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High-altitude peat bogs and lacustrine records are very sensitive to climate changes and atmospheric pollution. Recent studies show a close relationship between regional climate aridity and enhanced eolian input to lake sediments. However, changes in regional-scale dust fluxes due to climate variability at short-scales and how alpine environments were impacted by climatic- and human-induced environmental changes are not completely understood. Here we present a multi-proxy lake sediment record of climate variability in the Sierra Nevada (SE Iberian Peninsula) over the Holocene. Palynological, geochemical and magnetic susceptibility (MS) proxies obtained from the high mountain lake record of Laguna Hondera (LH) evidence humid conditions during the Early Holocene, while a trend towards more arid conditions is recognized since ~ 7000 cal yr BP, with enhanced Saharan eolian dust deposition until Present. This trend towards enhanced arid conditions was modulated by millennial-scale climate variability. Relative humid conditions occurred during the Iberian Roman Humid Period (2600–1450 cal yr BP) and predominantly arid conditions occurred during the Dark Ages and the Medieval Climate Anomaly (1450–650 cal yr BP). The Little Ice Age (650–150 cal yr BP) is characterized in the LH record by an increase in runoff and a minimum in eolian input. In addition, human impact in the area is noticed through the record of Olea cultivation, Pinus reforestation and Pb pollution during the Industrial Period (150 cal yr BP-present). Furthermore, a unique feature preserved at LH is the correlation between Zr and Ca, two important elements of Saharan dust source in Sierra Nevada lake records. This supports that present day biochemical observations, pointing to eolian input as main inorganic nutrient source for oligotrophic mountain lakes, are comparable to the past record of eolian supply to these high-altitude lakes.

A high-resolution multi-proxy approach, integrating pollen, inorganic and organic geochemical and sedimentological analyses, has been carried out on the Holocene section of the Padul sedimentary record in the southern Iberian Peninsula reconstructing vegetation, environment and climate throughout the last ~ 11.6 cal kyr BP in the western Mediterranean. The study of the entire Holocene allows us to determine the significant climate shift that occurred during the middle-to-late Holocene transition. The highest occurrence of deciduous forest in the Padul area from ~ 9.5 to 7.6 cal kyr BP represents the Holocene humidity optimum probably due to enhanced winter precipitation during a phase of highest seasonal anomaly and maximum summer insolation. Locally, insolation maxima induced high evaporation, counterbalancing the effect of relatively high precipitation, and triggered very low water table in Padul and the deposition of peat sediments. A transitional environmental change towards more regional aridity occurred from ~ 7.6 to 4.7 cal kyr BP and then aridification enhanced in the late Holocene most likely related to decreasing summer insolation. This translated into higher water levels and a sedimentary change at ~ 4.7 cal kyr BP in the Padul wetland, probably related to reduced evaporation during summer in response to decreased in seasonality. Millennial-scale variability is superimposed on the Holocene long-term trends. The Mediterranean forest regional climate proxy studied here shows significant cold-arid events around ~ 9.6, 8.5, 7.5, 6.5 and 5.4 cal kyr BP with cyclical periodicities (~1100 and 2100 yr) during the early and middle Holocene. A change is observed in the periodicity of these cold-arid events towards ~1430 yr in the late Holocene, with forest declines around ~ 4.7–4, 2.7 and 1.3 cal kyr BP. The comparison between the Padul-15-05 data with published North Atlantic and Mediterranean paleoclimate records suggests common triggers for the observed climate variability, with the early and middle Holocene forest declines at least partially controlled by external forcing (i.e. solar activity) and the late Holocene variability associated with internal mechanisms (oceanic-atmospheric).

Here we provide the geochemical dataset that our research group has collected after 10 years of investigation in the Sierra Nevada National Park in southern Spain. These data come from Holocene sedimentary records from four alpine sites (ranging from ∼2500 to ∼3000 masl): two peatlands and two shallow lakes. Different kinds of organic and inorganic analyses have been conducted. The organic matter in the bulk sediment was characterised using elemental measurements and isotope-ratio mass spectrometry (EA-IRMS). Leaf waxes in the sediment were investigated by means of chromatography with flame-ionization detection and mass spectrometry (GC-FID, GC-MS). Major, minor and trace elements of the sediments were analysed with atomic absorption (AAS), inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), as well as X-ray scanning fluorescence. These data can be reused by environmental researchers and soil and land managers of the Sierra Nevada National Park and similar regions to identify the effect of natural climate change, overprinted by human impact, as well as to project new management policies in similar protected areas., Universidad de Granada. Departamento de Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Junta de Andalucía: Grupos de investigación RNM190 y RNM309, Junta de Andalucía: Proyecto P11-RNM-7332, España, Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad: Proyecto CGL2013-47038-R, Ramón y Cajal Fellowship: RYC-2015-18966, Small Research Grant by the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, Marie Curie Intra-European Fellowship of the 7th Framework Programme for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration of the European Commission: NAOSIPUK. Grant Number: PIEF-GA-2012-623027

Palaeoenvironmental reconstructions from fossil mammals are based on the straightforward relationship between the environment and the mammal assemblage living in the area. However, in some cases the environmental variables estimated from mammals are biassed by local influences. The palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the Granada Basin (southern Spain) based on carbon and oxygen isotopes from enamel rodent teeth is compared with the palaeoenvironmental data from small mammal assemblages. Estimated temperatures from both proxies coincide, in general terms: cold-temperate conditions during the latest Tortonian (~ 16 °C; cold-temperate climate), dry sub-tropical conditions during the Messinian (16.6 °C–22 °C), and dry sub-tropical conditions during the early Pliocene (16.6 °C–17.2 °C). Reconstructed humidity trends from both proxies only agree in the first part of the record, showing dry conditions during the Tortonian–Messinian boundary and an increase in humidity at the beginning of the Messinian. During the Messinian and earliest Pliocene, humidity trends in each proxy are frequently opposed: small mammal assemblages suggest a huge increase in humidity at the beginning of the Messinian, and a decreasing trend towards the Pliocene, whereas carbon isotopes from rodent teeth suggest moderate humidity conditions during the Messinian. It can be concluded that physical changes in the landscape would affect taxa with high dependence on humid conditions, and they are more likely to record local environmental humidity changes rather than regional or global humidity ones. However, the past reconstructions of temperatures are not biassed by this effect, as the general temperature trends deduced from the faunal assemblages as well as those deduced from the isotopic approaches coincide. The general climatic trends reconstructed from isotopic analyses in small mammal teeth agree with the general environmental change in the western Mediterranean region as well as with the global evolution of sea temperatures.

Three pharyngeal teeth of carp, Cyprinus Linnaeus, were found when washing and screening sediment in the Middle and Upper Miocene of Andalusia (Spain). Their examination has shown that they look very similar to those of the recent carp, Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, so that it would not be impossible that they belong to this species. Their presence in southern Spain at that time is surprising because Cyprinus remains are unknown before the Pleistocene in the countries westward of Ukraine, as no articulated skeleton or bony fragment of this genus has ever been identified in the many Mio-Pliocene localities investigated throughout central and western Europe.

Fossil gathering by humans has been rarely documented in the Iberian Peninsula. In the present paper, a multidisciplinary approach has been taken to analyze a straight-tusked elephant (Elephas antiquus) molar retrieved in a Magdalenian deposit at the rock shelter of El Pirulejo in southern Spain. The taphonomical analyses revealed a multifarious use of a tooth that had not only been worked into an anvil-sort-of-tool but also used as a core and partly tainted with a composite pigment. The dating and geochemical analyses further evidenced that the molar derived from an animal that had lived in a rather arid landscape with a temperature range between 12.3 and 14.3 A degrees C coincident with a cold episode within marine isotope stage (MIS) 6.6 and probably fed on herbaceous plants. These analyses evidence the potential fossils from archaeological sites bear for addressing a wide range of issues that include both the cultural and paleoenvironmental realms. Spanish Ministerio de Economia y Competividad [HAR2013-44269-P, HAR 2014-55722-P, HAR2012-34620] Programa Seneca [19438/PI/14] University of Seville Marie Curie Intra-European Fellowship within the 7th Framework Program for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration (European Commission) [PIEF-GA-2013-623027]

Holocene centennial-scale paleoenvironmental variability has been described in a multiproxy analysis (i.e. lithology, geochemistry, macrofossil and microfossil analyses) of a paleoecological record from the Padul basin in Sierra Nevada, southern Iberian Peninsula. This sequence covers a relevant time interval hitherto unreported in the studies of the Padul sedimentary sequence. The ca. 4700 yr-long record has preserved proxies of climate variability, with vegetation, lake levels and sedimentological change the Holocene in one of the most unique and southernmost peat bogs from Europe. The progressive Middle and Late Holocene trend toward arid conditions identified by numerous authors in the western Mediterranean region, mostly related to a decrease in summer insolation, is also documented in this record, being here also superimposed by centennial-scale variability in humidity. In turn, this record shows centennial-scale climate oscillations in temperature that correlate with well-known climatic events during the Late Holocene in the western Mediterranean region, synchronous with variability in solar and atmospheric dynamics. The multiproxy Padul record first shows a transition from a relatively humid Middle Holocene in the western Mediterranean region to more aridity from ~ 4700 to ~ 2800 cal yr BP. A relatively warm and humid period occurred between ~ 2600 to ~ 1600 cal yr BP, coinciding with persistent negative NAO conditions and the historic Iberian-Roman Humid Period. Enhanced arid conditions, co-occurring with overall positive NAO conditions and increasing solar activity, are observed between ~ 1550 to ~ 450 cal yr BP (~ 400 to ~ 1400 CE) and colder and warmer conditions happened during the Dark Ages and Medieval Climate Anomaly, respectively. Slightly wetter conditions took place during the end of the MCA and the first part of the Little Ice Age, which could be related to a change towards negative NAO conditions and minima in solar activity. Evidences of higher human impact in the Padul peat bog area are observed in the last ~ 1550 cal yr BP. Time series analysis performed from local (Botryococcus and TOC) and regional signals (Mediterranean forest) helped us determining the relationship between southern Iberian climate evolution, atmospheric, oceanic dynamics and solar activity.

Recent studies have proved that high elevation environments, especially remote wetlands, are exceptional ecological sensors of global change. For example, European glaciers have retreated during the 20th century while the Sierra Nevada National Park in southern Spain witnessed the first complete disappearance of modern glaciers in Europe. Given that the effects of climatic fluctuations on local ecosystems are complex in these sensitive alpine areas, it is crucial to identify their long-term natural trends, ecological thresholds, and responses to human impact. In this study, the geochemical records from two adjacent alpine bogs in the protected Sierra Nevada National Park reveal different sensitivities and long-term environmental responses, despite similar natural forcings, such as solar radiation and the North Atlantic Oscillation, during the late Holocene. After the Industrial Revolution both bogs registered an independent, abrupt and enhanced response to the anthropogenic forcing, at the same time that the last glaciers disappeared. The different response recorded at each site suggests that the National Park and land managers of similar regions need to consider landscape and environmental evolution in addition to changing climate to fully understand implications of climate and human influence. © 2017 The Author(s)., This study was supported by the project P11-RNM 7332 of the “Junta de Andalucía”, the projects CGL2013-47038-R and CGL2015-67130-C2-1-R of the “Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain and Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional FEDER” and the research group RNM0190 and RNM309 (Junta de Andalucía). A.G.-A. was also supported by a Marie Curie Intra-European Fellowship of the 7th Framework Programme for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration of the European Commission (NAOSIPUK. Grant Number: PIEF-GA-2012-623027) and by a Ramón y Cajal Fellowship RYC-2015-18966 of the Spanish Government (Ministerio de Economía y Competividad). J.L.T. was also supported by a Small Research Grant by the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland and hosted the NAOSIPUK project (PIEF-GA-2012-623027). M. J. R-R acknowledges the PhD funding provided by Consejería de Economía, Innovación, Ciencia y Empleo de la Junta de Andalucía (P11-RNM 7332). We would like to thank to Dr. I.M. Sánchez Almazo (CIC- University of Granada), A. Cochrane, J. McGourlay, S. Pauchet (University of Glasgow), and Dr. S. Diez (IDAEA-CSIC) for their help preparing and analysing the organic and inorganic samples, as well as to Dr. I. Reche (University of Granada) for the aerosol samples from Sierra Nevada. Authors would also like to thank the journal editor K.H. Knorr and two anonymous reviewers for their comments improving the manuscript.

Freshwater carbonates are interesting archives in palaeoenvironmental reconstructions. However, more studies of those systems are needed to fully understand past environments. In this work the actively-forming travertines of the Alhama-Jaraba thermal system were studied for the first time in order to evaluate the relationship between the geochemical and mineralogical composition and the environmental conditions during their formation. With that aim, a combination of petrographical, mineralogical, geochemical and stable isotope analyses were carried out. These carbonates provide a natural laboratory for the study of the effect of different variables (natural and anthropogenic) on carbonate precipitation. The results showed that there is a close relationship between the mineralogy of the solid precipitates and the formation temperature, and only the samples formed from overheated waters (40-60 degrees C) show significant concentrations of aragonite. Aragonite-bearing samples show higher concentrations in Sr, Ba and U while calcitic solids are enriched in Mg. These differences could be attributed to mineralogy, temperature or different precipitation rates. The geochemical evaluation of the chemistry of both the solids and their parental waters suggests that differences in the rate of CO2-degassing and, in some cases, evaporation are the primary environmental controls on isotopic compositions. In addition, the results show that, if strong evaporation and CO2-degassing are involved, calcite precipitation occurs under conditions of isotopic disequilibrium with its parental water. The results of our study are useful to interpret old depositional environments and palaeotemperatures. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The Bølling–Allerød interstadial is the closest warm time period to the Holocene. The study of the climate variability during this most recent warm scenario provides a natural record of potential environmental changes related with global temperature variations. Little is known about this interstadial in the Southern Iberian Peninsula. Therefore, the exceptional climatic record of the Otiñar paleo-lake (ca. 14.5–14.0 cal ka BP), provides environmental information about the first part of this interstadial (Bølling) in this key region. Although the studied high-resolution isotopic record point to almost invariant hydrological conditions in the paleo-lake, with little change in the carbon budget and important limestone dissolution, the pollen record shows an increase in forest species that can be interpreted as a warming trend and an increase in humidity during the Bølling in the area. This record is one of the few continental archives that show this climatic trend in Southern Iberia, agreeing with many other regional records from the western Mediterranean. This does not agree with higher latitude records that show an opposite trend. This opposite pattern in precipitation between the western Mediterranean and more northern latitudes could be explained by a persistent and increasing negative NAO mode during the Bølling in this area.

Paleoecology of fossil rodents is frequently inferred from the dental pattern of the teeth, attributing the habitat conditions of extant rodents to fossil species with similar dental pattern. This technique is common practice and has been in use for several decades. A relatively new technique is based on the carbon and oxygen isotope composition of the incisor enamel of fossil rodents to reconstruct paleoenvironmental scenarios. We combine these two methods, studying material from two Early Miocene Spanish sections, one in the Mediterranean coastal area and one in Northcentral inland Spain. Comparison of the humidity values obtained by means of these two proxies reveals discrepancies. Therefore, we analyzed the habitat preferences, especially humidity, of extant rodents and found that dental pattern is not very reliable to reconstruct the humidity preferences of fossil rodents and this kind of interpretation has to be taken with caution. We conclude that the isotopic composition of enamel of fossil teeth is a more reliable proxy in the studied sections.

Tropical conditions during the late Miocene in southwestern Europe influenced the continental environments. Although there are previous qualitative environmental interpretations of these continental landscapes during the late Miocene, quantitative environmental and paleohydrological data are scarce. A very long sequence of small mammals allowed to date the different continental drainage stages of the Granada Basin from latest Tortonian to the Holocene and to reconstruct qualitatively its environmental evolution. The study of the isotopic record of these fossil small mammals and sediments in the stratigraphic sequence of a latest Messinian paleo-lake in the Granada Basin has provided quantitative environmental and paleohydrological data, in order to know if the fluctuations in the faunal distribution were mainly influenced by the paleogeographic configuration, such as changes in the landscape of the basin, or by the climatic conditions. Open habitats with C3 plants predominated. Estimated quantitative data suggest an oxygen isotopic composition of meteoric waters ranging from − 4.9 to − 3.9‰, past temperatures from ~ 2.5 °C to 4.7 °C higher than the current ones, and summer relative paleohumidity from ~ 60% to ~ 70%. In this context, changes in the landscape, such as the reduction of the lacustrine system caused by tectonic activity, would affect taxa with high dependence on humid conditions.

Aragonitic and calcitic land snails from carbonate-rich paleosols in northwestern Lanzarote (Canary Islands) were analyzed for 13C/12C and 18O/16O ratios to deduce the Pleistocene–Holocene transition in the westernmost Sahara zone. Modern, mid-late Holocene (~ 2.1–5.5 cal ka BP) and late Pleistocene (~ 23.3–24.0 cal ka BP) aragonitic shells exhibited respective values of − 9.5 ± 1.6‰, − 7.7 ± 1.5‰, and − 2.3 ± 2.8‰ for δ13C; and + 0.3 ± 0.3‰, + 0.1 ± 0.7‰, and + 2.5 ± 0.4‰ for δ18O. Holocene and Pleistocene calcitic shells of the endemic slug Cryptella canariensis showed respective values of − 0.7 ± 2.6‰ and − 8.5 ± 2.5‰ for δ13C; and + 0.8 ± 1.5 and + 3.6 ± 0.4‰ for δ18O. Both aragonitic and calcitic shells showed equivalent temporal isotopic trends. Higher δ13C values during ~ 23.3–24.0 cal ka BP suggest higher abundance of C4 and/or CAM plants, likely associated with drier conditions and/or lower atmospheric CO2 concentration. Maximum shell δ18O values during ~ 23.3–24.0 cal ka BP opposes minimal values of Greenland ice cores and probably reflect the combined effects of (1) higher rain δ18O values linked to higher glacial seawater δ18O values and/or larger snail activity during summer seasons; (2) relative humidity values similar or slightly lower than at present; (3) higher evaporation rates; and (4) cooler temperatures. Bone remains of the extinct Dune Shearwater Puffinus holeae were only recovered from the Holocene bed. Collagen δ13C and δ15N values (− 13.5 ± 0.2‰[PDB] and + 13.7 ± 1.0‰[air], respectively) match with the signature of a low trophic level Macaronesian seabird that fed upon local fish. Bone carbonate δ13C (− 7.4 ± 1.0‰[PDB]) and phosphate δ18O (+ 18.2 ± 0.4‰[SMOW]) values exhibited pristine signals denoting their potential value in future paleoenvironmental studies in the region. The age of P. holeae (~ 2.1–2.7 cal ka BP) supports that the aboriginal population possibly caused its extinction. In contrast, the extinction of the endemic helicid Theba sp. (~ 23.3–24.0 cal ka BP) was likely caused by environmental change.

Detailed pollen, charcoal, isotope and magnetic susceptibility data from an alpine lake sediment core from Sierra Nevada, southern Spain record changes in vegetation, fire history and lake sedimentation since ca. 4100 cal yr BP. The proxies studied record an arid period from ca. 3800 to 3100 cal yr BP characterized by more xerophytic vegetation and lower lake levels. A humid period is recorded between ca. 3100 and 1850 cal yr BP, which occurred in two steps: (1) an increase in evergreen Quercus between 3100 and 2500 cal yr BP, indicating milder conditions than previously and (2) an increase in deciduous Quercus and higher lake levels, between ca. 2500 and 1850 cal yr BP, indicating a further increase in humidity and reduction in seasonal contrast. Humid maxima occurred during the Roman Humid Period, previously identified in other studies in the Mediterranean region. Intensified fire activity at this time could be related to an increase in fuel load and/or in human disturbance. An arid period subsequently occurred between 1850 and 650 cal yr BP, though a decrease in Quercus and an increase in xerophytes. The alternation of persistent North Atlantic Oscillation modes probably played an important role in controlling these humid–arid cycles.

The peculiar red colour of fossil small mammal remains from a late Miocene section in southern Spain suggests an unusual diagenetic alteration. These remains have been studied by means of environmental scanning electron microscope equipped with different detectors, energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and an inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer. The red colour is caused by the presence of cinnabar (HgS) in the pores of the fossil bones and teeth, filling the dentinal and bone tubules and other cavities that at life were filled by organic matter. A nearby cinnabar outcrop in the metamorphic materials of Sierra Nevada is interpreted as the source of mercury. This element was mobilized by meteoric diagenesis and incorporated as cinnabar in a palustrine environment, occupying pores and cavities of mammal remains shortly after the degradation of the organic matter (post-mortem enrichment), during the early diagenesis.

article i nfo This study utilizes geomorphology, marine sediment data, environmental reconstructions and the Gorham's Cave occupational record during the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition to illustrate the impacts of climate changes on human population dynamics in the Western Mediterranean. Geomorphologic evolution has been dated and appears to be driven primarily by coastal dune systems, sea-level changes and seismo-tectonic evolution. Continental and marine records are well correlated and used to interpret the Gorham's Cave sequence. Specific focus is given to the three hiatus sections found in Gorham's Cave during Heinrich periods 4, 3 and 2. These time intervals are compared with a wide range of regional geomorphologic, climatic, paleoseismic, faunal and archeological records. Our data compilations indicate that climatic and local geo- morphologic changes explain the Homo sapiens spp. occupational hiatuses during Heinrich periods 4 and 3. The last hiatus corresponds to the replacement of Homo neanderthalensis by H. sapiens. Records of dated cave openings, slope breccias and stalactite falls suggest that marked geomorphologic changes, seismic activ- ity and ecological perturbations occurred during the period when Homo replacement took place.

The oldest Miocene continental fauna in the Guadix-Baza depression from southern Spain is described in this paper. The small mammals remains from Cortijo de la Piedra fossil localities have a latest Vallesian (early Tortonian) age, and provide evidence of late Vallesian continental environments, which were unknown until now in southern Iberia. The age of the reported assemblage is previous to the establishment of the Guadix-Baza Basin sensu stricto. It represents the oldest Miocene continental mammalian fauna found thus far in southern Iberia, and proves the presence of connections with the foreland. The small mammals from Cortijo de la Piedra display a similar size and morphology as those recorded on the mainland, showing no particular traits that might be interpreted as insular features. These continental faunas suggest that the North-Betic Foreland Basin was at least partially closed at the end of the early Tortonian.

Husing et al. (2010: Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology 291, 167–179) made an approximation to the age of the closure of the Betic Seaway through the Guadix Basin during the late Miocene, on the basis of integrated paleontological (foraminifera and micromammals) and magnetostratigraphic data from the marine-continental section of La Lancha. They provide very interesting information that contributes to understand the chronology of the marine to continental transition in the basin, but we would like to comment some inaccuracies in the interpretation of the age of the oldest continental levels of the studied section. Moreover, we discuss several recently described late Miocene continental faunas from the Guadix Basin, such as Negratin-1 and Rambla de Chimeneas-3, which were not considered by Husing et al. for their interpretations. Finally, we review the age of the site of Salinas, originally assigned to MN12 and discussed by Husing et al., but which had already been reconsidered by other authors who concluded that the existence of middle Turolian mammal faunas in this basin cannot be demonstrated.

Minwer-Barakat, R., Garcia-Alix, A., Suarez, E.M., Freudenthal, M. & Viseras, C. 2012 xx xx: Micromammal biostratigraphy of the Upper Miocene to lowest Pleistocene continental deposits of the Guadix basin, southern Spain. Lethaia, Vol. 45, pp. 594–614. Recent study of the small mammals (rodents and insectivores) from several fossil-bearing sites situated in the central sector of the Guadix Basin (Southern Spain) has notably increased the knowledge of the mammal assemblages that existed in Southern Iberia from the latest Miocene to the earliest Pleistocene. On the basis of this new information, we propose a biozonation for the continental deposits of the Guadix Basin, which consists of six biozones ranging in age from the late Turolian (MN13) to the early Villanyian (MN17). These biozones, defined according to the rules of the International Stratigraphical Guide, include not only the mentioned recently discovered fossil sites, but also other, previously known, localities of the basin. Finally, we integrate the described biozones in the Neogene Mammal units and the European Land Mammal Ages, correlate them with several classical mammal sites from other Iberian basins and the rest of Europe, and establish an approximate numerical age for the lower and upper limits of each biozone. □Biostratigraphy, Guadix Basin, rodents, insectivores, Upper Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene.

Small lakes and wetlands from high eleva- tion within the Sierra Nevada Range (southern Spain) preserve a complete post-glacial Holocene record. Isotopic, TOC and C/N analyses, carried out on a sediment core, show various stages in the evolution of the Borreguiles de la Virgen, which today constitute a small bog at about 2,950 m above sea level. Glacial erosion generated a cirque depression, which became a small lake during the first phase of infilling (from 8,200 to 5,100 cal yr BP), as suggested by sedimentary evidence, including an atomic C/N ratio generally below 20, low TOC values and the highest d 13 Ca ndd 15 N values of the record. These results imply significant algal productivity, which is confirmed by the microscopic algal remains. Drier conditions became established progressively in this area from 5,100 to 3,700 cal yr BP. Subsequently, the lake evolved into a bog as shown by geochemical evidence (C/N ratios above 20, high TOC content and low d 13 C values). Unstable conditions prevailed from 3,600 to 700 cal yr BP; an extremely low sedimentation rate and scarcity of data from this period do not allow us to make a coherent interpretation. Fluctuating conditions were recorded during the last *700 cal yr BP, with wetter conditions prevailing during the first part of the interval (with C/N rate below 20) up to 350 years ago. In general, a gradual trend toward more arid conditions occurred since *6,900 - cal yr BP, with a further increase in aridity sin- ce *5,100 cal yr BP. This evidence is consistent with other contemporaneous peri-Mediterranean records.

The southernmost record of woolly mammoths ( Mammuthus primigenius ) in Europe has been found in Late Pleistocene sediments from ‘El Padul’ peat-bog, in the Granada Basin (southern Spain). In this paper we discuss a plausible habitat based on stable isotopic analyses of these specimens, dated ∼40–30 cal ky BP, probably corresponding with the beginning of Heinrich Stadial 4 (HS4) and the end of Heinrich Stadial 3 (HS3). Woolly mammoth remains preserve an accurate isotopic register of past climatic conditions because they needed to ingest large amount of resources daily (water and fresh food), whose isotopic signature, influenced by the environmental conditions, was recorded in their tissues. The δ 18 O w values of the past meteoric waters (−5.4‰ to −6.7‰ vs V-SMOW), calculated from the isotopic composition of teeth enamel, suggest moderate temperatures in comparison with those of similar age recovered in central and northern Europe. Due to its geographic position in southern Europe, our samples recorded the highest δ 18 O w values of past meteoric waters deduced from mammoth remains in Europe. The difference between these values and those of δ 18 O w of current mean annual precipitation are minimal, contrasting with those of higher latitudes during the end of the last glaciation (∼50 to ∼20 cal ky BP). The isotopic values of nitrogen (10.1‰ to 13.2‰ vs AIR) and carbon (−20.7 to −21.8‰ vs V-PDB) of collagen show a dry habitat, which occasionally could have been extreme. Taken as a whole, the isotopic results suggest that the studied specimens lived in a very dry steppic area, with moderately cold conditions, contrasting with the wet environment of ‘El Padul’ peat-bog, and its colder temperatures, due to the influence of glacial conditions of the Sierra Nevada, the highest peninsular mountain range. The described habitat may be sited in a more westerly position than the ‘El Padul’ peat-bog, and it was warmer and drier than those of contemporaneous European woolly mammoths.

The fossil shrews (Soricidae, Lipotyphla, Mammalia) from the Pliocene continental deposits of Tollo de Chiclana (Guadix Basin, southern Spain) are described. Remains of Asoriculus gibberodon, Blarinoides aliciae, Petenyia hungarica, Paenelimnoecus pannonicus, Myosorex meini, and an indeterminated species of Soricidae have been recognized. With the exception of A. gibberodon, these species are very uncommon in the south of the Iberian Peninsula; in fact, this finding represents the first record of Petenyia, Blarinoides, Paenelimnoecus, and Myosorex in the Guadix Basin. The changes in the abundance of Soricidae in the studied levels indicate wet and warm climatic conditions during the late Ruscinian and early Villanyian, and a decrease in the temperature and precipitation in the late Villanyian.

A rich and diverse micromammal fauna from the late Turolian (MN13) locality of Negratín-1 (Guadix Basin, southern Spain) is described. The faunal list of this site includesApodemus gudrunae, Occitanomys alcalai, Stephanomys dubari, Paraethomys meini, Myocricetodon jaegeri, Debruijnimys almenarensis, Apocricetus alberti, Ruscinomyssp.,Eliomyssp.,Atlantoxerussp.,Parasorex ibericus, and Soricidae indet. This is the most nearly complete mammal fauna from the Miocene of the Guadix Basin and allows precise correlations with localities from other Iberian areas. In addition, some of the taxa identified in Negratín-1 are useful as palaeoecological indicators (Myocricetodon, Debruijnimys, Atlantoxerus), evidencing warm and dry climatic conditions. But the principal interest of the fauna from Negratín-1 is the presence of several species of African origin, the gerbillidsDebruijnimys almenarensisandMyocricetodon jaegeri, which are recognized for the first time in Europe. We also ascribe toM. jaegerithe population from the upper Turolian karst infilling of Almenara-M. This finding constitutes new evidence for faunal exchanges between North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during the Messinian Salinity Crisis.

The Pliocene and Pleistocene continental sedimentary records of the western sector of the Granada Basin, southern Spain, consist of alternating fluvial and lacustrine/palustrine sediments. Two Quaternary sections from this sector have been sampled: Huétor Tájar and Tojaire. They have yielded remains of rodents, insectivores and lagomorphs. The presence in the Huétor Tájar and Tojaire sections of Mimomys, Apodemus atavus, Castillomys rivas and two different species of Allophaiomys, indicates an Early Pleistocene age. These deposits, which are related to a fluvio-lacustrine system, can be differentiated from an older (Pliocene) braided fluvial system. Their dating has important repercussions on the paleogeographic reconstruction of the basin. The conditions inferred from the ecological preferences of the small mammal associations are wet and cold. These associations suggest a predominance of open herbaceous habitats, followed by forested habitats; semiaquatic habitats are the least represented.

The drainage system of the Granada Basin in southern Spain has evolved from endorheic to exorheic since the basin emerged and became continental in the latest Tortonian (late Miocene). The age of implementation for the recent exorheic, east-west drainage can now be identified by small mammal dating. This drainage configuration began in the latest Pliocene–earliest Pleistocene due to the capture of the Genil River by a Cacin River tributary. It represented an important change in the behavior of the basin and therefore in the geomorphology, as depositional forms and processes were replaced by erosive ones. While the basin was endorheic, sedimentation was active throughout the basin. Afterward the change to exorheic and up to the present, erosion dominates and sedimentation occurs only in some small, fault-controlled depositional depocenters.

The fauna from Rambla de Chimeneas-3 (RCH-3), a new uppermost Miocene micro- mammal site from the Guadix Basin, is described. This level has yielded remains of Paraethomys meini, Occitanomys alcalai, Stephanomys cf. dubari, Cricetinae indet., Erinaceidae indet., and Soricidae indet. This faunal assemblage can be assigned to the upper Turolian (MN13). The section of Rambla de Chimeneas is situated in the lower part of the oldest exclusively continental stratigraphic unit distinguished in the filling of the Guadix Basin. Other rodent faunas from this unit were previously assigned to the middle Turolian (MN12). In this paper we reconsider the age of the oldest mammal localities from the Guadix Basin, concluding that none of them can be clearly assigned to MN12. Therefore, there is no evidence of the continentalization of the basin before the late Turolian.

Correspondence analysis (CA) is frequently used in the interpretation of palaeontological data, but little is known about the minimum requirements for a result to be valid. Far from being a fundamental mathematical study of CA, this paper aims to present a tool, which may serve to evaluate results obtained in (palaeontological) praxis. We created matrices of random data, grouped by matrix size and varying percentages of zero cells. Each matrix was submitted to CA. Per matrix group the minimum, mean and maximum percentages of total inertia were calculated for the first four axes. We compared these results with several real cases in vertebrate paleontology. Valid conclusions based on CA can only be drawn on percentages that are considerably higher than the axis percentages obtained from random matrices.

The Late Miocene and Pliocene continental sediments in the Granada Basin (southern Spain) have yielded large amounts of fossil small mammals in 37 localities from 11 sections. The aim of this paper is to integrate faunistic, stratigraphic, and sedimentary criteria to unravel the geological history of the continental infilling of the basin. The palaeontological study has led to a detailed biozonation on the basis of rodents, which helps to correlate in detail the different sedimentary units found in the basin, and to follow the changes of the different sedimentary systems and their palaeogeographical evolution through time. Combination of the proposed biostratigraphy and the reinterpretation of the magnetostratigraphic analyses of the Barranco del Purcal section allows us to assign an absolute age slightly older than 5.23 Ma to the Turolian–Ruscinian boundary (MN13-MN14).

The Arvicolinae from the latest Ruscinian and early Villanyian sites of the section of Tollo de Chiclana (Southern Spain) are re-examined in the light of new material and exhaustive comparisons with other European populations. The uppermost Ruscinian population from TCH-1B, previously assigned to Mimomys stehlini, is now ascribed to M. hassiacus, cited for the first time from southern Spain. The populations from the lower Villanyian localities of TCH-3 and 13, assigned to M. minor, are considered to belong to M. stehlini. In addition, the material from the uppermost Ruscinian karstic level of Mo1-A, assigned to “Mimomys” occitanus is ascribed to M. hassiacus. The presence of different species of Arvicolinae is key for delimiting the Ruscinian–Villanyian boundary in the continental deposits of southern Spain and correlating them with European biochronological schemes. In this paper we discuss the problems associated with specific identifications of upper Ruscinian and lower Villanyian arvicolines ...

This paper analyses the relationship between the evolution of the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene rodent and insectivore assemblages from the Granada Basin (southern Spain) and climate changes. These climatic changes, in terms of humidity and temperature fluctuations, are inferred from variations of the relative abundances of taxons with definite ecological preferences. There is a general tendency towards a temperature increase from the latest Tortonian (Middle Turolian) to the Messinian (Late Turolian), and towards a decrease from the Mio-Pliocene boundary (latest Turolian–earliest Ruscinian) to the end of the Zanclean (Late Ruscinian). Dry conditions predominate in the latest Tortonian (Middle Turolian). At the beginning of the Messinian (Late Turolian) there was a significant increase in humidity, followed by an aridification throughout the end of the Messinian and Zanclean (Late Turolian and Ruscinian). These climatic variations are in accordance with the sedimentary evolution of the basin, and agree with the climatic interpretations inferred from the shallow-marine carbonate sediments (temperate/ tropical) deposited in the marine basins of southeastern Spain during the studied time interval.

(2008). Muscardinus meridionalis sp. nov., a new species of Gliridae (Rodentia, Mammalia) and its implications for the phylogeny of Muscardinus. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology: Vol. 28, No. 2, pp. 568-573.

The record of Mio-Pliocene continental sediments is very complete in the Granada Basin (southern Spain), and many fossiliferous localities have yielded material of Rodentia, Lipotyphla and Lagomorpha. The most diversified and numerous are rodents, more specifically the family Muridae. Seventeen murid species, belonging to eight genera (Castromys, Occitanomys, Stephanomys, Apodemus, Paraethomys, Castillomys, Micromys, and Muridae gen. et sp. indet.), have been identified. New data on these genera have been used to propose and corroborate some phylogenetic hypotheses. The studied localities range in age from middle Turolian to early Ruscinian, and the variation of the relative abundance of the faunas through time show a faunistic replacement between the middle-late Turolian transition and the late Turolian-early Ruscinian.

The fossil Desmaninae (water-moles) from the Pliocene continental deposits of Tollo de Chiclana (Guadix Basin, Southern Spain) are described. A new species, Archaeodesmana elvirae, is defined from the locality of Tollo de Chiclana-1 (upper Ruscinian). This species is characterized by relatively small canines and premolars (except the P4) and large P4 and molars, besides several morphological features. The presence of Archaeodesmana brailloni is reported from the locality of Tollo de Chiclana-1B (uppermost Ruscinian). A small sample assigned to the genus Archaeodesmana is described from the lower Villafranchian site of Tollo de Chiclana-3, which cannot be determined at the specific level. The phylogenetic relationships between the different species of Archaeodesmana are reconsidered in the light of the recent findings, which support the idea of a more complex phylogeny than previously proposed for this genus. The populations from the Guadix Basin, previously assigned to Dibolia dekkersi (= Archaeodesmana getica), are here considered to belong to a different (unnamed) species, which is the ancestor of A. elvirae. On the other hand, the new species A. elvirae is proposed as the ancestor of A. brailloni.

The genus Micromys includes a single extant species, Micromys minutus (Pallas, 1771), which lives in Europe and North Asia. This genus is known in the fossil record since the late Miocene; eight fossil species have been described in Europe and Asia, most of them of late Miocene and early Pliocene age. The evolution of this genus during the late Pliocene is barely known. Although it is present in numerous localities of this age, remains of Micromys are usually scarce and generally assigned to the species M. minutus or M. praeminutus Kretzoi, 1959. On the contrary, Micromys is the most abundant genus of Muridae in the late Pliocene locality of Tollo de Chiclana-13 (TCH-13). In a previous paper (Minwer-Barakat et al., 2005), a sample of Micromys from this locality was described, demonstrating its differences from all species of the genus Micromys known until then. Nevertheless, the scarcity of material at that time did not allow the description of a new species. After renewed sampling of this fossiliferous level carried out by the same authors, a more numerous collection is available (41 molars), in which the distinctive features of the new species Micromys caesaris can be observed clearly. The type locality of this new species, Tollo de Chiclana-13, is situated in the central part of the Guadix Basin, an intramontane basin established in the late Miocene. The oldest sedimentary infilling of this basin was deposited in a phase of marine sedimentation during the Tortonian. The upper part of the infilling represents a stage of exclusively continental sedimentation that lasted from latest Tortonian until Late Pleistocene (Viseras, 1991; Fernandez et al., 1996). In the section of Tollo de Chiclana, six fossiliferous localities were described in previous publications (Minwer-Barakat et al., 2004, 2005). These fossiliferous levels, ranging in age from late …

The Granada basin is situated in the central sector of the Betic Cordillera in southern Spain (Fig. 1). Its Neogene and Quaternary sediments cover the contact between the Internal and External Zones of the Cordillera. After a marine phase, in the latest Tortonian (middle Turolian) a large continental lake, occupying almost the whole basin, was established; it was fed by the fluvial courses, which drained the surrounding relief (GarciaAlix, 2006). This configuration is broken up in the early Pliocene, and two independent alluvial systems with associated fluviolacustrine facies developed: one in the eastern sector and the other one in the western sector (Garcia-Alix, 2006). In the west of the basin we find the "paleo-Cacin" braided system occupying the same position as the actual Cacin River (Fig. 1) (Fernandez and Soria, 1987). The sediments come from the southern Betic reliefs (Sierra Almijara, Sierra Tejeda) and have a south-north direction, turning west near the village of Moraleda (Fernandez and Soria, 1987). These deposits are usually attributed to the Plio-Pleistocene, but we now show that they correspond to the lower Pliocene (upper Ruscinian). It is the first evidence of a typical Pliocene mammal fauna in the Granada basin.

A new species of Blarinoides (Soricidae, Mammalia), Blarinoides aliciae, is described from the Pliocene of Tollo de Chiclana (Guadix Basin, southeastern Spain). It is notably smaller than the single species of this genus known until now, B. mariae. B. aliciae is recorded from several other Spanish localities, but the sample from Tollo de Chiclana-3 is the most numerous. B. aliciae proves the simultaneous existence of two different species of Blarinoides in Europe during the Pliocene: one of large size in central and eastern Europe, and another one of small size in Iberia.

Sciurids are very scarce in the fossil record, especially in the basins of southern Spain. The aim of this paper is to review the Sciuridae record in these basins. The Granada and Guadix basins have yielded specimens of Xerini and Pteromyinae, which represent the largest collection of fossil Sciuridae in southern Spain from the Middle Turolian to the Upper Ruscinian. The new discoveries change the currently known geographical and temporal range of some taxons, since we find the oldest evidence of Pliopetaurista pliocaenica in localities from the Late Turolian and of Heteroxerus mariatheresae in a locality of the Middle Turolian. Furthermore, we record the first evidence of Atlantoxerus margaritae in southern Spain.

Homo species were exposed to a new biogeochemical environment when they began to occupy caves. Here we report the first evidence of palaeopollution through geochemical analyses of heavy metals in four renowned archaeological caves of the Iberian Peninsula spanning the last million years of human evolution. Heavy metal contents reached high values due to natural (guano deposition) and anthropogenic factors (e.g. combustion) in restricted cave environments. The earliest anthropogenic pollution evidence is related to Neanderthal hearths from Gorham's Cave (Gibraltar), being one of the first milestones in the so-called “Anthropocene”. According to its heavy metal concentration, these sediments meet the present-day standards of “contaminated soil”. Together with the former, the Gibraltar Vanguard Cave, shows Zn and Cu pollution ubiquitous across highly anthropic levels pointing to these elements as potential proxies for human activities. Pb concentrations in Magdalenian and Bronze age levels at El Pirulejo site can be similarly interpreted. Despite these high pollution levels, the contaminated soils might not have posed a major threat to Homo populations. Altogether, the data presented here indicate a long-term exposure of Homo to these elements, via fires, fumes and their ashes, which could have played certain role in environmental-pollution tolerance, a hitherto neglected influence., SCOPUS: ar.j, info:eu-repo/semantics/published

In the continental deposits of the area of Tollo de Chiclana (Guadix Basin, south-eastern Spain), several new fossiliferous Pliocene localities yield a rich rodent and insectivore fauna. Of the various rodent families that occur in these sites, Muridae are the most abundant and diversified. Eleven species belonging to seven different genera (Occitanomys, Stephanomys, Castillomys, Paraethomys, Apodemus, Rhagapodemus, and Micromys) have been recognized. In this paper we describe the Muridae from these localities, which have great biostratigraphical and paleoecological interest. The presence of certain taxa and the changes in the abundance of the various taxonomic groups indicate a decrease in temperature and a change in the biotopes from Late Ruscinian through Middle Villafranchian in the area of Tollo de Chiclana.

Several new fossiliferous Pliocene localities have been identified in the continental deposits of the area of Tollo de Chiclana (Guadix Basin, SE Spain), that have yielded a rich rodent and insectivore fauna. In this paper, we study the Arvicolidae from these localities. Remains adscribed to the genera Dolomys, Mimomys and Kislangia have been found, which are very interesting from a biostratigraphical point of view.

THE GENUS Stephanomys (Muridae, Rodentia) is one of the most common elements in the late Miocene to Early Pleistocene mammal faunas from the Ibero-Occitan region. Its geographic distribution is limited to this area with only two mentions in the late Miocene of Italy (de Giuli, 1989) and Algeria (Coiffait et al., 1985). The genus has been subject of numerous studies, some of them suggesting different interpretations on the phylogenetic relationships between the various described species (Gmelig-Meyling and Michaux, 1973; Cordy, 1978; Adrover, 1986; Bachelet and Castillo-Ruiz, 1990; Aguilar et al., 1993). The most extensive and significant study of the genus is the Ph.D. dissertation of Cordy (1976), who studied in detail several samples of Stephanomys , analyzed the changes observed in successive populations and defined four species ( S. medius , S. michauxi , S. thaleri and S. progressus ), which are considered as nomina nuda because this work was never published. Only one of these species, S. thaleri from the French locality of Seynes, was validated later by Lopez-Martinez et al. (1998). Although invalid, the name Stephanomys progressus has been used by many authors (Gil and Sese, 1984, 1985; Agusti and Galobart, 1986; Agusti et al., 1993a, 1993b; Aguilar et al., 1993; Vianey-Liaud and Michaux, 2003; Furio et al., 2005; Madurell-Malapeira et al., 2009), only some of them referring specifically to it as a nomen nudum (Minwer-Barakat et al., 2005; Laplana and Blain, 2008). This species was considered by Lopez-Martinez et al. (1998) to be a synonym of S. balcellsi . On the contrary, other studies differentiate S. balcellsi from S. progressus , this latter representing the last step of the continuous lineage Progonomys-Stephanomys , an example of increase in size and morphological specialization in relation …

In this paper, we describe a previously unknown species of the glirid Eliomys from the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene Cabriel, Alcoy and Granada basins of southeastern Spain. Eliomys yevesi sp. nov. is characterized by its relative small size, narrow lingual wall and common presence of two centrolophs in the upper molars, and well-developed centrolophids in the lower molars. The new species is the probable ancestor of E. intermedius, which in turn represents the ancestor of the extant E. quercinus. According to its morphologic and biometric features, the origin of E. yevesi sp. nov. is likely to be found in some population of E. truci from the Late Miocene. Based on these affinities, we propose the lineage E. truci–E. yevesi sp. nov.–E. intermedius–E. quercinus, in which there is a trend towards the development of centrolophs, as well as the reduction of accessory crests.

Saharan dust inputs affect present day ecosystems and biogeochemical cycles at a global scale. Previous Saharan dust input reconstructions have been mainly based on marine records from the African margin, nevertheless dust reaching western-central Europe is mainly transported by high-altitude atmospheric currents and requires high altitude records for its reconstruction. The organic and inorganic geochemical study of sediments from a southern Iberia alpine lacustrine record has provided an exceptional reconstruction of Saharan dust impact and regional climatic variations during the Holocene. After the last deglaciation, results indicate that Saharan dust reached Western Europe in a stepwise fashion from 7.0 to 6.0 cal. kyr BP and increased since then until present, promoting major geochemical changes in the lacustrine system. Effective humidity reconstruction indicates wetter conditions during the early Holocene and progressive aridification during middle–late Holocene time, boosting abrupt changes in the lacustrine system. Cyclostratigraphic analyses and transport mechanisms both point to solar irradiance and aridity as major triggering factors for dust supply over Western Europe during the Holocene., Research was supported by Projects CGL2008-03007, CGL2012- 32659 and CGL2012-33281 (Sec. Estado de I + D + I, Spain), Project RNM-3715 and Res. Groups RNM-178, RNM-179, RNM 5212 and RNM-190 (Junta Andalucía). Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad CGL BOS 2011.12909-E, CGL2010-20857/BTE y Min. Medio Ambiente y Medio Rural y Marino Proyecto 261/2011.

Present day lead pollution is an environmental hazard of global proportions. A correct determination of natural lead levels is very important in order to evaluate anthropogenic lead contributions. In this paper, the anthropogenic signature of early metallurgy in Southern Iberia during the Holocene, more specifically during the Late Prehistory, was assessed by mean of a multiproxy approach: comparison of atmospheric lead pollution, fire regimes, deforestation, mass sediment transport, and archeological data. Although the onset of metallurgy in Southern Iberia is a matter of controversy, here we show the oldest lead pollution record from Western Europe in a continuous paleoenvironmental sequence, which suggests clear lead pollution caused by metallurgical activities since ~ 3900 cal BP (Early Bronze Age). This lead pollution was especially important during Late Bronze and Early Iron ages. At the same time, since ~ 4000 cal BP, an increase in fire activity is observed in this area, which is also coupled with deforestation and increased erosion rates. This study also shows that the lead pollution record locally reached near present-day values many times in the past, suggesting intensive use and manipulation of lead during those periods in this area.

Future climate projections of temperature increases and precipitation decreases over southern Europe pose an enormous challenge not only for the natural environment but also agricultural practices there. Adaptation and prediction are thus necessary to reduce the impact of climate change on future societies. The study of past environments and climate change can be used to improve our understanding of future climate scenarios, providing information about how former environments responded under past climatic conditions. Olive (Olea europaea) fruits and oil have a significant place among the Mediterranean culture where cultivation of olive is an important agricultural activity in the region, particularly in Spain, where commercial olive trees cover 2.5 million ha. Thus it is instructive to understand the primary climatic factors controlling past olive production in this area. In this study we present a synthetic record of Olea occurrences based on seven lake and wetland sediment pollen records from the Sierra Nevada area of southern Spain, for the last ~4500 cal yr BP, which could be used to evaluate the natural and anthropogenic variability of Olea in this area, particularly during the last millennia. Comparison of pollen data with paleoclimatic records strongly suggests that natural millennial-scale variability in Olea is controlled in large part by persistent centennial-scale North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) fluctuations. Our fossil data demonstrate that olive cultivation in this area expanded rapidly at ~950 cal yr BP (1000 CE) and its subsequent variability depended on climate conditions. This study also shows that olive oil production since the beginning of the 20th century was conditioned by climate, suggesting that olive oil industry will be affected by the present aridification tendency in the Mediterranean climates areas., This work was supported by the projects CGL2013-47038-R and CGL-2017-85415-R funded by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of the Spanish Government and the research group RNM0190 (Junta de Andalucía). María J. Ramos-Román was supported by a post-PhD fellowship from the Conserjería de Economía, Innovación, Ciencia y Empleo of the Junta de Andalucía (P11-RNM-7332) and by a post-PhD contract provided from a grant from the European Research Council (ERC-2017-ADG-788616). Jon Camuera also acknowledges the PhD funding (BES-2014-069117) provided by the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of the Spanish Government under the project CGL2013-47038-R. Antonio García-Alix was also supported by a Ramón y Cajal Fellowship RYC- 2015-18966 of the Spanish Government (Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad). We would also like to thanks to two anonymous reviewers and the editor (Fabienne Marret-Davies) for their useful suggestions.