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To evaluate potential differential diabetes risk of DR3 haplotypes we have evaluated class I alleles as well as two microsatellites previously associated with differential risk associated with DR3 haplotypes. We found that over one-third of patient DR3 chromosomes consisted of an extended DR3 haplotype, from DQ2 to D6S2223 (DQ2, DR3, D6S273-143, MIC-A5.1, HLA-B8, HLA-Cw7, HLA-A1, and D6S2223-177) with an identical extended haplotype in controls. The extended haplotype was present more frequently (35.1% of autoimmune-associated DR3 haplotypes, 39.4% of control DR3 haplotypes) than other haplotypes (no other haplotype >5% of DR3 haplotypes) and remarkably conserved, but it was not transmitted from parents to affected children more frequently than nonconserved DR3-bearing haplotypes. This suggests that if all alleles are truly identical for the major A1, B8, DR3 haplotype (between A1 and DR3), with different alleles on nonconserved haplotypes without differential diabetes risk, then in this region of the genome DR3-DQ2 may be the primary polymorphisms of common haplotypes contributing to diabetes risk.

Micronization is a commonly used enabling technology to improve the bioavailability of compounds where absorption is dissolution rate limited. However, decreasing particle size often results in increased Van der Waals' interactions and electrostatic attraction between particles. This causes agglomeration of particles, thereby compromising the increase in surface area gained by micronization. Comicronization with excipients has been reported to offer significant advantages over neat micronization. The present work describes the comicronization of a model compound CI-1040 at a high drug load that shows an increase in the dissolution rate and bioavailability in male Wistar rats. Physicochemical characterization of the comicronized and neat micronized material is presented to help explain the in-vitro and in-vivo data.

In this study, the combined risk for expressing anti-islet autoantibodies and type 1A diabetes (T1D) was prospectively examined in 85 sampled relatives who had the high-risk HLA genotype (DR3-DQ8 DR4-DQ2). An insulin gene polymorphism, -23 HphI, and a lymphocyte tyrosine phosphatase gene polymorphism at position 1858C>T (amino acid 620 Arg to Trp), PTPN22/LYP, were analyzed. Life tables were created evaluating time to anti-islet autoantibody development and T1D. Of relatives with the high-risk HLA type followed for 3years, 9 of 43 (28.1%) with the high-risk -23 HphI polymorphism developed anti-islet autoantibodies versus two of 36 (5.6%) relatives with the lower-risk -23 HphI genotypes (p=0.048). Of relatives with the high-risk HLA type followed for 5years, eight of 32 (25.0%) with the high-risk -23 HphI polymorphism (A/A) developed T1D versus zero of 26 (0%) relatives with the lower-risk -23 HphI genotypes (A/T and T/T) (p=0.006). The PTPN22/LYP polymorphism, with genotypes C/C, C/T, and T/T, did not show a significant difference in risk by genotype. These results highlight the multiplicative risk of combined high-risk genotypes at different loci in terms of time to autoantibody and autoimmune disease development.

We hypothesize that NOD mice without native insulin, but with an altered insulin B:9-23 sequence, will be completely protected from diabetes/insulitis if insulin B:9-23 is an essential T cell epitope. To investigate this hypothesis, we have established initial insulin 1- and 2-negative NOD mice with a transgene directing production of preproinsulin with alanine at position B:16 rather than the native tyrosine of both insulin 1 and insulin 2. Sets of primers for PCR-based assays have been created and validated. They are able to distinguish the presence or absence of the insulin gene knockouts and of both native insulin 1 and insulin 2 (and thus distinguish heterozygous versus homozygous knockouts), as well as the presence of the altered insulin transgene, B:16 alanine preproinsulin. Four B:16 alanine transgenic founders were produced directly in NOD mice and, by intercrossing, initial live native insulin-negative B:16 alanine transgenic mice have been generated.

IDDM17 on chromosome 10 was identified in an initial genome screen of 13 members (10 affected) of a large Bedouin Arab family that had 19 relatives affected with type 1 diabetes. Two more children have now been diagnosed with the disease. A second genome screen with 45 members (17 affected members, spouses, and offspring; 382 markers) was performed. A parallel version of Genehunter was used for parametric and nonparametric linkage analyses. The nonparametric linkage analysis (NPL) confirmed the IDDM17 locus (NPL = 3.79; P = 0.001) with a prominent LOD (logarithm of the odds = 2.38) peak. These results demonstrate the strong potential of genetically homogenous, extended families for mapping genes that contribute to a complex disease.

Studies on the frequency of Y chromosome microdeletions were carried out in 70 idiopathic infertile males with normal karyotypes. Genomic DNA was isolated from blood and PCR analysis was carried out with AZFa, AZFb, and AZFc STS markers SY 84, SY 87, SY 127, SY 254, and SY 158 to detect the deletions. In 9/70 (12.8%) subjects AZF deletions were observed. In 4/9 (44.4%) subjects were azoospermic, 4/9 (44.4%) of cases were severe oligozoospermic, and 1/9 (11.1%) cases was oligozoospermic.

Calcium plays an important role in the pathophysiology of essential hypertension. Serum calcium levels were measured in 117 subjects with essential hypertension and 77 first-degree relatives. The results showed that serum calcium levels were significantly (p<0.01) decreased in both males and females with essential hypertension and their first-degree relatives when compared with the normotensive controls. This is the first study in Indian population.

Gonadotropins (FSH, LH) and testosterone are the prime regulators of germ cell development. Abnormal spermatogenesis is often associated with altered serum gonadotropins and testosterone. FSH, LH and testosterone levels were estimated in 96 infertile men of whom 35 were azoospermic, 35 were oligozoospermic, 11 were with varicocele and 15 were with histopathological abnormalities like hypospermatogenesis, spermatid arrest and sertoli-cell only syndrome. Results showed statistically significant (p<0.05), increase in the mean FSH and LH levels in all the infertile males studied when compared with the fertile controls (n=35). However, there is no significant difference in the mean levels of testosterone between the infertile and fertile men.

Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease caused by a combination of genetic and environmental factors. On the basis of a genomic search for linkage in a Bedouin Arab family with 19 members with type 1 diabetes, we previously mapped the IDDM 17 locus to the chromosome 10q25.1 region. The result from a recent genome scan showed suggestive evidence of linkage of IDDM 17 in a subset of Caucasian families in which all affected individuals have DR3, indicating that the IDDM 17 locus might have a measurable effect in Caucasian populations from the United Kingdom and the United States. High-resolution SNP typing provides strong evidence of linkage disequilibrium to the IDDM 17 locus.

The IDDM 17 locus was mapped to an 8-cM interval at chromosome 10q25.1 based on linkage in a large Bedouin Arab family with 19 affected relatives. Caspase 7 (CASP7), an apoptosis-related cysteine protease, is one of the few known genes in this region. CASP7 is involved in the activation cascade of caspases responsible for apoptosis execution. Only 1 of the 18 SNPs in CASP7 (SNP144692) differed significantly in frequency in the haplotypes found in affected individuals compared to control Bedouin haplotypes. This same SNP showed evidence of association with diabetes in a subset of patients (DR3/DR4*0302) from HBDI families.

Purpose: To investigate the mechanism by which Tween 80 impedes the dissolution of CI-1041, a poorly water-soluble compound in its free form., Methods: Bulk powder and intrinsic dissolution (ID) of CI-1041 in 0.1 N HCl with various concentrations of Tween 80 were conducted. The residual solids of the dissolution experiments were characterized. The surface tension and the critical micellar concentration (CMC) of Tween 80 in 0.1 N HCl were determined., Results: CI-1041 underwent solvent mediated conversion to its chloride salt (CS) in 0.1 N HCl. The coating of the CS on the surface of the CI-1041 pellet decreased the ID rate 20 to 30 fold. When the Tween 80 concentration in 0.1 N HCl was below 0.5 mg/ml, the CS formation rate increased with increasing Tween 80 concentration. Above 0.5 mg/ml of Tween 80 in 0.1 N HCl, opposite trend was observed. The change in trend at 0.5 mg/ml Tween 80 coincided approximately with the CMC of Tween 80 in 0.1 N HCl., Conclusions: The authors propose the following mechanism mediated by Tween 80. Below CMC, reduced surface tension caused by addition of Tween 80 increases the rate of nucleation of insoluble CS, causing the formation of CS on the surface of the CI-1041 free form. This, in turn, decreases the dissolution rate by decreasing the release of compound into solution. Above CMC, the effect of reduced surface tension on the CS nucleation and therefore its formation may be negated by other factors, such as an increase in viscosity or adsorption of surfactant on the crystal surface.

Aim: To estimate the frequency of microdeletions in the long arm of Y-chromosome of 20 infertile males from South India., Methods: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification using Y-specific STS of azoospermia factor (AZF) regions i.e., SY 84 for AZFa, SY 127 for AZFb and SY 254 for AZFc., Results: Of the 20 infertile subjects 3 (15 %), one azoospermic and two oligozoospermic, showed microdeletions in the AZF region of Y-chromosome., Conclusion: The frequency of deletions involving AZF region of the Y-chromosome is 15 % in azoospermic and severely oligozoospermic infertile men. PCR amplification of AZF locus is useful for the diagnosis of microdeletions in the Y-chromosome.

Dissolution of Pfizer Compound PD198306, a poorly soluble compound, was studied in 25 mM pH 9 sodium phosphate solution with 0.5% SLS using the flow-through cell dissolution apparatus. Unmicronized and micronized drug powders were tested. Several methods of loading the drug powder into the flow-through dissolution cells and their impact on dissolution were investigated. The influence of flow rate of the dissolution medium on the rate and extent of dissolution were studied. PD198306 has poor wettability even in the presence of 0.5% SLS. It was found that loading the drug powder into the dissolution cell in the form of a suspension provided the best dissolution profile in terms of the rate and extent of dissolution. The flow rate of 4 ml/min resulted in good particle size discrimination.

A total of 21,000 general population newborns (NECs) and 693 young siblings-offspring of patients with type 1A diabetes (SOCs) were class II genotyped and 293 NECs and 72 SOCs with the high-risk genotype, DR3/4, DQB1*0302 have been prospectively evaluated. Seventeen individuals who converted to persistent autoantibody positivity and two autoantibody-negative control groups (35 SOCs and 24 NECs) were typed for HLA-A class I alleles. The A1, A2 genotype was significantly increased among the autoantibody-positive subjects (47%) compared to autoantibody-negative SOCs (14%, P = 0.01) and NECs (13%, P = 0.02). Life-table analysis of DR3/4, DQB1*0302 siblings revealed a risk of 75% for development of islet autoantibodies by the age of 2 years for those with A1, A2. The HLA-A2 phenotype frequency was increased among an independent DR3/4, DQB1*0302 young diabetes cohort (64% versus 33% for autoantibody-negative NECs). These results suggest that a high incidence and early appearance of islet autoantibodies for siblings of patients with type 1A diabetes are associated with DR3/4, DQB1*0302 and potentially increased with HLA-A genotype A1, A2.

Of 957 patients with type 1 diabetes without known Addison's disease 1.6% (n = 15) were positive for 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies. Among DQ8/DQ2 heterozygous patients, the percentage expressing 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies was 5% (10 of 208) vs. less than 0.5% of patients with neither DQ8 nor DQ2. Three of the diabetic patients found to have 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies on screening were subsequently diagnosed with Addison's disease. Overall, the genotype DQ8/DQ2, consisting of DRB1*0404/DQ8 with DRB1*0301/DQ2, was present in 14 of 21 patients with Addison's disease (8 of 12 with diabetes and 6 of 9 without diabetes or antiislet autoantibodies) vs. 0.7% of the general population (109 of 15,547; P < 10(-6)) and 11% of patients with DM without Addison's disease (62 of 578; P < 10(-6)). Among patients with diabetes with DQ8, Addison's disease was strongly associated with the specific DRB1 subtype, DRB1*0404 (8 of 9 patients from 8 families, in contrast to only 109 of 408 DQ8 DM patients with diabetes without Addison's disease having DRB1*0404; P < 0.001). Among 21-hydroxylase autoantibody-positive DQ8 patients, 80% with DRB1*0404 (12 of 15) had Addison's disease, in contrast to 1 of 10 autoantibody-positive patients with DRB1*0401 or DRB1*0402 (P < 0.001). We conclude that patients with DRB1*0404 and 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies are at high risk for Addison's disease. Patients with DRB1*0401 and DRB1*0402 have more limited progression to Addison's disease despite the presence of 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies.

A novel microsatellite marker was found within 48.5 kb of the Fas gene. The observed heterozygosity in 160 healthy unrelated controls was 0.78. There was no evidence of linkage to type I diabetes mellitus in 120 diabetic children using the transmission disequilibrium test.

Glucuronide conjugates of arylamines are thought to be important in the carcinogenic process. This study investigated the pH stability and synthesis of glucuronide conjugates of 4-aminobiphenyl and its N-hydroxy metabolites by human and dog liver. Both dog and human liver slices incubated with 0.06 mM [3H]-4-aminobiphenyl produced the N-glucuronide of 4-aminobiphenyl as the major product. After 2 hr of incubation, the N-glucuronide of 4-aminobiphenyl represented 52 and 27% of the total radioactivity recovered by HPLC in dog and human, respectively. When 4-aminobiphenyl, N-hydroxy-4-aminobiphenyl, or N-hydroxy-N-acetyl-4-aminobiphenyl was added to human microsomes containing [14C]UDP-glucuronic acid, a new product peak was detected by HPLC. At 0.5 mM, the rate of glucuronidation was N-hydroxy-N-acetyl-4-aminobiphenyl > N-hydroxy-4-aminobiphenyl > 4-aminobiphenyl. The rate of formation of the N-glucuronide of 4-aminobiphenyl was similar to that observed with benzidine and N-acetylbenzidine. The glucuronides of 4-aminobiphenyl and N-hydroxy-4-aminobiphenyl were both acid labile with T1/2 values of 10.5 and 32 min, respectively, at pH 5.5. The glucuronide of N-hydroxy-N-acetyl-4-aminobiphenyl was not acid labile with T1/2 values at pH 5.5 and 7.4 of 55 and 68 min, respectively. The glucuronide of 4-aminobiphenyl was the most acid labile conjugate examined. Thus, the glucuronide of 4-aminobiphenyl is a major product of dog and human liver slice metabolism and likely to play an important role in the carcinogenic process.

Glucuronidation of N-hydroxy arylamines is thought to be a necessary step in their initiation of bladder cancer. This was evaluated for the N-hydroxy metabolites of N-acetylbenzidine (ABZ). N'-Hydroxy-N-acetylbenzidine (N'-HA), N-hydroxy-N-acetylbenzidine (N-HA) and N-hydroxy- N,N'-diacetylbenzidine (N-HDA) were synthesized. Except for N'-HA, these compounds were quite stable. Ascorbic acid and/or acidic pH increased the stability of N'-HA. When each N-hydroxy compound was added to reaction mixtures containing [14C]UDP-glucuronic acid, 3 mM ascorbic acid and human liver microsomes a new product was detected by HPLC. Emulgen 911 was a better detergent than Triton X-100 for expressing microsomal activity, with maximal glucuronidation observed with 0.3% Emulgen 911. At 0.125 mM amine the rate of glucuronidation was N-HDA >> N'-HA = benzidine > ABZ > N-HA. In contrast, at 0.5 mM amine the rate of glucuronidation of N-HA was only exceeded by N-HDA. At pH 5.5 and 37 degrees C the t1/2 for the enzymatically prepared glucuronide conjugates of ABZ, N'-HA and N-HA were 7.5 min and 3.5 and 1.8 h respectively. For N-HDA > 90% of this glucuronide remained after 24 h. At pH 7.4 and 37 degrees C the t1/2 for the glucuronide conjugates of ABZ and N-HA were 2.3 and 2 h respectively, with the amounts remaining after 24 h for N'-HA and N-HDA being 75 and 90% respectively. At pH 6.5 the t1/2 for N'-HA was 14 h. Thus only glucuronides of ABZ and N'-HA exhibit pH-dependent changes in t1/2. Compared with ABZ, glucuronides the N-hydroxy metabolites are more stable at acidic pH. Acidic urine would be more likely to hydrolyze the glucuronide conjugate of ABZ than those of its N-hydroxy metabolites. Because these results are different from that hypothesized for arylmonoamines, a new model was developed to explain the role of N-oxidation, N-glucuronidation and N-acetylation in the carcinogenesis of benzidine, an aryldiamine.

As part of a general program of screening islet expression libraries we have identified a clone from a lambda gt11 human islet expression library that reacts with human diabetic sera and, upon sequencing, was determined to be the neuroendocrine islet autoantigen ICA512 (islet cell antigen 512). In the current communication, we describe the development of a radioassay for autoantibodies to ICA512 (ICA512AA) using in vitro transcribed and translated protein for production of labeled antigen. Our initial results indicate that this radioassay is significantly more sensitive than the enzyme-linked immunosorbant assay, which uses a COOH-terminal fragment of ICA512. The ICA512AA radioassay uses a 96-well format with membrane separation of antibody bound from free antigen and should be readily adaptable to automated large-scale screening. Only 7 microliters of serum is required for triplicate determinations. In order to determine the specificity and sensitivity of this assay and estimate its positive predictive value, we have studied 42 new-onset diabetic patients, 33 first-degree relatives of diabetic patients followed to diabetes, 694 islet cell antibody-negative (ICA-) relatives, and 205 normal control subjects. Thirty-eight percent of new-onset patients and 48% of relatives followed to diabetes express autoantibodies to ICA512 exceeding the 99th percentile of the normal control subjects. In contrast, only 1.4% of ICA- first-degree relatives were positive for ICA512 autoantibodies.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Physicochemical effects caused by intestinal fluids on drugs in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract can be a contributing factor in food induced changes in bioavailability. To identify physicochemical properties of gemfibrozil that may be altered by endogenous and dietary lipids, in vitro studies were conducted in model systems approximating the conditions of the upper GI tract. Factors examined include pH, solubility in bile salt micellar and mixed micellar systems with monoolein and lecithin, effect of fatty acids, dissolution, wetting, and partitioning in triglyceride dispersions. Gemfibrozil was solubilized by glycocholate solutions in a manner typical of other lipids and a three-fold increase in solubility was observed over physiologic concentrations. Addition of increasing amounts of swelling amphiphiles (monoolein, lecithin) to glycocholate solutions resulted in a linear increase in solubility. Fatty acid salts had no effect on gemfibrozil solubilization by micellar solutions. The dissolution rate of gemfibrozil increased slightly in the presence of glycocholate relative to buffer, however, addition of monoolein increased the dissolution rate three-fold. In triglyceride dispersions of mixtures of lipids, monoolein increased the fraction of drug in the micellar subphase, whereas fatty acid reduced it. The results indicate that in the conditions of the fed state gemfibrozil solubility and dissolution could be substantially increased relative to the conditions in the fasted state.

N-Glucuronidation is an important pathway in aromatic amine metabolism. This study assessed N-glucuronidation of N-acetylbenzidine by human liver slices and microsomes. With slices, considerable metabolism of [3H]N-acetylbenzidine (0.2 mM) was observed during a 2-hr incubation. N-Acetylbenzidine N'-glucuronide represented significant metabolism in four different human liver samples (6-33% of the total recovered radioactivity following HPLC). Benzidine (11-43%), benzidine N-glucuronide (8-11%), and N,N'-diacetylbenzidine (0-2%) were also formed. The kinetics of N-acetylbenzidine N'-glucuronide formation were investigated using Triton X-100-pretreated microsomes. Data were best described by a two-component Michaelis-Menten model composed of both high-affinity (low KM) and low-affinity (high KM) UDP-glucuronsyltranosferases. The high- and low-affinity KMs were 0.36 +/- 0.02 and 1.07 +/- 0.12 mM, respectively. To help identify the UDP-glucuronosyltransferases metabolizing N-acetylbenzidine, 23 transferase substrates were tested for their ability to inhibit glucuronidation. At 0.25 mM, bilirubin, estriol, and 17-epiestriol were good inhibitors (< 50% of control). Dose-response inhibition studies with estriol and 4-aminobiphenyl demonstrated that each agent reached a plateau as its concentration was increased. IC50 for estriol and 4-aminobiphenyl was 0.15 +/- 0.03 and 0.57 +/- 0.06 mM, respectively. Complimentary inhibition was observed when these agents were combined at maximal inhibitory concentrations. These results suggest that more than one UDP-glucuronosyltransferase metabolizes N-acetylbenzidine. N-Glucuronidation represents a major pathway for N-acetylbenzidine metabolism in humans.

Although glucuronidation is considered an important pathway in aromatic amine-induced bladder cancer, benzidine glucuronidation has not been assessed in humans. Glucuronidation of benzidine was assessed with human liver microsomes and slices. Emulgen 911-treated microsomes exhibited a Km for benzidine of 0.8 +/- 0.06 mM and a Vmax of 4.2 +/- 0.7 nmol/mg protein/min. A variety of agents were tested for their ability to inhibit benzidine N-glucuronide formation. At 0.25 mM, estriol, 17-epiestriol, bilirubin, hyodeoxycholic acid and cyproheptadine were good inhibitors (< 50% of control). Dose-dependent inhibition studies with estriol, testosterone and 4-aminobiphenyl demonstrated that each agent reached a plateau as its concentration was increased. When these agents were combined at maximal inhibitory concentrations, additive inhibition was observed. These results suggest that more than one UDP-glucuronosyltransferase metabolizes benzidine. The cDNA clones pUDPGTh-1 and -2 encode transferases which metabolize hyodeoxycholic acid and estrogen derivatives, but neither transferase catalyzed benzidine glucuronidation. Slices were used to assess metabolism by intact tissue and converted [3H]benzidine (0.09 mM) to N-acetyl-benzidine. N-Glucuronides of both benzidine and N-acetylbenzidine were observed and represented 14-37% of the total recovered radioactivity. The amount of N-acetylbenzidine N'-glucuronide observed was proportional to the amount of N-acetylbenzidine produced. Thus, N-glucuronidation appears to represent a major pathway for metabolism of benzidine in humans. The extent of N-acetylation affects the proportion of benzidine and N-acetylbenzidine glucuronidated by human liver slices.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of physostigmine (Phy) and/or concurrent exercise on lactate, pyruvate, and L/P ratio in plasma, skeletal muscle, and brain tissue in male Sprague-Dawley rats. The Phy-dosed (Phy-D) and Phy-dosed + concurrent acute exercise (Phy-D + CAE) groups elicited significantly higher L/P ratios in plasma compared to the acutely exercised (AE) group at 30 min postexercise. Physostigmine dosing, with or without exercise, resulted in significantly lower muscle pyruvate levels, from 30 to 50 min postdrug administration, in Phy-D and Phy-D + CAE groups compared to the AE group. In the brain, lactate values were significantly elevated in the acutely exercised groups at 5 min postexercise with or without Phy dosing. However, at 15 to 30 min postexercise, lactate values were significantly elevated in the Phy-D + CAE compared to the AE group. These data suggest that when Phy is administered prior to a 20-min moderately intensive exercise bout, there is an accumulation of lactate for a prolonged period of time in recovery.

This study reports the modulatory effects of physostigmine (Phy) and concurrent acute exercise on the time course of cholinesterase (ChE) activity, the rate of decarbamylation (Kd), and half-time of recovery of ChE in red blood cells (RBC) and various tissues of rats. Acute exercise equivalent to 80% VO2-max (maximal oxygen consumption) transiently increased the RBC ChE activity, whereas Phy decreased ChE activity in RBC and various tissues. Physostigmine along with concurrent acute exercise increased the Kd in RBC, brain, and heart by 56.4%, 66.7%, and 139%, respectively, compared to Phy alone. The Kd in diaphragm and muscle decreased to 14.1% and 56.2%, respectively, compared to Phy alone. The variation in Kd might be due to the effect of concurrent acute exercise on the redistribution of Phy in various tissues of rat as a result of changes in blood flow.

While N-glucuronidation is an important pathway for metabolism of aromatic amines, it has not been demonstrated for N-acetylbenzidine. A glucuronide of N-acetylbenzidine was synthesized and identified by mass spectrometry as N-acetylbenzidine-N'-glucuronide. This N'-glucuronide is acid labile with a t1/2 of 4 min at pH 5.3. A similar acid lability was also observed with benzidine-N-glucuronide. The formation of N-acetylbenzidine-N'-glucuronide was assessed with liver slices and microsomes prepared from human, dog and rat. When 0.014 mM [3H]N-acetylbenzidine was incubated with human liver slices a significant amount of N-acetylbendizine-N'-glucuronide was produced (8-26% of the total radioactivity recovered). With higher concentrations of [3H]N-acetylbenzidine (1 mM) rat slices also produced N-acetylbenzidine-N'-glucuronide. However, N'-glucuronide formation was not detected with dog liver slices incubated with either 0.014 or 1 mM [3H]N-acetylbenzidine. N-Acetylbenzidine-N'-glucuronide formation was observed with microsomes prepared from human, dog and rat. To assess maximum activity four detergents were used at two concentrations. With or without detergent activation the relative amount of glucuronidation was human > > dog > rat. The rate of benzidine N-glucuronide formation was 4.3- and 1.6-fold greater than N-acetylbenzidine-N'-glucuronide in dog and rat respectively, while in human both rates were similar (1.1-fold). With or without detergent activation the relative amount of benzidine-N-glucuronide formation was human > dog > > rat. N-Glucuronidation of [3H]N,N'-diacetylbenzidine was not observed. Thus N-actylbenzidine-N'-glucuronide formation appears to be an important pathway for metabolism of N-acetylbenzidine, especially in humans. Due to their acid lability, formation of the N-glucuronides of N-acetylbenzidine and benzidine provides a mechanism for hepatic detoxification and accumulation of these carcinogens in the bladder. A new model is described illustrating the effect of N-glucuronidation and the influence of N-acetylation on arylmono- and aryldiamine-induced bladder carcinogenesis.

The interaction of physostigmine (Phy) and exercise on choline-acetyltransferase (ChAT) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) have been studied in the fast extensor digitorum longus (EDL) and slow soleus muscles of rat. ChAT decreased significantly by trained exercise in EDL muscle and Phy prolonged this effect even up to 24 h. Soleus muscles showed a small increase of ChAT due to exercise but Phy + exercise did not change significantly. Both EDL and soleus showed a marked decrease in AChE activity due to subacute administration of Phy + trained exercise, exhibiting an additive effect. No recovery was observed in ChAT and AChE activities of EDL even after 24 h in Phy + trained exercise group. Our results suggest that Phy and exercise has significant effect on the synthetic (ChAT) and degradative (AChE) enzymes of acetylcholine in active EDL muscle. Exercise has prolonged the inhibitory effect of Phy on ChAT and AChE activities both in active EDL and passive soleus muscles. This study showed that Phy + exercise modified the functional activity of cholinergic system in EDL and soleus muscles.

Dog is an animal model for assessing aromatic amine-induced bladder cancer, and hepatic N-glucuronidation is proposed as an important pathway leading to initiation of carcinogenesis. Therefore, benzidine N-glucuronidation was evaluated with dog liver microsomes and slices. Microsomal benzidine UDP-glucuronosyltransferase activity was increased with a variety of detergents. For kinetic analysis, native microsomal preparations were separated into treated (detergent treated, not centrifuged) or soluble (detergent treated, centrifuged) fractions. The detergents Triton X-100, Lubrol PX, Emulgen 911 and CHAPS increased the specific activity of treated fractions relative to the native microsomes 3- to 6-fold. The specific activities of the soluble fractions were highest with Emulgen 911 and CHAPS at a detergent-to-protein ratio of 1. Subsequent studies used Emulgen 911 or CHAPS. Similar results were observed with either preparation. For treated preparations, the Km and Vmax values were 0.142 +/- 0.006 mM and 0.65 +/- 0.1 nmol/mg protein/min respectively. A variety of chemicals were tested for their effect on benzidine N-glucuronide formation. At 0.1 mM, the only effective inhibitors (< 50% of control) were 2-aminofluorene, estriol, 17-epiestriol, 2-OH-estrone, and 4-OH-estrone. With Emulgen-treated microsomes, the Ki values for 2-aminofluorene, 4-aminobiphenyl and estriol were 0.114 +/- 0.014, 0.347 +/- 0.032 and 0.047 +/- 0.003 mM respectively. 2-Aminofluorene and estriol were non-competitive inhibitors, while 4-aminobiphenyl was a competitive inhibitor. Slices incubated with these chemicals exhibited an inhibition profile similar to that observed with microsomes. Thus, N-glucuronidation of benzidine may be an important metabolic pathway in dog. Inhibition of benzidine N-glucuronidation by estriol and catechol estrones may be important in vivo events in aromatic amine-induced carcinogenesis.

1. Oxidative metabolism of the bladder carcinogens FANFT/ANFT was examined in vitro in guinea pig (resistant species) relative to rat (susceptible species). 2. The total rate of ANFT hepatic metabolism by guinea pig (soluble metabolites plus protein bound, 354 pmol/min per mg protein) was approx. 4 times that in rat. 3. The total rate of FANFT metabolism was similar in both species and approx. one-quarter that for ANFT in guinea pig. In rat, the rate of total metabolism of FANFT and ANFT was similar. 4. Cytochrome P450 inhibitors, 2,4-dichloro-6-phenylphenoxyethylamine, 7,8-benzoflavone, and n-octylamine largely inhibited metabolism in guinea pig, but had little effect in rat. 5. H.p.l.c. analysis of ANFT metabolites indicated distinctly different products in guinea pig compared to rat. 7,8-Benzoflavone decreased metabolite formation by 80% in guinea pig, but only 30% in rat. 6. Flavin-dependent monooxygenases may participate in metabolism of these carcinogens in rat, but not guinea pig. 7. Because ANFT is thought to be a more proximate carcinogen than FANFT, the increased rate of ANFT metabolism and the formation of different products in guinea pig compared to rat may partially explain the resistance of guinea pig to FANFT-induced bladder cancer.

The mechanism by which benzidine induces bladder cancer in dog was evaluated by assessing metabolism of [3H]benzidine by dog liver slices and microsomes. Slices incubated with 0.05 mM [3H]benzidine exhibited a 32.5 min incubated with 0.05 mM [3H]benzidine exhibited a 32.5 min peak, which was also produced when microsomal incubations were supplemented with UDP-glucuronic acid. In contrast to microsomes, very little of the 32.5 min peak was produced with the 100,000 g supernatant fraction. Microsomal metabolism was increased 5-fold by pretreatment with Triton X-100. Very little activity was observed with rat microsomes in either the presence or absence of Triton X-100. This metabolite was also generated by incubating benzidine with glucuronic acid at 4 degrees C for 3 days. Thermospray MS identified this metabolite as benzidine N-glucuronide. At 37 degrees C, the t1/2 stability of purified N-glucuronide was 99, 25 and 3 min in dog urine adjusted to pH 7.3, 6.3 and 5.3 respectively. The N-glucuronide was quite stable at pH 9.3, in dog plasma, and in aprotic solvents for 4 h at 37 degrees C. Relative to benzidine, its N-glucuronide is weakly bound to plasma proteins but not more reactive with DNA. Thus, detoxification by liver provides a mechanism for accumulation of benzidine in acidic urine, uptake of benzidine into bladder epithelium, and activation of benzidine in bladder. The liver and N-glucuronidation play a potentially important role in the species specificity of benzidine carcinogenesis.

Physostigmine (Phy) is metabolized to eseroline, a phenolic compound that appears to alter mitochondrial functions. The effect of Phy on recovery from exercise and on time course of plasma lactate and pyruvate levels following an acute bout of exercise (AE) was examined in untrained and trained (ET) rats. Phy alone elicited significantly higher plasma lactate and pyruvate levels than sedentary control. AE + Phy had a significantly higher plasma lactate and pyruvate levels compared to AE 2 min postadministration. From 5-30 min postexercise, lactate and pyruvate levels did not differ between these two acutely exercised groups. ET + Phy exhibited significantly lower levels of plasma lactate and pyruvate from 5-60 min postexercise compared to ET. The data show that the "additive" effect of Phy on postexercise plasma lactate and pyruvate levels can be attenuated by an enhanced fitness level in these rats.

This study sought to determine whether the choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzymes in the brain were affected in a regionally selective manner by chemical and physical stressors: 1) subacute administration of physostigmine (Phy); 2) exercise; and 3) the combination of these two stressors. ChAT and AChE activities in corpus striatum were significantly decreased due to Phy as well as Phy + exercise. This suggests that corpus striatum is affected by chemical stressors but more so by the combination of chemical and physical stressors. The brainstem is the only region which showed inhibition of ChAT activity due to exercise. Subacute Phy also inhibited brainstem ChAT activity. The hippocampus showed significant decrease in ChAT activity due to Phy + exercise but not due to Phy alone. These results suggest that the brain regions involved with control of motor, autonomic and cognitive functions were affected by subacute Phy and exercise. These data are consistent with the hypothesis that the responsiveness of these brain regions to different stressors is a function of the level of ongoing cholinergic activity and that elevations in ACh levels due to AChE inhibition may have long-term effects on the regulation of ChAT and AChE activities through a negative feedback mechanism.

Mustards have become an important topic of global discussion in recent years. The latest extensive reports and conference of 145 nations in Paris (January 13, 1989) reveal that several countries have stockpiled large quantities of mustard gas. This situation creates an imminent danger to accidental or intentional exposure of this gas to civil populations throughout the world. In view of the sparse literature on the toxic nature of mustard gas, we have tried to present an integrated panorama of this compound and its derivatives. In this article, efforts were made to review mustard gas--its chemical nature, mode of action, methods available for its analysis in biological fluids and target organs, absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion and its toxicity to various organs. The effects of mustard poisoning may be local, systemic, or both, depending on environmental conditions, exposed organs, and the extent and duration of exposure. The toxic effects of mustard include inhibition of mitosis, NAD depletion, decreased tissue respiration and finally cell death. Most of the toxic effects are related to alkylation of DNA. Mustards are also selective in their accumulation in fat tissue. The immediate organs affected after mustard exposure are skin, eyes, and lungs. Sulfur mustard has also been reported to be a potent carcinogen. Burns caused by mustard are severe and require long healing periods. Depending on the type and time of exposure, mustard renders persons disabled temporarily or permanently. Various antidotes such as sodium thiosulfate, dexamethasone, promethazine, heparin, vitamin E and atropine have been recommended for combating mustard poisoning. Protective clothing can substantially reduce the toxic effects of mustard exposure. The best possible way of eliminating mustard hazard is to ban its use completely.