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In recent years, several scholars have recommended that countries reduce their energy-related CO2 emissions by setting carbon intensity targets for their electricity sectors. Other research by Freudenberg suggests that countries could substantially cut their emissions simply by focusing on lowering the intensities of electricity’s most extreme polluters. Using a unique international data source on power plants, we inform this issue by analyzing the distribution of CO2 emissions and intensities within countries’ electricity sectors. We find that the dirtiest 5 % of power plants are responsible for huge shares of their sectors’ total emissions. If these plants continued generating the same amount of electricity but met particular intensity targets, the world’s total electricity-based CO2 emissions could be reduced by as much as 44 %.

The authors assess the extent to which particular characteristics of economic globalization at the national level influence the likelihood of individuals expressing concern for the natural environment. The globalization characteristics of interest include relative levels of exports, measured as exports as percent total gross domestic product (GDP), and the vertical flow of exports, measured as the percent of total exports sent to high-income countries (HICs). Results of multilevel logistic regression analyses of more than 48,000 individuals within 37 nations indicate that the two characteristics have opposite effects on environmental concern, net of various country-level and individual-level factors. In particular, exports as percent of total GDP lessens the likelihood of environmental concern, whereas percent exports to HICs increases the likelihood of individuals expressing concern for the environment. The results highlight the need for the development of theorization that considers the complex interrelationships between environmental concern and economic globalization characteristics.

The authors assess the extent to which national-level integration in the world polity influences individual-level concern for the environment. While theoretically-derived propositions about such relationships have a deep history in comparative sociology, they—with few exceptions—remain untested. Consistent with past research, employed national-level measures of world polity integration include the relative presence of environmental international nongovernmental organizations (EINGOs) and the existence of environmental ministries. Results of multilevel analyses of individual-level environmental concern in 37 nations indicate that both forms of world polity integration increase the likelihood of individual-level environmental concern, net of other national-level factors and individual-level characteristics; although we find stronger support for the influence of EINGOs as a key variable indicating world polity connection. The findings provide unique support for world polity theory, suggesting that future research should consider how elements of world polity integration influence other forms of individual attitudes and behaviors. The results also highlight the importance in considering global and transnational factors when assessing the determinants of individual attitudes about the environment.

Past research on the disproportionality of pollution suggests a small subset of a sector’s facilities often produces the lion’s share of toxic emissions. Here we extend this idea to the world’s electricity sectors by calculating national-level disproportionality Gini coefficients for plant-level carbon emissions in 161 nations based on data from 19,941 fossil-fuel burning power plants. We also evaluate if disproportionalities in plant-level emissions are associated with increased national carbon emissions from fossil-fuel based electricity production, while accounting for other well-established human drivers of greenhouse gas emissions. Results suggest that one potential pathway to decreasing nations’ greenhouse gas emissions could involve reducing disproportionality among fossil-fuel power plants by targeting those plants in the upper end of the distribution that burn fuels more inefficiently to produce electricity.

In this article, we elucidate two new mechanisms for the rise in earnings inequality during post-socialist transition. First, the integration of transition country firms into globalized production networks (GPNs) should increase inequality independent of foreign direct investment (FDI). Second, because EU integration hastened the transition from Soviet-era labor-market practices, the distributional effects of private markets and world-economic integration should be larger among acceding countries. A longitudinal analysis of Gini coefficients among sixteen transition countries from 1991 to 2009 supports these interventions: GPN integration increases inequality independent of FDI, and both private markets and world-economic integration have stronger effects in EU transition countries. These results are robust to a host of alternative explanations, to varying operationalizations of the labor-market effects of EU integration, and to alternative estimators. Through counterfactual analysis, we show that inequality would have increased less dramatically in the absence of EU integration.

Drawing from emergent areas of sociological research and theorization, theauthors consider the environmental impacts of militaries from a comparative-international perspective. The article begins with an overview of treadmill ofproduction and treadmill of destruction theories, the latter of which high-lights the expansionary tendencies and concomitant environmental conse-quences of militarization. This theoretical overview is followed by a narrativeassessment of military growth and energy consumption, with a particular fo-cus on the US military over the past century. Next, the authors detail the var-ious environmental impacts associated with the growth and structure ofnational militaries, briefly discuss potential future research directions, andconclude by calling for scholars in future studies on society/nature relation-ships to seriously consider the environmental and ecological impacts of theworld’s militaries. KEYWORDS climate change, conflict, environmental sociology, globalization, militariza-tion, resource consumption, sustainability, treadmill of destruction

Two sociological theories are engaged to assess the temporal (in)stability of the relationship between CO2 emissions and economic development in Central and Eastern European (CEE) nations. Ecological modernization theory argues that while economic development harms the environment, the magnitude of the harmful link is likely to decrease through time. Treadmill of production theory posits that the association between environmental harms and development will remain constant or possibly increase in magnitude through time. To evaluate these competing propositions, interactions between economic development and time are used in analyses of three measures of CO2 emissions for 13 CEE nations during the 1992 to 2005 period. The results indicate that the magnitude of development's effect on all three outcomes increased through time, which supports the propositions of treadmill of production theory, while also suggesting that economic development in CEE nations became progressively less sustainable in the initial po...

Structural human ecology, ecological modernization theory, and international political economy perspectives are engaged to assess the extent to which coal consumption is influenced by various demographic factors, socioeconomic characteristics, and international relationships. Results of panel analyses for a sample of 66 countries from 1990 to 2005 indicate that both total population size and economic development increase levels of coal consumption. Additional findings suggest that export-oriented manufacturing increases coal consumption in developing nations but not in developed nations. The authors conclude by reflecting on the theoretical implications of the study and the policy relevance of the results for dealing with the human causes and consequences of climate change.

Ecological modernization theory posits that even though economic development harms the environment, the magnitude of the harmful link decreases over the course of development. In contrast, the treadmill of production theory argues that the strong relationship between environmental harms and economic development will remain constant or possibly increase through time. To evaluate these competing propositions, interactions between economic development and time are used in cross-national panel analyses of three measures of carbon dioxide emissions. The results vary across the three outcomes as well as between developed and less developed countries, providing mixed support for both theoretical perspectives. The authors conclude by discussing how both theories could benefit from engaging contemporary research concerning changes within the transnational organization of production and the structure of international trade and how these global shifts influence environment/economic development relationships.

This brief article considers the environmental impacts of militaries from a sociological perspective. The authors begin with an overview of treadmill of destruction theory, which highlights the expansionary tendencies and concomitant environmental consequences of militarism. This discussion is followed by a narrative assessment of military developments and expenditures, with a particular focus on the US military over the past century. Next, the authors detail the increasing environmental impacts associated with the growth and structure of militarization, and conclude by calling for future sociological research to seriously consider the environmental impacts of the world’s militaries.

Military expenditures have escalated over the last three decades in both developed and less developed countries, without a corresponding expansion of military personnel. Spending has instead been directed towards hi-tech weaponry, what we refer to as the “new” military. We hypothesize that this new, increasingly capital-intensive military is no longer a pathway of upward mobility or employer of last resort for many uneducated, unskilled, or unemployed people, with significant consequences for those individuals and society as a whole. One such consequence, we argue, is an increase in income inequality. We test this hypothesis with cross-national panel models, estimated for 82 developed and less developed countries from 1970 to 2000. Findings indicate that military capital-intensiveness, as measured by military expenditures per soldier, exacerbates income inequality net of control variables. Neither total military expenditures/GDP nor military participation has a significant effect. It appears from these findings that today’s “new” military establishment is abrogating its historical role as an equalizing force in society, with important policy implications.

Drawing from various bodies of social scientific literature and research, the authors assess the extent to which infant and child mortality rates in less developed countries are impacted by the percentage of domestic populations living in urban slum conditions. Results of two-way fixed effects panel model estimates of 80 less developed countries from 1990 to 2005 indicate that growth in the percentage of populations living in urban slum conditions positively affects both forms of mortality rate. The effects, moreover, are much more pronounced for African countries than for less developed countries in Latin America and Asia and moderately larger for the Asian nations than those in Latin America. Additional findings suggest that the magnitude of the effect of urban slum prevalence on infant and child mortality increased through time for the African countries, but not for the Latin American and Asian countries in the study.

The authors engage appropriate macrosociological theorization and employ quantitative comparative methods to assess the extent to which various forms of environmental degradation in less-developed countries are tied to inward foreign direct investment in the primary and secondary sectors. Analyzed outcomes include carbon dioxide emissions, industrial organic water pollution, and deforestation. Such forms of environmental harms are known to partially shape migration processes as well as other social dynamics. Results of longitudinal analyses indicate that all three forms of environmental degradation are positively associated with sector-level inward foreign direct investment, which provides broad support for the engaged theoretical orientation.

The authors engage ecological modernization and treadmill of production theories as well as the longstanding postmaterialist values hypothesis and the objective problems subjective values hypothesis to assess the effects of national level affluence, economic growth, and environmental degradation on the likelihood of environmental concern of individuals in 38 nations. Results of multilevel logistic regression analyses indicate that a higher level of national affluence lessens the likelihood of individual-level proenvironmental concern, whereas contrarily, economic development and growth in environmental degradation both increase the likelihood of such values. The authors conclude by considering the theoretical implications of the findings and outlining future steps in this research agenda.

World economy and world society theories are engaged to assess the extent to which environmental harms in less-developed countries are tied to particular kinds of economic and social integration. Results of panel models indicate that world economy integration in the context of sector-level foreign investment contributes to a variety of environmental harms. With the exception of deforestation, world society integration in the mode of environmental international non-governmental organization presence has no direct effect. However, a stronger presence of such organizations in less-developed countries mitigates the effect of foreign investment on all tested outcomes. The authors contend that comparative sociologists should adopt theoretically integrative approaches and pay closer attention to how and under what circumstances world economy and world society factors interact to partially shape social and environmental conditions.

Sociology is poised to greatly enhance our collective understanding of the various sustainability challenges facing the world today. To contribute to this endeavor, the authors conduct panel analyses of the per capita ecological footprints of nations to evaluate multiple theoretical traditions within environmental sociology and its sister approaches. Findings indicate that the consumption-based environmental impacts of nations are tied to economic development, urban population, militarization, and the structure of international trade. Ecological conditions in the context of climate and biogeography also prove to partially shape the environmental harms of human activities. Ultimately, this research suggests that political-economic factors, ecological milieu, and structural associations between nations all influence society/nature relationships. Considering the globally unsustainable levels of resource consumption and concomitant increases in pollution for a growing number of nations throughout the world, the authors contend that theoretically inclusive and methodologically rigorous investigations on such topics should be more central to the discipline.

Drawing from various bodies of social scientific literature and research, the authors assess the extent to which infant and child mortality rates in less-developed countries are affected by the percent of domestic populations living in urban slum conditions. Results of first-difference panel model estimates of 80 less-developed countries from 1990 to 2005 indicate that growth in the percent of populations living in urban slum conditions positively affects both forms of mortality, and the effects are much more pronounced for African countries than for less-developed countries in Latin America and Asia. These findings hold, net of economic development, fertility rates, world-economic integration, and other factors. Cross-sectional analyses of infant and child mortality rates in 2005 that include additional controls provide further evidence of the mortality/urban slum relationships found in the panel model estimates. The authors conclude by highlighting the theoretical implications of the results and describ...

The authors engage prior research and theoretical orientations to assess some of the known causes of anthropogenic methane emissions in comparative international contexts. Like carbon dioxide emissions, methane emissions are a known contributor to climate change. Results of cross-national fixed effects panel regression analyses indicate that population size, economic development, the production of cereals, cattle, natural gas and oil, and a reliance on food exports all contribute to methane emissions from 1990 to 2005. Most notably, additional findings suggest that the magnitude of the effects of multiple predictors modestly decreased during the period of investigation, while the impact of other predictors remained very stable in magnitude. The authors conclude by considering the substantive implications of the results, the limitations of the study, and outline the next steps in this research agenda.

This article examines the impact of nations' military establishments on energy consumption, utilizing the "treadmill of destruction" theory within a comparative international perspective. Results of cross-national fixed effects panel models indicate that high-tech militarization in the form of military expenditures per solider contributes to the overall scale of nations' energy consumption levels. Likewise, total energy consumption is positively associated with military personnel in the context of the number of soldiers relative to the size of domestic populations. Overall, the findings support the proposed theorization and highlight the need for future research to consider the ecological consequences of nations' military establishments, regardless of whether they are engaged in conflicts or not.

This study examines the temporal stability of the population/environment relationship. We analyze panel data from 1960 to 2005 to determine whether the national-level association between population and carbon dioxide emissions has remained stable, declined, or intensified in recent decades. Results indicate that population size has a large and stable positive association with anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions. The findings of temporal stability generally hold for both developed countries and less-developed countries. The authors conclude that population, in tandem with other social drivers, remains an important consideration for research that addresses the human dimensions of global environmental change.

Theories in urban political economy and environmental sociology are engaged to assess the extent to which energy consumption in less developed countries is affected by different urban characteristics. Results of first-difference panel model estimates for a sample of less developed countries yield two noteworthy findings. From 1990 to 2005, growth in energy consumption was positively associated with growth in overall urban population and negatively associated with growth in the percentage of a population residing in urban slum conditions. The two divergent effects hold, net of multiple human ecological and political-economic controls. The authors conclude by highlighting the theoretical implications of the findings and the need for more nuanced approaches in future research on such topics.

This article engages multiple perspectives to consider how forms of world-economic integration allow for developed countries to treat less developed countries as supply depots to satisfy their unsustainable resource consumption levels. Particular attention is paid to the role of ecologically unequal exchange relationships in the mode of the vertical flow of exports and the transnational organization of extraction and production in the context of foreign investment dependence. It is argued that these interrelationships in the primary sector contribute to deforestation in less developed countries. Following theoretical discussions, regression analyses are conducted to assess the validity of the proposed relationships. Results suggest that both types of integration do contribute to deforestation in less developed countries, net of other factors. Ultimately, this research suggests that the structure of the world-economy allows for developed countries to externalize their consumption-based environmental costs, which often leads to increased environmental degradation in many less developed countries.

This article explores the impact of foreign investment on development from an organizational perspective, by examining the role of foreign subsidiaries in the economic growth of less developed countries between 1970 and 2000. Two aspects of foreign subsidiaries are considered. The first is the total number of foreign subsidiaries located in a given country. The second dimension is ‘foreign subsidiary concentration’, the percentage of foreign subsidiaries located in a given country owned by corporations headquartered in a single country. Several findings emerge from structural equation models of 41—70 less developed countries between 1970 and 2000. First, overall growth of foreign subsidiaries between 1970 and 2000 has a positive effect on economic growth in less developed countries. Second, relatively high levels of foreign subsidiary concentration in 1970 inhibit this expansion of foreign subsidiaries. Two other aspects of foreign investment, foreign investment concentration and foreign capital dominance, also retard the expansion of foreign subsidiaries. Further analyses suggest that political corruption may, in part, mediate these relationships.

The authors situate treadmill of destruction theory in a comparative international perspective to assess the environmental impacts of national militaries. Results of cross-national panel models indicate that high-tech militarization in the form of expenditures per soldier contribute to the scale and intensity of carbon dioxide emissions as well as the per capita ecological footprints of nations. Likewise, all three of these environmental outcomes are positively associated with military participation in the context of the number of soldiers relative to the size of domestic populations. Overall, the findings support the proposed theorization and highlight the need for social scientists to consider the environmental and ecological consequences of nations' militaries, regardless of whether or not they are engaged in conflicts.

Although established theoretical models suggest that socioeconomic inequalities in physical health are partially mediated or explained by exposures to environmental toxins, there is little empirical evidence to support these processes. Building on previous research, we analyze data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (2007–2008) to formally test whether associations between socioeconomic status and self-rated physical health are mediated by direct biological assessments of environmental toxins. We find that the embodiment of environmental toxins is disproportionate in individuals of lower socioeconomic status. Although toxins in general and lead in particular are unrelated to self-rated health, socioeconomic differences in self-rated physical health are partially mediated by embodied cadmium. Our mediation analyses suggest that education and income may promote physical health by reducing exposures to cadmium. This study contributes to previous work by bridging the fields of social epidemiology and environmental inequality and by formally testing established theoretical models.

The authors examine the potentially asymmetrical relationship between economic development and consumption-based and production-based CO2 emissions. They decompose economic development into economic expansions and contractions, measured separately as increases and decreases in gross domestic product per capita, and examine their unique effects on emissions. Analyzing cross-national data from 1990 to 2014, the authors find no statistical evidence of asymmetry for the overall sample. However, for a sample restricted to nations with populations larger than 10 million, the authors observe a contraction-leaning asymmetry whereby the effects of economic contraction on both emissions outcomes are larger in magnitude than the effects of economic expansion. This difference in magnitude is more pronounced for consumption-based emissions than for production-based emissions. The authors provide tentative explanations for the variations in results across the different samples and emissions measures and underscore the need for more nuanced research and deeper theorization on potential asymmetry in the relationship between economic development and anthropogenic emissions.

Studies of the anthropogenic contributors to greenhouse gas emissions have increased markedly in recent years. However, not all greenhouse gases have received their deserved attention. This study tests the theoretically derived assertion that foreign investment dependence increases the emissions of one such neglected greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide. Findings of the cross-national ordinary least squares (OLS) regression analysis of 44 countries show that foreign investment dependence is associated with higher levels of nitrous oxide emissions. However, the findings are contingent upon the sector of investment. That is, primary-sector investment is associated with higher levels of emissions, whereas secondary-sector investment is not. The findings support the theory of foreign investment dependence while also underscoring the need to study these sorts of structural relationships at the sector level.

The authors employ multiple theories within a political economy framework to examine the structural predictors of the per capita ecological footprints of nations. Engaged theories include ecological modernization, treadmill of production, treadmill of destruction, and ecologically unequal exchange. Results of cross-national panel regression models indicate that the treadmill of production in the context of economic development increases per capita footprints, which contradicts general claims of ecological modernization theory. Similarly, the treadmill of destruction in the mode of military expenditures per soldier positively affects per capita footprints. Those with relatively higher levels of exports sent to economically developed and militarily powerful nations experience suppressed consumption levels, and these effects are especially pronounced and increasingly so for less-developed countries, many of which consume resources well below globally sustainable thresholds. The latter sets of findings support key elements of ecologically unequal exchange theory. Ultimately, this research suggests that a political economy framework that considers domestic attributes and structural relationships in particular contexts is quite useful for understanding the consumption-based environmental harms of nations.

The author engages multiple theoretical orientations to examine the effects of foreign direct investment (FDI) on industrial organic water pollution intensity in less-developed countries as well as the potential mitigating impacts of institutional and civil society factors. Results of panel regression analyses indicate that within less-developed countries, industrial water pollution is positively associated with FDI in the manufacturing sector. However, a stronger presence of environmental international nongovernmental organizations and the existence of environmental ministries both attenuate the environmental harms of secondary sector foreign investment, whereas state strength appears to have no such mitigating influence. These findings lend support to investment dependence theory and world society theory, and illustrate the potential environmental benefits of particular institutional factors. Further analyses suggest that industrial water pollution contributes to child and infant mortality in less-developed countries, which highlights the importance of investigating the structural determinants of industrial-based pollutants.

Ecologically unequal exchange theory posits that the vertical flow of exports is a structural mechanism allowing for more-developed countries to partially externalize their consumption-based environmental impacts to lesser-developed countries. It is argued that these structural relationships contribute to environmental degradation in the latter while directly suppressing resource consumption opportunities for domestic populations, often well below globally sustainable thresholds. To assess the validity of the propositions, the authors conduct fixed effects and random effects panel regression analyses of the effects of the vertical flow of primary sector exports on deforestation and a refined per capita footprint measure for two samples of less-developed countries, 1970—2000. Results support the stated arguments of ecologically unequal exchange theory and point to the need for more rigorous comparative analyses to increase our collective understanding of the environmental and human well-being consequences of such relationships for less-developed countries.

This special issue originated during planning for the 2008 American Sociological Association (ASA) meeting. The Political Economy of the World-System, Environment and Technology, and Marxist Sociology sections cosponsored a series of panels. These three sections of the ASA complement each other on many fronts and offer an impressive array of theory and research that grapples with many of the most pressing issues confronting the world today. It was collectively decided that the first co-editor of this special collection organize a panel that focused on ecologically unequal exchange, an emerging perspective that is logically situated at the nexus of the three sections and their complementary orientations. Works within this emerging perspective consider how the structure of the world-economy influences unequal material-ecological exchanges, often per petuating global inequalities and uneven environmental impacts, most of which disproportionately harm the environment and well-being of populations in lesser-developed countries. The resulting panel at the national meeting was very successful, stimulating much discussion and interest in building upon the engagement. The panelists and their presentations were methodologically diverse and theoretically rich, but with a common topical thread that highlighted the intersections of the three sections. Hence, this special issue consists of articles by the panelists at the meeting as well as contributions by other social scientists who significantly contribute to the study of ecologically unequal exchange in comparative perspective. The first two articles theoretically situate ecologically unequal exchange, establishing links with various traditions, articulating the goals of studies in this area, revealing the important social relationships to investigate, identifying the social forces of environmental degradation, and raising key considerations International Journal of Comparative Sociology © The Author(s), 2009. Reprints and permissions: http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav http://cos.sagepub.com Vol 50(3–4): 211–214 DOI: 10.1177/0020715209105139

Bridging multiple areas of sociology, the author tests hypotheses derived from foreign investment dependence theory, ecologically unequal exchange theory and world society theory in analyses of industrial organic water pollution in less-developed countries, 1980—2000. Using panel data from a variety of sources, the author proposes three hypotheses: (1) industrial organic water pollution intensity is positively associated with foreign investment in manufacturing; (2) industrial organic water pollution intensity is positively associated with overall export intensity; and (3) industrial organic water pollution intensity is negatively associated with the presence of environmental international non-governmental organizations. Further analyses investigate the impact of organic water pollution on infant mortality rates in less-developed countries. In general, findings for Prais—Winsten regression analyses with panel-corrected standard errors and generalized least squares panel regression analyses of less-developed countries confirm the tested hypotheses, and indicate that industrial organic water pollution intensity does indeed contribute to infant mortality, net of the effects of economic development, fertility rates, health expenditures and other relevant factors.

Bridging the areas of political-economic sociology, the sociology of agriculture and environmental sociology, this study tests two hypotheses derived from a refined theory of foreign investment dependence. The hypotheses state that pesticide and fertilizer use intensity in less-developed countries are both positively associated with foreign investment dependence in the primary sector. The use of such inputs in agriculture production is known to contribute to a variety of human health and environmental problems. Findings for random effects and static score panel regression analyses of 35 less-developed countries confirm the hypotheses, and point to the sociological relevance in assessing the potential social and environmental impacts of both the transnational organization and the relative scale of production in different sectors.

This study tests a hypothesis derived from an expanded theory of foreign investment dependence. The tested hypothesis states that less-developed countries with higher levels of primary sector foreign investment exhibit greater rates of deforestation. Findings for cross-national analyses of deforestationfrom1990to2005for40less-developedcountriesconfirmthehypothesis,providing support for the proposed theorization. Additional results indicate that the presence of environmental international nongovernmental organizations is beneficial for natural forest areas, while population growth is a key driver of deforestation in less-developed countries.Besides confirming the hypothesis, this research underscores the importance for sociologists to consider both political‐economic forms of integration and human-ecological factors when investigating how humans impact the environment.

While prior research and theorization establish connections between population growth and environmental degradation, there is a relative paucity of research on what particular aspects of population dynamics are most closely associated with specific types of degradation. Considering all less-developed countries for which data are available, using Ordinary Least Square (OLS) regression we generate quantitative, cross-national models for rates of deforestation in the last decade of the twentieth century. The opposite effects of rural and urban population dynamics are of particular concern. While both influence deforestation rates, the effects of rural population change tend to be more profound and more robust. We discuss these findings in light of theoretical work about circular migration and rural encroachment. In addition, we examine the impact of economic development on deforestation while controlling for political and social welfare variables. Findings suggest a trend toward rapidly increasing rates of deforestation in the least-developed countries. We conclude with a discussion of how rural-urban population dynamics, in combination with other aspects of national development, affect the natural environment, particularly in light of an increasingly interconnected world economy.

Sociologists have long debated the impacts of foreign investment for less developed countries. However, theorization fails to articulate the potential environmental consequences of foreign investment dependence. Here, an ecostructural theory of investment dependence is proposed and a derived hypothesis is tested. The hypothesis states that less developed countries dependent on foreign investment in manufacturing exhibit higher levels of per capita noxious gas emissions. These anthropogenic emissions contribute to global warming, climate change, and a variety of human health problems. To test the hypothesis, newly available panel data for the emission of nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide gas as well as measures of foreign investment in manufacturing are analyzed in random effects generalized least squares (GLS) panel regression models for 39 less developed countries. Findings confirm the hypothesis, even when controlling for domestic investment, the relative size of the manufacturing sector, level of development, and other factors. Overall, the analyses support the ecostructural theory of foreign investment dependence, and underscore the sociological relevance in considering the environmental impacts of the transnational organization of production as well as the overall scale of production.

This research investigates the extent to which the transnational organization of production in the context of foreign investment dependence affects the environment in less developed countries. Drawing from the theory of foreign investment dependence, the author tests two hypotheses: (a) Foreign investment dependence in the manufacturing sector is positively associated with carbon dioxide emissions in less developed countries, and (b) foreign investment dependence in the manufacturing sector is positively associated with the emission of organic water pollutants in less developed countries. Findings for the ordinary least squares fixed effects panel regression analyses confirm both hypotheses, providing support for the theory. Other results correspond with prior research in the political-economic and structural human ecology traditions.

This study tests a series of hypotheses concerning the political-economic causes of change in per capita consumption-based environmental impacts. To test the hypotheses, panel regression analyses are conducted to assess the eVects of level of economic development, export intensity, domestic economy structure, and other factors on growth in per capita ecological footprints of nations, 1991–2001. Analyses conWrm multiple hypotheses: more-developed nations and those with a greater intensity in the services sector experience higher increases in per capita footprints, while manufacturing intensity and export intensity are inversely related to growth in consumption-based impacts. The Wndings support key tenets of treadmill of production theory, uneven ecological exchange theory, export dependence theory, and world-systems theory. © 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

This research helps to increase our collective understanding of the complex interrelationships between foreign investment dependence and environmental degradation. Panel regresssion analyses of 35 less developed countries from 1980 to 1999 are conducted to test the hypothesis that foreign direct investment in the primary sector increases carbon dioxide emissions from agriculture production. Results confi rm the hypothesis, providing support for the theory of foreign capital dependence. Level of agriculture production and the use of tractors are also found to increase the growth of carbon dioxide emissions from this primary sector activity. Conversely, nations more likely to ratify international environmental treaties exhibit suppressed growth in emissions. These fi ndings underscore the need for social scientists to investigate the environmental impacts of both the level and transnational organization of production in different sectors as well as the overall use of relevant machinery and the environmental commitments of nation-states.

A growing area of empirical literature in sociology investigates the social and environmental impacts of foreign direct investment. Building on macrosociological theorization of foreign capital dependence and prior research, I test the hypothesis that less-developed countries with higher levels of foreign capital penetration in the primary sector use a greater amount of pesticides per hectare of arable and permanent cropland. Findings for the ordinary least squares regression (OLS) and robust regression analyses of 40 less-developed countries confirm the hypothesis, and underscore the need for social scientists to assess the effects of foreign capital penetration in different sectors.

Political-economic sociologists have long investigated the dynamics and consequences of international trade. With few exceptions, this area of inquiry ignores the possible connections between trade and environmental degradation. In contrast, environmental sociologists have made several assumptions about the environmental impacts of international trade, but the assumptions lack theoretical specificity and are thus empirically under-investigated. Bridging these two complementary areas of macrosociology, the present study proposes and tests a structural theory of unequal ecological exchange. The theory posits that more-developed countries externalize their consumption-based environmental costs to less-developed countries, which increase forms of environmental degradation within the latter. To test a key assertion of the theory, a weighted index of vertical trade is created that quantifies the relative extent to which exports are sent to more-developed countries. Using the index, cross-national panel analyses of deforestation, 1990–2000 are conducted to test the hypothesis that less-developed countries with higher levels of exports sent to more-developed countries experience greater rates of deforestation, net of other factors. Results of the analyses confirm the hypothesis, providing support for the theory of uneven ecological exchange. Additional findings correspond with other sociological studies of deforestation, particularly those that focus on the effects of rural and urban population growth as well as level of capital intensity and rate of economic development.

Objective. This study attempts to increase our understanding of the environmental impacts of the transnational organization of production in the context of foreign capital penetration. Methods. With a sample of 53 countries, panel analyses using OLS and robust regression are conducted to assess the effects of foreign direct investment in the manufacturing sector on growth in organic water pollution intensity, 1980–1995. Slope-dummy interaction variables are used to compare the effects in developed countries and less-developed countries. The tested models include a variety of relevant controls, such as domestic investment, state environmentalism, size of the manufacturing sector, and level of economic development. Results. Findings for the analyses indicate that foreign direct investment in manufacturing positively affects growth in organic water pollution intensity in less-developed countries, while the effect in developed countries is nonsignificant. Conclusions. This research illustrates the need for social scientists to investigate the environmental impacts of both the transnational organization of production and the overall scale of production in different sectors.