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Reviewed: Portraits of American Women. Vol. 2: From the Civil War to the Present. Barker-Benfield, G. J. and Clinton, Catherine, ed.

Reviewed: Portraits of American Women. Vol. 1: From Settlement to Civil War. Barker-Benfield, G. J. and Clinton, Catherine, ed.

Abnormal uterine bleeding (AUB) is the term used to describe uterine bleeding that varies from the normal parameters of menstruation. This term replaces several previously used terms with less clear or conflicting definitions, including dysfunctional uterine bleeding , irregular menstrual bleeding , and menorrhagia . PALM-COEIN is a classification system for the etiologies of AUB in nongravid menstruating women. PALM refers to discrete structural entities (ie, polyp, adenomyosis, leiomyoma, malignancy and hyperplasia); COEIN refers to nonstructural etiologies (ie, coagulopathy, ovulatory dysfunction, endometrial, iatrogenic, not yet classified). The prevalence of AUB is estimated to be 35% or higher. The history and physical examination are key in the evaluation of patients with AUB. Patients with symptomatic acute blood loss require urgent evaluation for potential hemodynamic instability. For women 45 years and younger with AUB, endometrial biopsy is indicated if specific risk factors for endometrial cancer are present. Endometrial biopsy is indicated for all patients with AUB who are older than 45 years or have postmenopausal bleeding. Management of AUB is determined by its etiology, and typically consists of medical therapy (ie, combination oral contraceptives, progestin-containing intrauterine devices, tranexamic acid, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs). Patients with structural lesions may require surgical procedures. Management should be individualized and patient desire for current or future fertility should be considered., (Written permission from the American Academy of Family Physicians is required for reproduction of this material in whole or in part in any form or medium.)

Chronic pelvic pain (CPP) is defined as at least 6 months of pain originating from the lower abdomen or pelvis that is not associated with pregnancy. Symptoms include abdominal bloating, low back pain, and dyspareunia. CPP is considered a symptom and not a diagnosis. The etiology may involve a specific organ or condition (eg, endometriosis, adhesions). The most common associated conditions are endometriosis, interstitial cystitis, irritable bowel syndrome, and depression. The history and physical examination are essential in the evaluation. A comprehensive history that encompasses the gynecologic, obstetric, surgical, and psychosocial histories is key. The psychosocial history should include screening for depression, anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder, and physical and sexual abuse because of their association with CPP. The physical examination should include musculoskeletal, abdominal, and gynecologic examinations. The choice of laboratory tests and imaging studies should be guided by the history and physical examination findings. Management is multimodal and involves management of associated conditions, pharmacotherapy, surgeries and procedures, physical therapy, and behavior and lifestyle therapies. The multidisciplinary care team typically consists of the primary care physician, subspecialty physicians (eg, gynecology, pain management, psychiatry, gastroenterology, urology), a physical therapist, and a behavioral health subspecialist., (Written permission from the American Academy of Family Physicians is required for reproduction of this material in whole or in part in any form or medium.)

Genitourinary syndrome of menopause (GSM) is a term that describes the genital, urinary, and sexual changes that occur in women because of a lack of estrogen. This most commonly is because of menopause, but can be because of a hypoestrogenic state caused by hyperprolactinemia, oophorectomy, premature ovarian failure, chemotherapy, or radiation. GSM describes a group of signs and symptoms that affect quality of life and progress over time, including vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, dysuria, urinary urgency, and frequent urinary tract infections. GSM is underdiagnosed. It affects 65% of women 1 year after the onset of menopause, and 84% of women 6 years after menopause. Physicians routinely should ask all perimenopausal and postmenopausal women about GSM symptoms. The diagnosis is made clinically, based on the history and physical examination. Use of nonhormonal lubricants and vaginal moisturizers should be recommended as first-line therapies. Vaginal estrogen is the most effective treatment. Other therapies include vaginal dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), ospemifene, systemic estrogen therapy, and pelvic floor physical therapy.

It is estimated that polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) affects about 10% of women of reproductive age in the United States. Principal risk factors include obesity and a family history of PCOS. A diagnosis of PCOS should be considered in women with irregular or absent menstrual cycles, issues related to hyperandrogenism, or infertility. The Rotterdam diagnostic criteria require two of the following three factors: oligo- or anovulation, clinical and/or biochemical signs of hyperandrogenism, and polycystic ovaries identified on ultrasonography. Laboratory tests are recommended to rule out other conditions and factors, including thyroid conditions, hyperprolactinemia, atypical congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and tumors. The mainstays of treatment are lifestyle changes to achieve weight loss and combination oral contraceptives (COCs). (PCOS is an off-label use of COCs.) A weight loss of 5% to 10% has been shown to decrease PCOS symptoms. Medical or surgical management of obesity may be indicated. COCs provide endometrial protection and help manage acne and hirsutism. (Hirsutism is an off-label use of COCs. Acne is an off-label use of some COCs.) Routine acne treatments also are used. Hirsutism may improve with topical cosmetic treatments, spironolactone, or finasteride. (Hirsutism is an off-label use of spironolactone and finasteride.) Infertility is a common issue in patients with PCOS. The aromatase inhibitor letrozole is the first-line treatment for PCOS-related anovulation. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues also are used to induce ovulation. (This is an off-label use of letrozole and gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogues.)., (Written permission from the American Academy of Family Physicians is required for reproduction of this material in whole or in part in any form or medium.)