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Purpose: To determine different relationships between, and predictive ability of, performance variables at intermediate distances with finishing time in elite male 10,000-m runners. Methods: Official electronic finishing and 100-m split times of the men’s 10,000-m finals at the 2008 and 2016 Olympic Games and IAAF World Championships in 2013 and 2017 were obtained (125 athlete performances in total). Correlations were calculated between finishing times and positions and performance variables related to speed, position, time to the leader, and time to the runner in front at 2000, 4000, 6000, 8000, and 9900 m. Stepwise linear-regression analysis was conducted between finishing times and positions and these variables across the race. One-way analysis of variance was performed to identify differences between intermediate distances. Results: The SD and kurtosis of mean time, skewness of mean time, and position and time difference to the leader were either correlated with or significantly contributed to predictions of finishing time and position at at least one of the analyzed distances (.81 ≥ r ≥ .30 and .001 ≤ P ≤ .03, respectively). These variables also displayed variation across the race (.001 ≤ P ≤ .05). Conclusions: The ability to undertake a high degree of pace variability, mostly characterized by acceleration in the final stages, is strongly associated with achievement of high finishing positions in championship 10,000-m racing. Furthermore, the adoption and maintenance of positions close to the front of the race from the early stages are important to achieve a high finishing position.

The aim of this study was to establish whether the lane and heat draw influenced placings and progression in world-class 800-m track running. Finishing positions and times of 1086 performances at the Olympic Games and IAAF World Championships between 1999 and 2017 were obtained. Mean finishing and season’s best times (SB), as well as placings and progression rates, were found for each heat number and for the inner (Lanes 1 and 2), middle (Lanes 3 – 6) and outer lanes (Lanes 7 and 8). In the qualifying heats and semi-finals, the theoretically expected number of fastest losers (non-automatic qualifiers) per heat was compared with the actual number. One-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests were conducted to compare finishing times between lane and heat numbers across rounds. With regard to the order of heats, there were no differences between finishing times in either the qualifying heats or semi-final rounds for men; in the women’s event, only Semi-final 3 was the quickest, but still did not have higher progression rates. SB times did not differ between heats within each round, highlighting the fair distribution of athletes. Progression rates for each lane during the qualifying heats ranged between 36% and 52% (men) and between 49% and 61% (women), close to the expected ranges of 45% and 55%, respectively. The middle lanes were quicker in the seeded semi-finals and finals only. Men in the outer lanes fared slightly worse and should focus on achieving the optimal tactical position after breaking from lanes. The IAAF could reconsider how they allocate seeded lanes in the later rounds by switching the fifth and sixth fastest athletes from the outer to the inner lanes. Regarding the heat draw, athletes mostly did not take advantage of knowing previous performances from earlier races, and probably focused on achieving an automatic qualifying position instead. However, the fastest losers in the women’s last semi-final were faster and showed that benefitting from the heat draw is possible with tactical coaching.

The aim was to determine the relationships among components of the force-velocity (F-V) profiles in jumping and sprinting, with both biological and chronological ages in 89 young soccer players belonging to categories from U10 to U18. Participants performed countermovement jumps (CMJ) and 20-m sprint tests. F-V components assessed were associated with both maturity offset and chronological age, using correlation and multiple linear regression analyses. Horizontal (i.e., maximal theoretical force [F0] and velocity [V0], maximal power [Pmax] and F-V slope) and vertical (i.e., [F0] and [Pmax]) F-V components displayed very large correlations (i.e., 0.79 ≤ r ≤ 0.92) with both chronological age and maturity offset. The combination of sprinting Pmax and training experience and jumping F0 and training experience explained up to 94% of the variances in maturity offset and chronological age. Furthermore, similar correlations were found between sprinting and jumping performances, and components of the F-V profiles, and both maturity offset and chronological age. Identification of vertical jump and sprint mechanical determinants may assist in strengthening those components of the F-V profile which are weaker throughout the training process. Sprinting and jumping capabilities can be indistinctly monitored with respect to their chronological age or maturity offset in young soccer players.

Internal training load refers to the degree of disturbance in psychophysiological homeostasis provoked by a training session and has been traditionally measured through session-RPE, which is the product of the session Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and the duration. External training load refers to the actual physical work completed, and depends on session volume, intensity, frequency and density. Drafting, which is achieved by running closely behind another runner has been demonstrated to reduce the energy cost of running at a fixed speed and to improve performance. Therefore, it is hypothesised that psychophysiological responses might reflect different levels of internal load if training is performed individually or collectively. 16 elite middle-distance runners performed two high-intensity training sessions consisting of 4 repetitions of 500 m separated by 3 min of passive recovery. Sessions were performed individually and collectively. Times for each repetition, RPE, core affect (valence and felt arousal) and blood lactate concentrations [BLa] were measured after each repetition. Main time effect was significant and increased across repetitions for [BLa] and RPE (p

El presente estudio se enmarca dentro de la Teoría del Rendimiento Experto. Esta teoría propone que para llegar a ser experto en un dominio, un sujeto debe superar un periodo de adquisición extensivo consistente en miles de horas de práctica intencionalmente diseñada para mejorar. El presente estudio buscó analizar las percepciones subjetivas de un grupo de corredores kenianos de larga distancia sobre sus tareas de entrenamiento para lo cual cumplimentaron un cuestionario basado en una taxonomía de actividades de entrenamiento valoradas en cuatro dimensiones: Relevancia, Esfuerzo, Concentración y Diversión. En este estudio participaron 27 corredores de fondo kenianos divididos en tres grupos de niveles por su marca. El rango de edades de los participantes fue de 21 a 39 años (M= 25,39; DT= 3,82). Todos estos corredores eran especialistas de las pruebas de media maratón y maratón. Fueron divididos en tres grupos de nivel de rendimiento por su marca: Medio, Alto y Muy Alto. Los resultados mostraron como las dimensiones de Concentración, Esfuerzo y Disfrute diferenciaron a los corredores por su nivel, asímismo se manifestó el papel que las actividades grupales de entrenamiento tienen para estos corredores, lo que plantea la cuestiòn si los modelos de desarrollo de la excelencia desarrollados en en los paises desarrollados sirven para explicar este fenómeno en los países en vías de desarrollo.

El presente estudio se enmarca dentro de la Teoría del Rendimiento Experto y de la Práctica Deliberada. Su propósito fue analizar por un lado las percepciones de grupo de corredores de larga distancia españoles y kenianos, sobre sus tareas de entrenamiento, y por otro la cantidad de entrenamiento acumulado a lo largo de su carrera deportiva. La percepción de sus actividades de entrenamiento, las actividades relacionadas con el entrenamiento y las de la vida cotidiana, las valoraron en cuatro dimensiones (Relevancia, Esfuerzo, Diversión y Concentración). La muestra estuvo formada por 36 corredores kenianos y 51 corredores españoles de tres niveles de rendimiento, Medio, Alto y Muy Alto. Todos estos atletas eran varones y especialistas de pruebas de larga distancia (5000 metros, 10000 metros, Media Maratón y Maratón). Los resultados mostraron que existían diferencias entre los dos grupos muestrales tanto en las percepciones de sus actividades de entrenamiento como en la cantidad de entrenamiento acumulado a lo largo de sus carreras deportivas. La cantidad de entrenamiento acumulado se relacionó de forma monótona con su nivel de rendimiento. Actividades de entrenamiento tales como la Competición o los tests, el Interval training largo y corto y especialmente las Carreras largas a ritmo elevado, fueron percibidas como las actividades que mayor importancia y mayor esfuerzo físico y mental, les reclamaban. Asimismo, también fueron consideradas entretenidas. Es por ello que pueden ser consideradas las actividades clave de su práctica deliberada. Como diferencias más destacadas entre los dos grupos, los corredores kenianos valoraron más la concentración en las actividades de entrenamiento que los corredores españoles. Los corredores de mayor nivel la valoraron más que los de menor nivel de rendimiento. Paralelamente, el descanso fue altamente valorado por todos los corredores de cara a la mejora de su rendimiento. Asimismo, los corredores kenianos de máximo nivel acumularon durante los primeros once años de entrenamiento sistemático 20000 kilómetros más que los corredores españoles de máximo nivel. ABSTRACT The present study belongs to the Expert Performance and Deliberate Practice Theory framework. Its goal was twofold: i) to analyse the subjective perceptions of a group of long distance runners from Spain and Kenya regarding their training tasks; and ii) to assess the amount of training accumulated during their sport careers. The perceptions of training activities related to training and daily life activities were rated into four dimensions (Relevance, Effort, Enjoyment, and Concentration). The participants were 36 Kenyan runners and 51 Spanish runners of three different performance levels: Medium, High, and Very High. All the athletes were male long distance runners (5000 meters, 10000 meters, Half Marathon, and Marathon). The results showed that there were significant differences between groups in both the perceptions of training activities and the amount of training accumulated during their sport careers. In fact, the amount of training accumulated was directly proportional to improvements in the performance level. Training activities such as competitions or tests, long and short interval training and tempo runs, were perceived as the most physically and mentally demanding activities. Although, they also considered these activities as enjoyable and tasks that best characterized their deliberate practice. Prominent differences were found between both groups. Firstly, Kenyan runners were more focused on training activities than Spanish runners. Secondly, the runners of the highest level of performance were more focused than the lower levels ones. At the same time, resting was one variable highly rated in order to improve the athlete’s performance. Finally, the highest level Kenyan runners accumulated in the first eleven years of systematic training 20,000 kilometres more than Spanish highest level of performance runners.

A distribuição da intensidade do treinamento (DIT) é considerada um fator chave para otimizar o desempenho de endurance. Para prescrever e quantificar o treinamento de endurance, tipicamente, utiliza-se um teste de exercício graduado para determinar a velocidade de corrida e/ou a frequência cardíaca associada as referências fisiológicas como o 1° limiar de lactato/ventilatório (LL1/LV1) e o 2º limiar de lactato/ventilatório (LL2/LV2). Adicionalmente, outros métodos de prescrição e quantificação derivados da percepção de esforço da sessão (PSE-sessão) e do ritmo de corrida sem a necessidade de um teste de exercício graduado também podem ser utilizados. Estudos recentes mostraram que a quantificação do treinamento através de métodos subjetivos e objetivos podem afetar significativamente o cálculo da DIT, dificultando o estabelecimento de um modelo de quantificação baseado na PSE-sessão. Embora o teste de exercício graduado associado aos limiares fisiológicos seja visto como mais confiáveis, seu uso exige equipamentos sofisticados inviabilizando sua utilização durante o treinamento e/ou competições. Nessa linha, uma provável associação entre os limiares fisiológicos e a percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) durante um teste de exercício graduado poderia ajudar os treinadores a prescreverem o treinamento para corredores de endurance através de uma ferramenta não invasiva de baixo custo e complexidade. Três zonas de intensidade de treinamento (ou seja, zona 1 [4mmol.L -1 ;>LL2;>LV2; PSE 7-10]) são utilizadas para distribuir o volume total de treinamento. Corredores de média e longa distância utilizam três tipos principais de DIT: 1) DIT polarizada com 75-80% do volume total de treinamento na zona 1, 0-5% na zona 2 e 15-20% nas zonas; 2) DIT piramidal com 80% do volume total de treinamento na zona 1 e 20% na zona 2; e 3) DIT no limiar com > 20% do volume total de treinamento na zona 2. Devido ao crescimento no número de pesquisas relacionadas à DIT em corredores de média e longa distância nos últimos 20 anos, há uma necessidade de resumir e sistematizar as evidências disponíveis na literatura específica. Dessa forma, o objetivo primário desta tese foi realizar uma revisão sistemática (estudo 1) “Distribuição da intensidade do treinamento em corredores de média e longa distância: Uma revisão sistemática”, e baseado em seus resultados, como objetivo secundário e terciário realizar um estudo experimental (estudo 2) “Análise da distribuição da intensidade do treinamento e desempenho no contrarrelógio em corredores de longa distância: Uma comparação entre métodos de quantificação objetivo vs. subjetivo”, e outro de efeito agudo (estudo 3) “Predição do limiar anaeróbio utilizando a escala OMNI-Walk/Run em corredores de longa distância: um estudo preliminar”, respectivamente. . Os resultados da revisão sistemática (estudo 1) demonstraram que o método de quantificação (ou seja, PSE-sessão, lactato sanguíneo, frequência cardíaca, velocidade de corrida e ritmo de corrida) influenciam substancialmente o cálculo da DIT. Os modelos polarizado e piramidal produzem o melhor desempenho de endurance em comparação com o modelo no limiar. Portanto, parece que uma combinação de alto volume em baixa intensidade (≥ 70% do volume total de treinamento) e baixo volume em alta intensidade (≤ 30%) é necessário para melhorar o desempenho de endurance. Além disso, monitorar o treinamento através de múltiplos mecanismos utilizando métodos subjetivos e objetivos podem ajudar os treinadores a tomar melhores decisões. No que se refere ao estudo experimental (estudo 2), os resultados mostraram que a velocidade de corrida produziu uma DIT polarizada (zona 1: 78,09 ± 2,92%, zona 2: 4,97 ± 1,97%, zona 3: 16,71 ± 2,37%), enquanto a PSE-sessão resultou em uma DIT de alta intensidade (zona 1: 31,92 ± 18,20%, zona 2: 19,29 ± 14,63%, zona 3: 48,74 ± 18,08%). A velocidade de corrida também demonstrou maior tempo total de treinamento gasto na zona 1 em comparação com a PSE-sessão, enquanto o oposto foi verificado para a PSE-sessão quando comparada a velocidade de corrida nas zonas 2 e 3 (pLT2;>VT2; s-RPE 7-10]) are used to distribute overall training volume. Middle- and long-distance runners use three main types of TID: 1) Polarized TID with 75-80% of overall training volume in zone 1, 0-5% in zone 2 and 15-20% in zones; 2) Pyramidal TID with 80% of overall training volume in zone 1 and 20% in zone 2 and; 3) TID at threshold with >20% of overall training volume in zone 2. Due to the increase in the number of researches related to TID on middle- and long-distance runners in the last 20 years, there is a need to summarize and systematize the evidence available in specific literature. Thus, the primary objective of this thesis was performing a systematic review (study 1) "Training-intensity on middle- and long-distance runners: A systematic review", and based on its results, as a secondary and tertiary objective performing an experimental study (study 2) "Training-intensity distribution and time-trial performance in long-distance runners: A comparison between objective vs. subjective quantification methods”, and an acute effect study (study 3) “Anaerobic threshold prediction using the OMNI-Walk/Run scale in long-distance runners: A preliminary study”, respectively. Systematic review results (study 1) demonstrated that the quantification method (i.e., s-RPE, blood lactate, heart rate, running speed, and race pace) substantially influence TID calculation. Polarized and pyramidal models produce the best endurance performance compared to threshold model. Therefore, it seems that a combination of high-volume at low-intensity (≥ 70% of overall training volume) and low-volume at highintensity (≤ 30%) is needed to improve endurance performance. Furthermore, monitoring training through multiple mechanisms using subjective and objective methods can help coaches make better decisions. Regarding the experimental study (study 2), the results showed that running speed yielded a polarized TID (zone 1: 78.09 ± 2.92%, zone 2: 4.97 ± 1.97%, zone 3: 16, 71 ± 2.37%), while s-RPE resulted in a high intensity TID (zone 1: 31.92 ± 18.20%, zone 2: 19.29 ± 14.63%, zone 3: 48.74 ± 18.08%). Running speed also demonstrated greater total training time spent in zone 1 compared to s-RPE, while the opposite was verified for s-RPE when compared to running speed in zones 2 and 3 (p