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Aiming at assessing the ecological stress of land urbanization comprehensively, three perspectives are considered and combined, i.e. the amount effect with the proportion of construction lands as the indicator, the intensity effect per the density of environmental pollutant emissions, and the location effect based on their spatial distribution in the heterogeneous landscape. The quantitative results of Southern Jiangsu case in Eastern China show the single-perspective ecological stress are spatially different; the proportion effect is higher in city propers which are more densely populated and industrialized. However, the intensity effect is more significant for units along the Yangtze river where heavy industries are gathered, while the location effect is higher in “ecologically suitable” regions. As the integration of proportion, intensity, and location effects, the comprehensive stress differs across Southern Jiangsu and are also different with the single-perspective results. Dominant stressors of each unit are spatially distinct, which benefits policy-makers in targeting their objectives as per primary influencing factors. It is concluded that the comprehensive assessment could efficiently reveal the spatial differentiation of the ecological effects of land urbanization and also the differentiated role of different factors for each unit.

In everyday life, many probabilistic situations may be characterized as probabilistic waiting. A gambler, for example, bets repeatedly at the racetrack, the casino, or the card table. The gambler may not win on the first try, but if a gamble is repeated enough times, a win is almost certain to occur eventually. If repeated gambles are structured as strings of losses ending in a win (probabilistic waiting) and the amount won is discounted by the delay caused by the series of losses, then strings with many losses will be discounted more than those with fewer losses, thereby causing subjective value of the series of gambles as a whole to increase. The current study used the opposite effect that amount has on the degree of delay and probability discounting as a marker to determine whether people evaluate situations involving probabilistic waiting as they evaluate situations involving delayed outcomes or as situations involving probabilistic outcomes. We find that the more likely a probabilistic waiting situation is to end in reward (e.g., a gamble is repeated indefinitely until reward is obtained), the more that situation conforms to delay discounting; the less likely a probabilistic waiting situation is to end in reward (e.g., a fixed, small number of gambles), the more that situation conforms to probability discounting. We argue that the former situation is applicable to pathological gambling, and that people with steep delay discount functions would therefore be more likely to have gambling problems. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This paper is based on the neural network nonlinear mapping characteristics. The involute gear tooth number, modulus and their relationship model of cutting the amount effect are established respectively. Through MATLAB simulation gets the relation curve between the number of teeth and modulus. These curves can intuitive reflect the tooth number and modulus effects on cutting amount change, which provides valuable theoretical reference for the design of the involute gear.

A stable water isotopologue-enabled cloud-resolving model was used to investigate the cause of the amount effect on the seasonal (or longer) time scales. When the total water (vapor and condensed phase) budget of the precipitating column of air is considered, our results indicate that as convection becomes stronger and the precipitation rate increases, the δD of precipitation (δDp) depends on the isotopic composition of the converged vapor more than that of surface evaporation. Tests with disabled fractionation from rain evaporation demonstrate that this mechanism does not account for the amount effect as has been previously suggested. If the isotopic content of converged vapor is made uniform with height with a value characteristic of surface evaporation, the amount effect largely disappears, further supporting the dominance of converged vapor in changes to the δDp signal with increasing precipitation. δDp values were compared to the water budget term EP, where P is precipitation and E is evaporation. Results from this comparison support the overall conclusion that moisture convergence is central in determining the value of δDp and the strength of the amount effect in steady state.

In the present study, linear correlations between weighted-average annual precipitation oxygen isotopes ( δ 18Op) and annual precipitation amount (original data from five Chinese and three Indian GNIP stations, respectively) demonstrated that: 1) correlation between δ 18Op and annual precipitation amount is insignificant in southern China, so the significance of relevant geological proxy records as indicators of variations in past precipitation amount is limited in this area; 2) overall, negative correlations between δ 18Op and annual precipitation amount at the four stations in the Indian monsoon region are much more significant than those for the four stations in the East Asian monsoon region. This indicates that δ 18Op in the Indian monsoon region is probably controlled by an interannual amount effect, and δ 18Op in the East Asian monsoon region may be strongly influenced by variations in Indian summer monsoon intensity via the Raleigh fractionation effect.

Using data from Lending Club and Prosper, the two largest peer-to-peer lenders in the U.S., we provide evidence of the winner's curse in the online personal lending market. Borrowers who were rejected by a competitor are twice as likely to default as borrowers who were not rejected, conditional on receiving the same contract. Borrowers are also more likely to default when offered higher interest rates or smaller loan amounts by a competitor. Surprisingly, the loan amount effect is larger than the interest rate effect, and loan amount is a more closely related to lender choice.

The urethane reaction of o-hydroxybenzyl alcohol with phenyl isocyanate was monitored with in situ FT-IR. Dibutyltin dilaurate was used as catalyst and its amount effect was investigated. It was found that there was an obvious induction period before reaction began. It was interesting that the time of induction period climbed up and then declined with the increase of dibutyltin dilaurate. When the concentration of dibutyltin dilaurate reached 9.58 × 10−5 mol/L, the induction period disappeared completely and hereafter did not appear any more. Furthermore, the urethane reaction kinetics was studied. When the concentration of dibutyltin dilaurate increased, the reaction rate of phenolic group (k1) increased sharply, but the reaction rate of alcoholic group (k2) appeared of little change on the whole. k1 increased about 20-fold, yet k2 increased about 2-fold when the concentration of dibutyltin dilaurate varied from 9.58 × 10−6 mol/L to 1.92 × 10−4 mol/L, which made the value of k1/k2 enlarge.

Although root development is critical in the establishment of turfgrass sod, there appears to be no information on the response of root development during sod establishment to the frequency and amount of irrigation. Two alternate hypotheses for the root development response are that 1) frequent and high amounts of irrigation are needed to support sod growth and root development; and 2) deficit irrigation encourages more rapid and deeper rooting. The objective of this study was to observe root development of four warm-season turfgrasses subjected to various frequencies and amounts of irrigation. Root extension of the grasses was observed directly in soil contained in 90-cm tall, clear acrylic columns. No difference in root development was observed for any of the grasses among irrigation frequency treatments of daily, twice weekly, and once weekly. There were differences in response to the amount of irrigation. Zoysiagrass root development was maximal at the full amount of irrigation (35 mm per week). On the other hand, St. Augustinegrass, bermudagrass, and bahiagrass required deficit irrigation of only 13 mm water per week to achieve full root development. The results of this study showed that each of the two hypotheses were appropriate depending on the specific species.

The purpose of the study was to test hypotheses regarding a form of social discounting in which the subjective value of a reward decreases as a function of the number of people it is shared with. Based on evolutionary theory, individuals’ social discounting rates were expected to depend on both reward amount and the type of relationship with the people with whom the reward would be shared. As predicted, smaller amounts were discounted less steeply than larger ones, and social discounting was steepest when sharing with strangers and shallowest when sharing with family. The effect of the type of social relationship is consistent with Hamilton’s inclusive fitness theory. The shallower discounting of smaller rewards may be adaptive when resources are limited; alternatively, this finding may be due to the degree of disappointment that is anticipated if the reward is unfairly shared, assuming that the disappointment increases with the size of the reward being withheld by the group.

Using the isotope enabled ECHAM4, GISS E, HadCM3 and MUGCM GCMs, the spatial distribution of mean δ18O in precipitation, the mean seasonality (JJA-DJF) and the correlations of δ18O in precipitation with temperature and precipitation amount are analyzed. The simulation results reproduce well the stable isotopic features by the GNIP observations. Over the East Asia, the distribution of δ18O in precipitation is of marked latitude effect and altitude effect. The largest seasonality of δ18O in precipitation appears in the eastern Siberia controlled by cold high pressure, and the smallest one in the Western Pacific controlled by the subtropical high. The comparatively weak seasonality appears in middle latitudes where oceanic and continental air masses interact frequently. Temperature effect occurs mainly in mid-high-latitude and inlands. The higher the latitude is, the closer to inland is, and then the stronger the temperature effect is. Amount effect occurs mainly in low-mid latitudes and monsoon areas, with the strongest effect in low-latitude coasts or islands. A significant difference between simulations and observations is that the standard deviation of GCMs statistics is greater than that of GNIP statistics. On the contrary, as comparing parallelly time series at single station, the standard deviations of GCMs simulations is smaller than that of GNIP observations.

Studies on probabilistic discounting typically involve choosing between two outcomes of the same sign (i.e., positive or negative). Commonly, participants are given a choice between a smaller, certain gain and a larger, but uncertain gain, or (less commonly) the options may be a certain, smaller loss and an uncertain, but larger loss. In contrast, participants in this study had to make yes/no decisions as to whether they would accept a financial offer involving a combination of both a gain and a loss. This offer could be either a certain gain which, when accepted, could bring an uncertain larger loss, or a certain loss which, when accepted, could bring an uncertain larger gain. Despite the substantial differences between the alternatives posed in the present study and those in typical discounting studies, the same hyperboloid discounting function that describes the choice between certain and uncertain gains also accurately described choice in the situations presented in the present study. In addition, steeper discounting was observed with a larger uncertain gain than with a smaller uncertain gain. No amount effect was revealed with uncertain losses.

Migrant remittances from the United States to Mexico have grown at an impressive rate in recent years. Using a decomposition technique, I attribute the growth in remittances, for the 1990-2004 period and subperiods within it, to a migration effect, a remitting propensity effect and an average amount effect. Results show that while migration growth was the main force driving remittance growth for most of the 1990s, in the new century remittance growth cannot be simply attributed to migration growth. Mexican migrants are becoming more likely to remit and are remitting larger amounts. This reflects both a change in the composition of the Mexican population in the United States and new modes of immigrant incorporation, consistent with the assimilation and the transnational narratives. Macroeconomic oscillations play an important role in explaining remittance growth as well.

Understanding the main controls on stable isotope variations in precipitation is fundamental for the interpretation of the hydrological cycle. However, spatio-temporal variations in delta O-18(p) are poorly known in Morocco. Herein, we explore the relative influence of meteorological variables, spatial and orographic (attitudinal) effects, atmospheric circulation and moisture sources on precipitation stable isotopes in Morocco. Precipitation events and two-years-long monthly records from 17 rain-gauge stations in Morocco are investigated and compared in this study to global gridded records of monthly and annual stable isotopes in precipitation. We highlight that the main spatial controls on precipitation stable isotopes are the topography and the distance from marine source. The most depleted mean annual isotopes are located in the High Atlas Mountains (delta O-18(p) = -9.56 parts per thousand and delta H-2(p) = -59.3 parts per thousand), while the most enriched isotope ratios exist in southwestern Morocco (delta O-18(p) = -2.35 parts per thousand and delta H-2(p) = -7.47 parts per thousand). The well-constrained relationship between delta O-18(p) and altitude describes a gradient of 0.11-0.18 parts per thousand, per 100 m. The seasonal variation is expressed by a general enrichment that reaches -4.8 parts per thousand during the dry season, related to the recycled vapor contained within the summer precipitation. Notwithstanding the scarcity of temperature and precipitation measurements, the amount effect is observed in multiple stations during several rain events and precipitation seems to have more influence on delta O-18(p) than temperature. Backward moisture trajectories indicate a distinct depletion in delta O-18(p) in extreme events originating from the Atlantic Ocean. The presence of a rain shadow effect is also revealed on the lee side of High Atlas Mountains, southeastern Morocco.

The δ 18O variations in an 80.36 m ice core retrieved in the accumulation zone of the East Rongbuk Glacier, Mount Qomolangma (Everest), is not consistent with changes of air temperature from both southern and northern slopes of Himalayas, as well as these of the temperature anomalies over the Northern Hemisphere. The negative relationship between the δ 18O and the net accumulation records of the ice core suggests the “amount effect” of summer precipitation on the δ 18O values in the region. Therefore, the δ 18O records of the East Rongbuk ice core should be a proxy of Indian Summer Monsoon intensity, which shows lower δ 18O values during strong monsoon phases and higher values during weak phases.

There is no temperature effect in the southern Tibetan Plateau and South Asia to the south of the Tanggula Mountains. Amount effect has been observed at a few sampling stations accounting for about a half of the statistical stations. There is notable temperature effect in the middle and northern Tibetan Plateau and its adjacent Central Asia to the north of the Tanggula Mountains. Because vapor directly originates from low-latitude oceans, the relative heavy δ18O with small variation characterizes the rainfall in South Asia. A sharp depletion of the stable isotopic compositions in precipitation takes place from Kyangjin on the southern slope of the Himalayas to the Tanggula Mountains in the middle plateau. From the Tanggula Mountains to the northern Tibetan Plateau, the δ18O in precipitation increases with increasing latitude.

[1] The global increase in atmospheric CO2 since the preindustrial era has not been accompanied by a long-term trend in the CO18O/CO2 ratio (denoted as δCa), though many monitoring stations around the world observed a downward excursion in δCa (of about 0.1‰ y−1) after 1992/1993 that lasted for 5–6 years. A number of studies have suggested that the interannual variation, seasonal cycle, and spatial structure of δCa depend on terrestrial ecosystem fluxes. The δCa budget is evaluated to identify meteorological variables that could potentially influence the observed interannual δCa variations. Using global data sets, time series of relative humidity, 18O composition of precipitation (δWP), air temperature, precipitation, and solar radiation were correlated with Mauna Loa δCa variations. Observed δCa negatively correlated with relative humidity in tropical and middle- and high-latitude regions, and we estimated that observed relative humidity variations drove a 0.14‰ decrease in δCa during the mid-1990s. Similar variations in precipitation rates were also found within the tropics that suggest positive correlations between δWP and δCa consistent with an amount effect (δWP decreases as precipitation increases). The decrease in δWP during the 1990s was estimated to decrease δCa by as much as 0.48‰. In contrast to previous work, little evidence was found that would suggest carbon flux anomalies as the primary driver of interannual δCa variations. We conclude that interannual δCa variations were driven primarily by isotope hydrology and relative humidity, and that δCa can be exploited as a new constraint on hydrological cycle variations at a variety of scales.

International audience; A systematic comparison between the IAEA/GNIP isotope network and the ECHAM 4 atmospheric general circulation model.

This chapter outlines the current understanding of the factors affecting δ 18 O p , formalizes this understanding in mathematical models and then, describes potential applications of the technique. The oxygen isotope ratio of soil water taken up by a plant depends, to a first approximation, on the temperature of droplet formation for rain and snow falling at the site. Precipitation becomes more depleted in 18 O as temperature decreases at higher latitudes and altitudes. There is also an amount effect, with high precipitation sites having more depleted water than would be expected from site temperatures. The temperature dependence of δ 18 O of precipitation (618Or), and its record of variation in plant tissue have been recognized for some time, and prompted Libby et al. to suggest that it may be possible to use cellulose from annual tree rings as “isotopic thermometers.”

Submitted by Guilherme Lemeszenski (guilherme@nead.unesp.br) on 2013-08-22T19:06:18Z No. of bitstreams: 1 S1516-35982001000600027.pdf: 348656 bytes, checksum: 9ce39832d962ad82dcebfdc07ae9978d (MD5) Made available in DSpace on 2013-08-22T19:06:18Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 S1516-35982001000600027.pdf: 348656 bytes, checksum: 9ce39832d962ad82dcebfdc07ae9978d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2001-10-01 Made available in DSpace on 2013-09-30T20:10:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 S1516-35982001000600027.pdf: 348656 bytes, checksum: 9ce39832d962ad82dcebfdc07ae9978d (MD5) S1516-35982001000600027.pdf.txt: 26158 bytes, checksum: 5293878bdcf6d74db0df7ca566da9624 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2001-10-01 Submitted by Vitor Silverio Rodrigues (vitorsrodrigues@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2014-05-20T13:18:12Z No. of bitstreams: 2 S1516-35982001000600027.pdf: 348656 bytes, checksum: 9ce39832d962ad82dcebfdc07ae9978d (MD5) S1516-35982001000600027.pdf.txt: 26158 bytes, checksum: 5293878bdcf6d74db0df7ca566da9624 (MD5) Made available in DSpace on 2014-05-20T13:18:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 S1516-35982001000600027.pdf: 348656 bytes, checksum: 9ce39832d962ad82dcebfdc07ae9978d (MD5) S1516-35982001000600027.pdf.txt: 26158 bytes, checksum: 5293878bdcf6d74db0df7ca566da9624 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2001-10-01 O objetivo do trabalho foi comparar os valores de fibra em detergente neutro (FDN) e os de fibra em detergente ácido (FDA) obtidos com o equipamento ANKOM e pelo método convencional (Van Soest). No primeiro ensaio foram analisados cinco materiais diferentes (cana-de-açúcar, capim-braquiária, silagem de milho, polpa cítrica e fezes bovina) e testados quatro tipos de saquinhos para filtragem de amostra. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos casualizados, em um fatorial 5x4 (cinco materiais diferentes e quatro tipos de saquinhos de filtragem), com três repetições. As médias obtidas foram comparadas àquelas obtidas com método convencional. No segundo ensaio procurou-se avaliar o efeito da quantidade de amostra por saquinho (0,5; 0,8 e 1,0 g) sobre os teores de FDN e FDA em três tipos de alimentos, utilizando o ANKOM. Neste ensaio, o delineamento experimental foi em blocos casualizados em esquema fatorial 3x3 (três alimentos x três quantidades), com três repetições. Os tipos de saquinhos de filtragem utilizados não influenciaram os teores de FDN nos diferentes alimentos, com exceção das fezes, cujos saquinhos de náilon resultaram em concentrações de FDN inferiores. Não houve diferença entre os valores de FDN e FDA, obtidos pelo equipamento ANKOM ou pelo convencional, para os alimentos estudados, com exceção da polpa cítrica, cujo valor médio de FDA pelo ANKOM foi inferior àquele obtido pelo método convencional. A quantidade não exerceu efeito sobre a concentração de FDN dos alimentos analisados no equipamento ANKOM. The ANKOM filter bag system was compared with the conventional filtration system (Van Soest) to determine acid detergent fiber (ADF) and neutral detergent fiber (NDF) in different materials. In the first experiment five feeds (sugar cane, Marandu grass - Brachiaria brizantha cv. Marandu, corn silage, citrus pulp and cattle feces) and four types of filter bags were compared. A completely randomized block design in a factorial scheme (5x4), with three replications, was used. The means obtained by the ANKOM system were compared with those obtained by the conventional filtration procedure. The sample amount effect (0.5; 0.8; 1.0 g) in each filter bag on ADF and NDF contents was studied in the second experiment, using three feeds and the ANKOM system. In this experiment, a completely randomized blocks design, in a factorial scheme (three feeds x three amount feed) and three replications, was used. The types of filter bag did not affect the NDF content of the different feeds, except for feces, which bags showed smaller NDF contents. There were no statistical differences among NDF or ADF values determined either by the ANKOM or by the conventional filtration procedures for most of the feeds used, except citrus pulp, which had lower ANKOM- ADF values than the conventional procedure. The sample amount did not affect the NDF of the feed determined by the ANKOM System. UNESP UNESP

To observe the altitude effect on the deuterium content of precipitation, two sampling projects were conducted to collect precipitation waters. One is long term sampling by simple rain gauges installed along mountain slopes. Another is simultaneous daily precipitation sampling at two different altitudes.Both of them have sufficient altitude differences, about 1000 m for each.The result could not be explained either by the depletion or by the enrichment of heavy isotopes in the precipitation caused by altitude.It can be regarded as some kind of precipitational amount effect, but still the whole process cannot be grasped.

The deuterium/hydrogen ratios, expressed in terms of δD, of precipitation at Mohonk Lake, New York, from 118 individual storms during the six summers 1977–1982 have been measured and considered in light of the concurrent meteorological conditions. The so-called amount effect of Dansgaard—summers with above average precipitation totals tend to have below average δD values is observed at Mohonk Lake and is also registered in the tree ring cellulose of water-stressed Eastern White Pine. A similar amount effect is also observed for individual events and can be explained in terms of differences between convective and cyclonic precipitation. Stable cyclonic precipitation has much lower δD values (−64.8) but much greater amounts (3.77 cm) on average than purely convective storms (δD = −27.2, 1.30 cm). The seasonal amount effect is related to the fact that during the 6-year observational period, wetter than normal summers at Mohonk Lake also had a higher than normal percentage of stable cyclonic precipitation and a lower than normal percentage of purely convective precipitation.