that decreasing ice cover and more freshwater discharge can work synergistically and will likely increase primary productivity of the coastal ocean around Greenland. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessments of the status of tidal flats, one of the most extensive coastal ecosystems, have been hampered by a lack of data on their global distribution and change. Here we present globally consistent, spatially-explicit data of the occurrence of tidal flats, defined as sand, rock or mud flats that undergo regular tidal inundation. More than 1.3 million Landsat images were processed to 54 composite metrics for twelve 3-year periods, spanning four decades (1984–1986 to 2017–2019). The composite metrics were used as predictor variables in a machine-learning classification trained with more than 10,000 globally distributed training samples. We assessed accuracy of the classification with 1,348 stratified random samples across the mapped area, which indicated overall map accuracies of 82.2% (80.0–84.3%, 95% confidence interval) and 86.1% (84.2–86.8%, 95% CI) for version 1.1 and 1.2 of the data, respectively. We expect these maps will provide a means to measure and monitor a range of processes that are affecting coastal ecosystems, including the impacts of human population growth and sea level rise. Measurement(s) ecosystem occurrence Technology Type(s) earth observation Sample Characteristic - Environment tidal flats • coastal wetlands Sample Characteristic - Location global [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distribution and accumulation of organic matter are key factors to understanding coastal ecosystem health, and hence long-tern monitoring of their patterns could provide useful data for appropriate coastal management. This study examines water content (WC), total organic matter (TOM), total organic carbon (TOC) and total nitrogen (TN) in the Gulf of Thailand, and then compares these values to a study from 1995. Sediments from the Gulf of Thailand were collected using a gravity corer between 14 March and 12 April 2012 from onboard a fishery research vessel (M.V. SEAFDEC). High values for TOM and WC were found for surface sediments at 0-0.5 cm depth in three major areas of the Gulf of Thailand including the eastern inner gulf near Chang Island, the western gulf near Samui Island, and the southern lower gulf. Horizontal distribution patterns of TOM in surface sediment were almost the same as in the 1995; however, average TOM content increased by 35 %. Distribution patterns of TOC and TN were similar. High values for TOC were observed in the eastern inner gulf near Chang Island and in the western area near Samui Island, while average TOC and TN content increased by 47.08 % and 1.09 %, respectively. Statistical analysis confirmed that TOC content of surface sediments in the Gulf was significantly different (p<0.05) between 1995 and 2012. Overall, results indicated a marked increase of TOM in sediments of the Gulf of Thailand over the past two decades, highlighting current eutrophication problems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For the protection and management of coastal ecosystems, it is crucial to monitor typical coastal objects and examine their characteristics of spatial and temporal variation. There are limitations to the conventional object-oriented and spectrum-based approaches to HSRIs interpretation. The majority of recently conducted studies on semantic segmentation based on DCNNs concentrate on improving the accuracy of single objects at local scales. The completeness, generalization, and edge accuracy of the extraction and classification of multiple objects with the complex background at regional scales still need to be improved. We created a benchmark dataset CSRSD for coastal supervision using HSRIs and GIS in this study to address the aforementioned problems. In the meantime, by combining the traditional U-Net and DeepLabV3+ feature fusion strategies, we propose a novel fully connected fusion pattern by switching to deepwise separable convolution from conventional convolution and introducing spatial dropout to create a brand new CBS module. The LFCSDN, a new lightweight fully connected spatial dropout network, has been suggested. The findings demonstrate that our constructed semantic segmentation dataset, which has produced reliable results on U-Net and DeepLabV3+, can be used as a benchmark for applications based on DCNNs for coastal scenes. While maintaining high accuracy, LFCSDN can significantly reduce the number of parameters. Our suggested CBS module can increase the model's generalization by reducing overfitting. In order to analyze the spatiotemporal characteristics of target changes in the study area, tests on expansive remote sensing imagery were also conducted. The findings can be applied to ecological restoration, coastal area mapping, and integrated management. Additionally, it serves as a resource for studies on multiscale semantic segmentation in computer vision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many important ecosystem functions are underpinned by below‐ground biodiversity and processes. Marine sediments, one of the most abundant habitats on earth, are essential to the mineralisation of organic matter. However, they are increasingly polluted by urban activities leading to the loss of biodiversity and the functions they provide. While traditional sediment remediation strategies are focussed on microbial and engineering solutions, we propose that the reintroduction of below‐ground ecosystem engineers (bioturbators) is important to rehabilitate polluted sediments and drive recovery of their functions in urban coastal ecosystems.We tested this notion by introducing bioturbators to nutrient polluted sediments to assess their survival, as well as their capacity to drive biodiversity and oxygenation and their potential to remediate nutrient pollution. Polychaete worms Diopatra aciculata and clams Katelysia sp. were added to mesocosms (ex‐situ), and the worms also added to experimental plots in‐situ. Potential for remediation was assessed with measures of nutrient content.All animals survived when introduced to polluted sediments and showed no evidence of sub‐lethal effects. Worms oxygenated sediments and reduced organic matter content by up to 50% in‐situ. The worms also drove shifts in the receiving communities at all locations and increased the number of taxa at one location. On the other hand, the effects of clams were variable, showing opposite effects in organic matter content at different sites and levels of pollution.Synthesis and applications. Global seafloor habitats are becoming increasingly degraded and novel strategies that combine biodiversity restoration with remediation are urgently needed to return function. Tube‐building bioturbators can stimulate nutrient processing in sediments proving multiple functional outcomes, but these effects are dependent on the receiving environment. In areas with medium levels of pollution, they can kick‐start recovery in a feedback loop whereby bioturbation increases oxygenation and nutrient remediation, shifting sediment biodiversity and contributing to further recovery. This can drive long‐term changes in sediment communities, particularly in urban areas where unvegetated sediments are conspicuous. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Costal reclamation has been carried out extensively along the coastlines of the Arabian Gulf during the last decades. As a small archipelago country, coastal reclamation continues to be a major option for securing land to meet the needs of the expanding population and economic development in Bahrain. Macrobenthic communities often reflect the integrity of ecosystems as they respond to natural and anthropogenic stressors. This study characterized the community structures of macrobenthic invertebrates in three reclaimed intertidal areas and a protected natural mudflat in Bahrain (August 2019 and December 2020). Macrobenthic community structures and sediment characteristics differed significantly between natural and reclaimed areas. A total of 43 species were recorded in the four study areas, of which 38 were collected from the natural mudflat. Polychaetes dominated macrobenthic communities, followed by molluscs and crustaceans. Polychaetes accounted for more than 90% of the communities in the reclaimed coastal areas. Macrobenthic monitoring is considered essential for detecting changes in coastal and marine ecosystems due to dredging and reclamation activities along the coastlines of the Arabian Gulf. The findings of this study can provide insights into the ecological dynamics of macrobenthic communities in reclaimed coastal areas for environmental monitoring and coastal planning and management in the Arabian Gulf. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid increase in coastal urbanization profoundly impacts various environmental components and significantly transforms coastal ecosystems to the degree they lose their integrity. Coastal zones are facing increasing pressure from socio-economic development and climate change. Sustainable coastal planning and management must understand better how humans changing the physical environment of coastal areas to present a rational and comprehensive direction for development. The purpose of this research is to systematically review, with the following aims: (1) describe scientific debates on anthropogenic activities on the coastal landscape; (2) systematically identify the landscape structure of the changing coastal ecosystem; and (3) discuss the consequences of the change. Research articles from the database are systematically mapped and reviewed to summarize the state of current evidence-based information related to the characters and effects of change. The 114 articles selected indicate that there are numerous adverse actions and consequences of anthropogenic landscape change. Humans significantly influence the structure of the coastal ecosystem. Consequently, the functions of the coastal ecosystem are altered and degraded. This review proposed spatial planning guidelines to maintain or restore the ecological integrity of coastal development, especially where only small portions of formerly intact coastal ecosystems remain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seagrasses are among the most important ecosystems of continental and island coastal waters globally. Analyses of the species diversity, structure, and distribution mapping of seagrass communities provide a scientific basis for seagrass conservation and development and protection of the marine environment. The application of remote sensing, especially using very high-resolution remote sensing data, in mapping seagrass distribution confers high accuracy and detailed results. The distribution of seagrass communities and benthic biomes typical of Nam Yet Island, Truong Sa Archipelago, Vietnam was mapped using object-based classification of Pléiades satellite imagery with four spectral bands (red, blue, green, and near-infrared) and the Green–Blue Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, combined with handheld positioning devices (total field samples 100, overall accuracy 91%, kappa coefficient = 0.88). Besides, by sampling and measurement in the field, two seagrass species, Thalassia hemprichii and Halophila ovalis were identified with the same structure, density, and biomass in the northern and southern parts of the island. The application of high-resolution remote sensing images combined with field surveys contributes to improving the accuracy of seagrass distribution maps as well as benthic biome ones for shallow sea areas. Establishing a seagrass distribution map and assessing the diversity of seagrass is the basis for the conservation and development of the current seagrass community at Nam Yet Island. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While knowledge of the ecological impacts of marine debris is continually advancing, methods to evaluate the comparative scale of these impacts are less well developed. In the case of costly environmental restoration in marine and coastal environments, quantifying and comparing the ecological impacts of diverse forms of ecosystem injuries can facilitate a more efficient selection of restoration projects. This article proposes evaluating marine debris removal projects in an ecological service equivalency analysis framework that can be used to compare marine debris removal to other types of environmental restoration. Drawing on existing spatial and temporal data with respect to marine debris impacts on habitats and resources, we demonstrate how resource managers and organizations involved in marine debris removal can quantify the ecological service benefits of a removal project and use it to comparatively select between projects based on present value ecological benefits. This valuation can be useful in natural resource damage assessment restoration selection, and for directing limited funds to marine debris removal projects which produce the greatest gains in ecological services. This ecological scaling framework is applied to a seagrass injury case study to demonstrate its application for scaling marine debris removal as compensatory restoration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Suspended particulate matter (SPM) plays a crucial role in assessing the health status of coastal ecosystems. Satellite remote sensing offers an effective approach to investigate the variations and distribution patterns of SPM, with the performance of various satellite retrieval models exhibiting significant spatial heterogeneity. However, there is still limited information on precise remote sensing retrieval algorithms specifically designed for estimating SPM in tropical areas, hindering our ability to monitor the health status of valuable tropical ecological resources. A relatively accurate empirical algorithm (root mean square error = 2.241 mg L−1, mean absolute percentage error = 42.527%) was first developed for the coastal SPM of Hainan Island based on MODIS images and over a decade of field SPM data, which conducted comprehensive comparisons among empirical models, semi-analytical models, and machine learning models. Long-term monitoring from 2003 to 2022 revealed that the average SPM concentration along the coastal wetlands of Hainan Island was 6.848 mg L−1, which displayed a decreasing trend due to government environmental protection regulations (average rate of change of −0.009 mg L−1/year). The seasonal variations in coastal SPM were primarily influenced by sea surface temperature (SST). Spatially, the concentrations of SPM along the southwest coast of Hainan Island were higher in comparison to other waters, which was attributable to sediment types and ocean currents. Further, anthropogenic pressure (e.g., agricultural waste input, vegetation cover) was the main influence on the long-term changes of coastal SPM in Hainan Island, particularly evident in typical tropical ecosystems affected by aquaculture, coastal engineering, and changes in coastal green vegetation. Compared to other typical ecosystems around the globe, the overall health status of SPM along the coast wetlands of Hainan is considered satisfactory. These findings not only establish a robust remote sensing model for long-term SPM monitoring along the coast of Hainan Island, but also provide comprehensive insights into SPM dynamics, thereby contributing to the formulation of future coastal zone management policies. • A robust practical algorithm was developed for tropical coastal SPM monitoring. • The seasonal pattern of coastal SPM was primarily driven by precipitation and SST. • SPM in tropical China exhibited a healthy level and a decline in the 21st century. • Policy interventions and anthropogenic pressure significantly affects coastal SPM. • MODIS combined with UAV has broad application prospects in tropical SPM retrieval. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assessed the effects of pollutants on Magallana gigas along a coastal zone with different levels of human activity: a highly impacted zone in the Bahía Blanca Estuary and a less impacted zone on the adjacent sandy beaches. Oysters collected in 2021 were analyzed for various factors, including metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), organochlorine pesticides, microplastics, oxidative stress and histology. Oysters of both environments exhibited detectable concentrations of all these pollutants in their tissues. However, the estuarine oysters showed higher concentrations of Zn, Cu and As and total PAHs than the beach oysters. Banned organochlorine pesticides were detected only in beach oysters. Estuarine oysters displayed morphological changes in their digestive gland including a reduction in the mean epithelial thickness of the tubule and elevated lipid peroxidation levels, indicating cellular damage. This study underscores the widespread presence of pollutants in M. gigas , indicating the need for effective strategies to safeguard coastal ecosystem health. [Display omitted] • Oysters from human-affected areas had the highest metals and PAHs values. • Banned pesticides were found in oysters from lightly human-affected areas. • All the oysters analyzed throughout the study area had microplastic fibers. • Oysters exhibited histological changes and increased oxidative stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally plastic pollution is posing a significant threat to the health and integrity of coastal ecosystems. This study aimed to provide a comprehensive overview of plastic pollution in the coastal areas of Bangladesh by examining land-based macroplastic distribution, exploring microplastic (MP) contamination in the coastal aquatic ecosystem and enhancing our understanding of the potential risks associated with MP contamination. Citizen science based monitoring approach using the android application was applied to understand the land-based plastic pollution in the coastal area of Bangladesh. From December 2022 to December 2023, a total of about 3600 photographs of plastic items from 215 citizen scientists were received from the coastal area of Bangladesh covering 580 km long coast line. Polymer Hazard Index (PHI) and Pollution Load Index (PLI) were also calculated to understand the risk of plastic pollution in sediment, water, aquatic organism, dried fish and sea salt. A total of 43 land-based plastic items reported from the coastal area of Bangladesh. Among these plastic items single use items contributed 58.2 % while disposable plastic items contributed 41.8 %. A strong spatial variability in the distribution of these plastic items was observed. PHI and PLI values suggested hazard category-I for MP contamination in sediment, sea salt, water, commercial fishery resources and dry fish. This study highlighted that coastal land area, sea salt, dried fish, water, sediment and organisms are contaminated with plastics which might have the potential threats to human health. Findings from this study will serve as reference data and also baseline for future research to combat the plastic pollution. [Display omitted] • Single use plastic items are dominant in the coastal area of Bangladesh. • Plastic items vary spatially. • Aquatic ecosystem is contaminated with plastics. • Coastal ecosystem is under hazard category I of plastic pollution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wetland vegetation plays a critical role in the health of coastal ecosystems, serving pivotal roles in disaster mitigation and blue carbon sequestration. While extensive research on the effects of sea-level rise on the aboveground biomass of salt marsh vegetation, the spatial patterns of biomass distribution related to surface elevation remain less explored. This study investigates the growth patterns and spatial distribution of Spartina alterniflora in central coast of China through field surveys and the analysis of remote sensing data via Google Earth Engine. We have found a significant parabolic relationship between vegetation biomass and distance from the sea, with the optimal biomass influenced by the location of the marsh front edge. Further, we observe that biomass distribution varies with surface elevation and is influenced by geomorphological features notably creeks, which introduce significant elevation differences and local biomass fluctuations. These findings offer new insights into the spatial distribution of tidal flat vegetation, which are vital for effective coastal management and for modeling the evolution of tidal flats. • Discovered parabolic spatial distribution of biomass in China's tidal flat. • Unveiled positive biomass-elevation relationship within salt marshes in central China. • Used remote sensing to track Spartina alterniflora's spatial growth patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The coastal zone is a major area for human settlement and exploitation of marine resources. The assessment and prediction of ecosystem health in coastal zones is important for its environmental management and the formulation of sustainable development policy. In this study, based on the Pressure-State-Response model and Markov model, the health of the coastal zone ecosystem was assessed and predicted at the county scale. Landsat remote sensing images of the Ningde coastal zone in China captured in 2000, 2009, and 2014 were used. Previous studies have primarily evaluated ecosystem health at macroscopic scales; however, in this study, the research scale was reduced to the county scale to examine and predict coastal ecosystem health. The results of this study showed that the size of the composite indicators for the county ecosystems in the Ningde coastal zone was in the descending order of Fu'an > Jiaocheng > Xiapu > Fuding. The composite indicators of the Fu'an and Xiapu ecosystems were good, whereas those of the Fuding and Xiapu ecosystems were poor and moderate, respectively. In 2024, the stress indicators of the Fuding, Xiapu, Fu'an, and Jiaocheng ecosystems will continue to increase, whereas the state indicators will decline significantly. Increasing the area of forest and grassland will reduce the pressure on the Fuding and Xiapu ecosystems and improve their ecosystem status and service capacity. In contrast, the pressure, state and response indicators of the Fu'an and Jiaocheng ecosystems were unaffected by changes to forest and grassland areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rewetted peatlands can be a significant source of methane (CH4), but in coastal ecosystems, input of sulfate-rich seawater could potentially mitigate these emissions. The presence of sulfate as electron acceptor during organic matter decomposition is known to suppress methanogenesis, by favoring the growth of sulfate-reducers, which outcompete methanogens for substrate. We investigated the effects of a brackish water inflow on the microbial communities relative to CH4 production-consumption dynamics in a freshwater rewetted fen at the southern Baltic Sea coast after a storm surge in January 2019 and analyzed our data in context with the previous freshwater rewetted state (2014 serves as our baseline) and the conditions after a severe drought in 2018. We took peat cores at four previously sampled locations along a brackishness gradient to compare soil and pore water geochemistry as well as the microbial methane and sulfate cycling communities with the previous conditions. We used high throughput sequencing and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) to characterize pools of DNA and cDNA targeting total and putatively active bacteria and archaea. Furthermore, we measured CH4 fluxes along the gradient and determined the concentrations and isotopic signatures of trace gases in the peat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the last two decades, an increasing number of reports have identified a decline in salmonid populations, possibly linked to infection with the parasite Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae and the corresponding disease, that is, proliferative kidney disease (PKD). The life cycle of this myxozoan parasite includes sessile bryozoan species as invertebrate host, which facilitates the distribution of the parasite in running waters. As the disease outcome is temperature dependent, the impact of the disease on salmonid populations is increasing with global warming due to climate change. The goal of this review is to provide a detailed overview of measures to mitigate the effects of PKD on salmonid populations. It first summarizes the parasite life cycle, temperature‐driven disease dynamics and new immunological and molecular research into disease resistance and, based on this, discusses management possibilities. Sophisticated management actions focusing on local adaptation of salmonid populations, restoration of the riverine ecosystem and keeping water temperatures cool are necessary to reduce the negative effects of PKD. Such actions include temporary stocking with PKD‐resistant salmonids, as this may assist in conserving current populations that fail to reproduce. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landscape models are essential tools that link landscape patterns to ecological processes. Barrier island vegetation communities are strongly correlated with geomorphology, which makes elevation-based metrics suitable for developing a predictive habitat classification model in these systems. In this study, multinomial logistic regression is used to predict herbaceous, sparse, and woody habitat distributions on the North End of Assateague Island from slope, distance to shore, and elevation change, all of which are derived from digital elevation models (DEMs). Sparse habitats, which were generally found closest to shore in areas that are exposed to harsh conditions, had the highest predictive accuracy. Herbaceous and woody habitats occupied more protected inland settings and had lower predictive accuracies. A majority of woody cells were misclassified as herbaceous likely because of the similarity in the predictive parameter distributions. This relatively simple model is transparent and does not rely on subjective interpretations. This makes it an effective tool that can directly aid practitioners making coastal management decisions surrounding storm response planning and conservation management. The model results were used in a nutrient sequestration application to quantify carbon and nitrogen stored in barrier island vegetation. This represents an example of how the model results can be used to assign economic value of ecosystem services in a coastal system to justify different management and conservation initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change poses an increasing threat to achieving development goals and is often considered in development plans and project designs. However, there have been challenges in the effective implementation of those plans, particularly in the sustained engagement of the communities to undertake adaptive actions, but also due to insufficient scientific information to inform management decisions. Madagascar is a country rich in natural capital and biodiversity but with high levels of poverty, food insecurity, population growth, and exploitation of natural resources. The country faces development and environmental challenges that may be intensified by climate change. The objective of this review is to provide a synthesis of the best-available information regarding climate change impacts on sectoral interests in Madagascar. To do this, we conducted a review of recent literature and conducted formal discussions with development agencies, non-government organizations (NGOs), and other stakeholders. Climate risks in Madagascar include increasing temperatures, reduced and more variable precipitation, more frequent droughts, more intense cyclones, and rising sea levels. We synthesized the observed and projected impacts of climate change on water resources, agriculture, human health, coastal ecosystems, fisheries, and terrestrial ecosystems and ecosystem services, and we discuss ongoing climate adaptation and mitigation activities. Because sectoral challenges and opportunities are linked, coordination among development organizations would be beneficial as they create new climate adaptation and mitigation initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the disasters that often occur in coastal areas is abrasion. Abrasion causes coastal dynamics, including the East Coast of Rembang, Kragan Village, Kragan District, Rembang Regency. From 1975 to 1990, at least 50 meters of land from this area has been lost due to abrasion. This dynamic may become one of the causes of unsustainable management of the coastal environment and its natural resources. Various efforts have been made to overcome abrasion, but abrasion continues to hit this area, even until 2020. Qualitative and quantitative approaches were carried out in this study to discover the coast dynamics and various human activities that may trigger abrasion. Image interpretation, observation, interviews, and questionnaires were used as data collection techniques at three observation points in the Kragan Village area. This study concludes that the beach in Kragan Village has experienced dynamics with a total land loss of 46 meters from 2003 to 2020. Harmful activities carried out by humans resulted in abrasion so that the coast experienced dynamics. Human activities also affect coastal management, namely the basic principles of integrated coastal management and processes in the management of coastal areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coastal marine ecosystems face a host of pressures from both offshore and land-based human activity. Research on terrestrial threats to coastal ecosystems has primarily focused on agricultural runoff, specifically showcasing how fertilizers and livestock waste create coastal eutrophication, harmful algae blooms, or hypoxic or anoxic zones. These impacts not only harm coastal species and ecosystems but also impact human health and economic activities. Few studies have assessed impacts of human wastewater on coastal ecosystems and community health. As such, we lack a comprehensive, fine-resolution, global assessment of human sewage inputs that captures both pathogens and nutrient flows to coastal waters and the potential impacts on coastal ecosystems. To address this gap, we use a new high-resolution geospatial model to measure and map nitrogen (N) and pathogen—fecal indicator organisms (FIO)—inputs from human sewage for ~135,000 watersheds globally. Because solutions depend on the source, we separate nitrogen and pathogen inputs from sewer, septic, and direct inputs. Our model indicates that wastewater adds 6.2Tg nitrogen into coastal waters, which is approximately 40% of total nitrogen from agriculture. Of total wastewater N, 63% (3.9Tg N) comes from sewered systems, 5% (0.3Tg N) from septic, and 32% (2.0Tg N) from direct input. We find that just 25 watersheds contribute nearly half of all wastewater N, but wastewater impacts most coastlines globally, with sewered, septic, and untreated wastewater inputs varying greatly across watersheds and by country. Importantly, model results find that 58% of coral and 88% of seagrass beds are exposed to wastewater N input. Across watersheds, N and FIO inputs are generally correlated. However, our model identifies important fine-grained spatial heterogeneity that highlight potential tradeoffs and synergies essential for management actions. Reducing impacts of nitrogen and pathogens on coastal ecosystems requires a greater focus on where wastewater inputs vary across the planet. Researchers and practitioners can also overlay these global, high resolution, wastewater input maps with maps describing the distribution of habitats and species, including humans, to determine the where the impacts of wastewater pressures are highest. This will help prioritize conservation efforts.Without such information, coastal ecosystems and the human communities that depend on them will remain imperiled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

River managers strive to use the best available science to sustain biodiversity and ecosystem function. To achieve this goal requires consideration of processes at different scales. Metacommunity theory describes how multiple species from different communities potentially interact with local‐scale environmental drivers to influence population dynamics and community structure. However, this body of knowledge has only rarely been used to inform management practices for river ecosystems. In this article, we present a conceptual model outlining how the metacommunity processes of local niche sorting and dispersal can influence the outcomes of management interventions and provide a series of specific recommendations for applying these ideas as well as research needs. In all cases, we identify situations where traditional approaches to riverine management could be enhanced by incorporating an understanding of metacommunity dynamics. A common theme is developing guidelines for assessing the metacommunity context of a site or region, evaluating how that context may affect the desired outcome, and incorporating that understanding into the planning process and methods used. To maximize the effectiveness of management activities, scientists, and resource managers should update the toolbox of approaches to riverine management to reflect theoretical advances in metacommunity ecology. This article is categorized under:Water and Life > Nature of Freshwater EcosystemsWater and Life > Conservation, Management, and AwarenessWater and Life > Methods [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]