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Transient thermal impedancemeasurement is commonly used to characterize the dynamic behaviour of the heat flowpath in power semiconductor packages. This can be used to derive a “structure function”which is a graphical representation of the internal structure of the thermal stack. Changes in the structure function can thus be used as a non-destructive testing tool for detecting and locating defects in the thermal path. This paper evaluates the use of the structure function for testing the integrity of the thermal path in high powermulti-chipmodules. A 1.2 kV/200 A IGBT module is subjected to power cycling with a constant current. The structure function is used to estimate the level of disruption at the interface between the substrate and the baseplate/case. Comparison with estimations of cracked area obtained by scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) imaging shows excellent agreement, demonstrating that the structure function can be used as a quantitative tool for estimating the level of degradation. Metallurgical cross-sectioning confirms that the degradation is due to fatigue cracking of the substrate mount-down solder.

This paper presents a review of the commonly adopted physics-of-failure-based life prediction models for wire bond interconnects in power electronic modules. In the discussed models, lifetime is generally accounted for by loading temperature extremes alone. The influence of the time spent at temperature on bond wear-out behavior and damage removal phenomena resulting from thermally activated processes is not addressed. The phenomenological considerations based on some unusual observations highlight the need for new approaches to wire bond life prediction models and thus motivate the proposal of a new time-domain damage-based crack propagation model.

This research concerns weldments in P91 steel and their creep behaviour. Its scope covers three main topics: the microstructure and creep response of the (i) weld metal, (ii) parent metal, and (iii) the effect of extended thermal exposure and creep on the weldments. Microstructural examination of the weld metal revealed an inhomogeneous structure, with each bead consisting of a columnar region, a coarse-grained region and a fine-grained region (the latter two regions resulting from heat-treatment of the weld bead by deposition of subsequent beads). The columnar regions exhibited high hardness whereas the coarse and fine grained regions exhibited lower hardnesses. SEM imaging revealed that the precipitate distribution throughout the weld was somewhat inhomogeneous, due to inadequate mixing in the weld pool during welding, leading to segregation and liquation effects. Examination by TEM revealed a fine martensitic structure with a distribution of chromium carbides, in addition to Mn-rich inclusions. Anisotropy of microstructure was assessed by metallographic examination on planes with normals parallel to and perpendicular to the welding direction. Creep tests on this material were performed, with the stress axis both parallel and perpendicular to the welding direction. Anisotropic creep behaviour was observed and correlated with the microstructural anisotropy. Failure life is significantly longer when uniaxial creep stress is parallel to the welding direction. The columnar regions of the weld were observed to be creep-strong with a low strain to failure whereas the coarse and fine grained regions were observed to be creep-weak with a higher strain to failure. Microstructural variations within weldments as a function of time and temperature have also been investigated. Specimens were aged at five temperatures between 760°C and 650°C for up to 12000 hours. At all exposure temperatures, the parent metal showed little change in terms of fine (subgrain) microstructure and

This research concerns weldments in P91 steel and their creep behaviour. Its scope covers three main topics: the microstructure and creep response of the (i) weld metal, (ii) parent metal, and (iii) the effect of extended thermal exposure and creep on the weldments. Microstructural examination of the weld metal revealed an inhomogeneous structure, with each bead consisting of a columnar region, a coarse-grained region and a fine-grained region (the latter two regions resulting from heat-treatment of the weld bead by deposition of subsequent beads). The columnar regions exhibited high hardness whereas the coarse and fine grained regions exhibited lower hardnesses. SEM imaging revealed that the precipitate distribution throughout the weld was somewhat inhomogeneous, due to inadequate mixing in the weld pool during welding, leading to segregation and liquation effects. Examination by TEM revealed a fine martensitic structure with a distribution of chromium carbides, in addition to Mn-rich inclusions. Anisotropy of microstructure was assessed by metallographic examination on planes with normals parallel to and perpendicular to the welding direction. Creep tests on this material were performed, with the stress axis both parallel and perpendicular to the welding direction. Anisotropic creep behaviour was observed and correlated with the microstructural anisotropy. Failure life is significantly longer when uniaxial creep stress is parallel to the welding direction. The columnar regions of the weld were observed to be creep-strong with a low strain to failure whereas the coarse and fine grained regions were observed to be creep-weak with a higher strain to failure. Microstructural variations within weldments as a function of time and temperature have also been investigated. Specimens were aged at five temperatures between 760°C and 650°C for up to 12000 hours. At all exposure temperatures, the parent metal showed little change in terms of fine (subgrain) microstructure and

This research concerns weldments in P91 steel and their creep behaviour. Its scope covers three main topics: the microstructure and creep response of the (i) weld metal, (ii) parent metal, and (iii) the effect of extended thermal exposure and creep on the weldments. Microstructural examination of the weld metal revealed an inhomogeneous structure, with each bead consisting of a columnar region, a coarse-grained region and a fine-grained region (the latter two regions resulting from heat-treatment of the weld bead by deposition of subsequent beads). The columnar regions exhibited high hardness whereas the coarse and fine grained regions exhibited lower hardnesses. SEM imaging revealed that the precipitate distribution throughout the weld was somewhat inhomogeneous, due to inadequate mixing in the weld pool during welding, leading to segregation and liquation effects. Examination by TEM revealed a fine martensitic structure with a distribution of chromium carbides, in addition to Mn-rich inclusions. Anisotropy of microstructure was assessed by metallographic examination on planes with normals parallel to and perpendicular to the welding direction. Creep tests on this material were performed, with the stress axis both parallel and perpendicular to the welding direction. Anisotropic creep behaviour was observed and correlated with the microstructural anisotropy. Failure life is significantly longer when uniaxial creep stress is parallel to the welding direction. The columnar regions of the weld were observed to be creep-strong with a low strain to failure whereas the coarse and fine grained regions were observed to be creep-weak with a higher strain to failure. Microstructural variations within weldments as a function of time and temperature have also been investigated. Specimens were aged at five temperatures between 760°C and 650°C for up to 12000 hours. At all exposure temperatures, the parent metal showed little change in terms of fine (subgrain) microstructure and

This paper characterizes thermal and reliability performance of a SiC MOSFET power module with embedded decoupling capacitors and without anti-parallel diodes. Active and passive temperature cycling, supported by transient thermal impedance characterisation and scanning acoustic microscopy, are used to evaluate key degradation mechanisms. The forward voltage drop of the body diode is used as a thermo-sensitive electrical parameter to estimate the junction temperature and the thermal structure function is analysed to elucidate the degradation in the heat flow path inside the module. Comparisons are made with commercial Si IGBT power modules.

Pressure-assisted sintering processes to attach power devices using wet nanosilver pastes with time scales of minutes to a few hours have been widely reported. This paper presents our work on time-efficient sintering, using nanosilver dry film and an automatic die pick and place machine, resulting in process times of just a few seconds. The combined parameters of sintering temperature 250 °C, sintering pressure 10 MPa and sintering time 5 s were selected as the benchmark process to attach 2 mm × 2 mm × 0.5 mm dummy Si devices. Then the effects of either the sintering temperature (240 to 300 °C), time (1 to 9 s) or pressure (6 to 25 MPa) on the porosity and shear strength of the sintered joints were investigated with 3 groups and a total of 13 experimental trials. The average porosities of 24.6 to 46.2% and shear strengths of 26.1 to 47.7 MPa are comparable with and/or even better than those reported for sintered joints using wet nanosilver pastes. Their dependences on the sintering temperature, time and pressure are further fitted to equations similar to those describing the kinetics of sintering processes of powder compacts. The equations obtained can be used to not only reveal different mechanisms dominating the densification and bonding strength, but also anticipate the thermal-induced evolutions of microstructures of these rapidly sintered joints during future reliability tests and/or in service.

This paper concerns the non-destructive visualisation of the evolution of damage within ultrasonically bonded alumini-um wires using three dimensional x-ray computed tomography. We demonstrate the potential to observe the progressive accumulation of damage within the same wires during passive thermal cycling between -55°C and 190°C. Tomography datasets were obtained prior to and after cycling. Cracks could be seen emerging from the extreme ends of the bonds when imaged after 105 cycles. Subsequent cycling lead to the advancement of these cracks toward the centres of the bonds. In addition, damage developed within the interior of the bonds; these also grew with increase in number of cy¬cles, and merged with existing cracks. Virtual cross-sections have been analysed to quantify the rate of damage build up.

This work is to investigate the relevant packaging / assembling technologies for developing a SiC-based planar power module which is aimed to meet the requirements such as operating temperature of -60 °C to 200 °C, SiC devices connected to 540 V DC bus and non-hermetic module. The results reported in this paper include: (i) design of a compact wire-less SiC-based power module with low parasitic inductance; (ii) demonstrated feasibility and reliability for the sintering of Ag nanoparticles and flexible printed circuit board as alternative joining and interconnect technologies which have been selected to assemble the designed power module; and (iii) preliminary construction of the designed module and electrical switching test of the constructed module.

In this work we report on a reliability investigation regarding heavy copper wires ultrasonically bonded onto active braze copper substrates. The results obtained from both a non-destructive approach using 3D X-ray tomography and shear tests showed no discernible degradation or wear out from initial conditions to 2900 passive thermal cycles from − 55 to 125 °C. Instead, an apparent increase in shear strength is observed as the number of thermal cycles increases. Nanoindentation hardness investigations suggest the occurrence of cyclic hardening. Microstructural investigations of the interfacial morphologies before and after cycling and after shear testing are also presented and discussed.

The samples of sintered Ag joints for power die attachments were prepared using paste of Ag nanoparticles at 240 °C and 5 MPa for 3 to 17 minutes. Their microstructural features were quantitatively characterized with scanning elec-tronic microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and image analysis method. The resulting nor-malized thickness, pore size and porosity decreased, and grain size increased with increasing the sintering time. A time dependence of the form t1/n with n close to 2 or 3 can be further derived for the kinetics of the thinning, densification and grain growth within the sintered Ag joints.

Both real Si insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) with conventional Ni\Ag metallization and a dummy Si die with thickened Ni\Ag metallization have been bonded on Ag foils electroplated with 2.7 m and 6.8 m thick Sn as an interlayer at 250ºC for 0 min, 40 min and 640 min. From microstructure characterization of the resulting joints, suitable thicknesses are suggested for the Ag base metal and the Sn interlayer for Ag/Sn/Ag transient liquid phase (TLP) joints used in power die attachment, and the diffusivities of Ag and Sn in the Ag phase are extracted. In combination with the kinetic constants of Ag3Sn growth and diffusivities of Ag and Sn in Ag reported in the literature, the extracted diffusivities of Ag and Sn in Ag phase are also used to simulate and predict the diffusion-controlled growth and evolution of phases in the Ag/Sn/Ag TLP joints during an extended bonding process and in service.

Ultrasonically bonded heavy Al wires subjected to a small junction temperature fluctuation under power cycling from 40°C to 70°C were investigated using a non-destructive three-dimensional (3-D) x-ray tomography evaluation approach. The occurrence of irreversible deformation of the microstructure and wear-out under such conditions were demonstrated. The observed microstructures consist of interfacial and inter-granular cracks concentrated in zones of stress intensity, i.e., near heels and emanating from interface precracks. Interfacial voids were also observed within the bond interior. Degradation rates of ‘first’ and ‘stitch’ bonds are compared and contrasted. A correlative microscopy study combining perspectives from optical microscopy with the x-ray tomography results clarifies the damage observed. An estimation of lifetime is made from the results and discussed in the light of existing predictions.

Comments have recently been made by Yuan et al. [1] to deny one statement in our paper [2], Eq. (21) in Wagner's paper [3] can be used to accurately calculate the integrated interdiffusion coefficient for an incremental diffusion couple only under the assumption of constant Molar volume for all phases. We respond here to explain how they misunderstood our mathematical deduction, made a mistake in deriving a couple of equations, falsely cited our work and employed unjustifiable assumption. As a result, we believe that their comments are invalid to deny our statement.

Routine monitoring of the wire bonding process requires real-time evaluation and control of wire bond quality. In this paper, we present a nondestructive technique for detecting bond quality by the application of a semisupervised classification algorithm to process the signals obtained from an ultrasonic generator. Experimental tests verified that the classification method is capable of accurately predicting bond quality, indicated by bonded area measured by X-ray tomography. Samples classified during bonding were subjected to temperature cycling between -55 °C and +125 °C, and the distribution of bond life amongst the different classes was analyzed. It is demonstrated that the as-bonded quality classification is closely correlated with thermal cycling life and can, therefore, be used as a nondestructive tool for monitoring bond quality and predicting useful service life.

Transient thermal impedancemeasurement is commonly used to characterize the dynamic behaviour of the heat flowpath in power semiconductor packages. This can be used to derive a “structure function”which is a graphical representation of the internal structure of the thermal stack. Changes in the structure function can thus be used as a non-destructive testing tool for detecting and locating defects in the thermal path. This paper evaluates the use of the structure function for testing the integrity of the thermal path in high powermulti-chipmodules. A 1.2 kV/200 A IGBT module is subjected to power cycling with a constant current. The structure function is used to estimate the level of disruption at the interface between the substrate and the baseplate/case. Comparison with estimations of cracked area obtained by scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) imaging shows excellent agreement, demonstrating that the structure function can be used as a quantitative tool for estimating the level of degradation. Metallurgical cross-sectioning confirms that the degradation is due to fatigue cracking of the substrate mount-down solder.

This paper presents a review of the commonly adopted physics-of-failure-based life prediction models for wire bond interconnects in power electronic modules. In the discussed models, lifetime is generally accounted for by loading temperature extremes alone. The influence of the time spent at temperature on bond wear-out behavior and damage removal phenomena resulting from thermally activated processes is not addressed. The phenomenological considerations based on some unusual observations highlight the need for new approaches to wire bond life prediction models and thus motivate the proposal of a new time-domain damage-based crack propagation model.

This research concerns weldments in P91 steel and their creep behaviour. Its scope covers three main topics: the microstructure and creep response of the (i) weld metal, (ii) parent metal, and (iii) the effect of extended thermal exposure and creep on the weldments. Microstructural examination of the weld metal revealed an inhomogeneous structure, with each bead consisting of a columnar region, a coarse-grained region and a fine-grained region (the latter two regions resulting from heat-treatment of the weld bead by deposition of subsequent beads). The columnar regions exhibited high hardness whereas the coarse and fine grained regions exhibited lower hardnesses. SEM imaging revealed that the precipitate distribution throughout the weld was somewhat inhomogeneous, due to inadequate mixing in the weld pool during welding, leading to segregation and liquation effects. Examination by TEM revealed a fine martensitic structure with a distribution of chromium carbides, in addition to Mn-rich inclusions. Anisotropy of microstructure was assessed by metallographic examination on planes with normals parallel to and perpendicular to the welding direction. Creep tests on this material were performed, with the stress axis both parallel and perpendicular to the welding direction. Anisotropic creep behaviour was observed and correlated with the microstructural anisotropy. Failure life is significantly longer when uniaxial creep stress is parallel to the welding direction. The columnar regions of the weld were observed to be creep-strong with a low strain to failure whereas the coarse and fine grained regions were observed to be creep-weak with a higher strain to failure. Microstructural variations within weldments as a function of time and temperature have also been investigated. Specimens were aged at five temperatures between 760°C and 650°C for up to 12000 hours. At all exposure temperatures, the parent metal showed little change in terms of fine (subgrain) microstructure and

Pressure-assisted sintering processes to attach power devices using wet nanosilver pastes with time scales of minutes to a few hours have been widely reported. This paper presents our work on time-efficient sintering, using nanosilver dry film and an automatic die pick and place machine, resulting in process times of just a few seconds. The combined parameters of sintering temperature 250 °C, sintering pressure 10 MPa and sintering time 5 s were selected as the benchmark process to attach 2 mm × 2 mm × 0.5 mm dummy Si devices. Then the effects of either the sintering temperature (240 to 300 °C), time (1 to 9 s) or pressure (6 to 25 MPa) on the porosity and shear strength of the sintered joints were investigated with 3 groups and a total of 13 experimental trials. The average porosities of 24.6 to 46.2% and shear strengths of 26.1 to 47.7 MPa are comparable with and/or even better than those reported for sintered joints using wet nanosilver pastes. Their dependences on the sintering temperature, time and pressure are further fitted to equations similar to those describing the kinetics of sintering processes of powder compacts. The equations obtained can be used to not only reveal different mechanisms dominating the densification and bonding strength, but also anticipate the thermal-induced evolutions of microstructures of these rapidly sintered joints during future reliability tests and/or in service.

This paper concerns the non-destructive visualisation of the evolution of damage within ultrasonically bonded alumini-um wires using three dimensional x-ray computed tomography. We demonstrate the potential to observe the progressive accumulation of damage within the same wires during passive thermal cycling between -55°C and 190°C. Tomography datasets were obtained prior to and after cycling. Cracks could be seen emerging from the extreme ends of the bonds when imaged after 105 cycles. Subsequent cycling lead to the advancement of these cracks toward the centres of the bonds. In addition, damage developed within the interior of the bonds; these also grew with increase in number of cy¬cles, and merged with existing cracks. Virtual cross-sections have been analysed to quantify the rate of damage build up.

This work is to investigate the relevant packaging / assembling technologies for developing a SiC-based planar power module which is aimed to meet the requirements such as operating temperature of -60 °C to 200 °C, SiC devices connected to 540 V DC bus and non-hermetic module. The results reported in this paper include: (i) design of a compact wire-less SiC-based power module with low parasitic inductance; (ii) demonstrated feasibility and reliability for the sintering of Ag nanoparticles and flexible printed circuit board as alternative joining and interconnect technologies which have been selected to assemble the designed power module; and (iii) preliminary construction of the designed module and electrical switching test of the constructed module.

In this work we report on a reliability investigation regarding heavy copper wires ultrasonically bonded onto active braze copper substrates. The results obtained from both a non-destructive approach using 3D X-ray tomography and shear tests showed no discernible degradation or wear out from initial conditions to 2900 passive thermal cycles from − 55 to 125 °C. Instead, an apparent increase in shear strength is observed as the number of thermal cycles increases. Nanoindentation hardness investigations suggest the occurrence of cyclic hardening. Microstructural investigations of the interfacial morphologies before and after cycling and after shear testing are also presented and discussed.

Both real Si insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) with conventional Ni\Ag metallization and a dummy Si die with thickened Ni\Ag metallization have been bonded on Ag foils electroplated with 2.7 m and 6.8 m thick Sn as an interlayer at 250ºC for 0 min, 40 min and 640 min. From microstructure characterization of the resulting joints, suitable thicknesses are suggested for the Ag base metal and the Sn interlayer for Ag/Sn/Ag transient liquid phase (TLP) joints used in power die attachment, and the diffusivities of Ag and Sn in the Ag phase are extracted. In combination with the kinetic constants of Ag3Sn growth and diffusivities of Ag and Sn in Ag reported in the literature, the extracted diffusivities of Ag and Sn in Ag phase are also used to simulate and predict the diffusion-controlled growth and evolution of phases in the Ag/Sn/Ag TLP joints during an extended bonding process and in service.

The samples of sintered Ag joints for power die attachments were prepared using paste of Ag nanoparticles at 240 °C and 5 MPa for 3 to 17 minutes. Their microstructural features were quantitatively characterized with scanning elec-tronic microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and image analysis method. The resulting nor-malized thickness, pore size and porosity decreased, and grain size increased with increasing the sintering time. A time dependence of the form t1/n with n close to 2 or 3 can be further derived for the kinetics of the thinning, densification and grain growth within the sintered Ag joints.

13.5 mm × 13.5 mm sintered nano-silver attachments for power devices onto AlN substrates were prepared at 250 ºC and a pressure of 10MPa for 5 minutes and compared with Pb5Sn solder joint die attachments under constant current power cycling with an initial temperature swing of 50-175 ºC. Both the effective thermal resistance and microstructural evolution of the samples were monitored using transient thermal impedance measurement and non-destructive X-ray computed tomography at regular power cycling intervals. The results showed a gradual increase in the effective thermal resistance of the Pb5Sn solder joints from 0.047 to 0.133 K/W from zero to 41k power cycles, followed by a rapid escalation to 0.5018 K/W at 52k cycles. This was accompanied with the formation and development of oblique cracks within the Pb5Sn die attachments until delamination occurred at the solder/device and solder/substrate interfaces. By contrast, the effective thermal resistance of the sintered Ag joints remained almost constant at 0.040 K/W up to 116k power cycles. This was explained in terms of thermally induced continuation of densification of the sintered structure and the formation and development of networked vertical cracks within the sintered Ag die attachments, some of which further extended into the Cu tracks of the AlN substrate.

Comments have recently been made by Yuan et al. [1] to deny one statement in our paper [2], Eq. (21) in Wagner's paper [3] can be used to accurately calculate the integrated interdiffusion coefficient for an incremental diffusion couple only under the assumption of constant Molar volume for all phases. We respond here to explain how they misunderstood our mathematical deduction, made a mistake in deriving a couple of equations, falsely cited our work and employed unjustifiable assumption. As a result, we believe that their comments are invalid to deny our statement.

Routine monitoring of the wire bonding process requires real-time evaluation and control of wire bond quality. In this paper, we present a nondestructive technique for detecting bond quality by the application of a semisupervised classification algorithm to process the signals obtained from an ultrasonic generator. Experimental tests verified that the classification method is capable of accurately predicting bond quality, indicated by bonded area measured by X-ray tomography. Samples classified during bonding were subjected to temperature cycling between -55 °C and +125 °C, and the distribution of bond life amongst the different classes was analyzed. It is demonstrated that the as-bonded quality classification is closely correlated with thermal cycling life and can, therefore, be used as a nondestructive tool for monitoring bond quality and predicting useful service life.

Ultrasonically bonded heavy Al wires subjected to a small junction temperature fluctuation under power cycling from 40°C to 70°C were investigated using a non-destructive three-dimensional (3-D) x-ray tomography evaluation approach. The occurrence of irreversible deformation of the microstructure and wear-out under such conditions were demonstrated. The observed microstructures consist of interfacial and inter-granular cracks concentrated in zones of stress intensity, i.e., near heels and emanating from interface precracks. Interfacial voids were also observed within the bond interior. Degradation rates of ‘first’ and ‘stitch’ bonds are compared and contrasted. A correlative microscopy study combining perspectives from optical microscopy with the x-ray tomography results clarifies the damage observed. An estimation of lifetime is made from the results and discussed in the light of existing predictions.

Pressure-assisted sintering processes to attach power devices using wet nanosilver pastes with time scales of minutes to a few hours have been widely reported. This paper presents our work on time-efficient sintering, using nanosilver dry film and an automatic die pick and place machine, resulting in process times of just a few seconds. The combined parameters of sintering temperature 250 °C, sintering pressure 10 MPa and sintering time 5 s were selected as the benchmark process to attach 2 mm × 2 mm × 0.5 mm dummy Si devices. Then the effects of either the sintering temperature (240 to 300 °C), time (1 to 9 s) or pressure (6 to 25 MPa) on the porosity and shear strength of the sintered joints were investigated with 3 groups and a total of 13 experimental trials. The average porosities of 24.6 to 46.2% and shear strengths of 26.1 to 47.7 MPa are comparable with and/or even better than those reported for sintered joints using wet nanosilver pastes. Their dependences on the sintering temperature, time and pressure are further fitted to equations similar to those describing the kinetics of sintering processes of powder compacts. The equations obtained can be used to not only reveal different mechanisms dominating the densification and bonding strength, but also anticipate the thermal-induced evolutions of microstructures of these rapidly sintered joints during future reliability tests and/or in service.

Transient thermal impedancemeasurement is commonly used to characterize the dynamic behaviour of the heat flowpath in power semiconductor packages. This can be used to derive a “structure function”which is a graphical representation of the internal structure of the thermal stack. Changes in the structure function can thus be used as a non-destructive testing tool for detecting and locating defects in the thermal path. This paper evaluates the use of the structure function for testing the integrity of the thermal path in high powermulti-chipmodules. A 1.2 kV/200 A IGBT module is subjected to power cycling with a constant current. The structure function is used to estimate the level of disruption at the interface between the substrate and the baseplate/case. Comparison with estimations of cracked area obtained by scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) imaging shows excellent agreement, demonstrating that the structure function can be used as a quantitative tool for estimating the level of degradation. Metallurgical cross-sectioning confirms that the degradation is due to fatigue cracking of the substrate mount-down solder.

This paper characterizes thermal and reliability performance of a SiC MOSFET power module with embedded decoupling capacitors and without anti-parallel diodes. Active and passive temperature cycling, supported by transient thermal impedance characterisation and scanning acoustic microscopy, are used to evaluate key degradation mechanisms. The forward voltage drop of the body diode is used as a thermo-sensitive electrical parameter to estimate the junction temperature and the thermal structure function is analysed to elucidate the degradation in the heat flow path inside the module. Comparisons are made with commercial Si IGBT power modules.

13.5 mm × 13.5 mm sintered nano-silver attachments for power devices onto AlN substrates were prepared at 250 ºC and a pressure of 10MPa for 5 minutes and compared with Pb5Sn solder joint die attachments under constant current power cycling with an initial temperature swing of 50-175 ºC. Both the effective thermal resistance and microstructural evolution of the samples were monitored using transient thermal impedance measurement and non-destructive X-ray computed tomography at regular power cycling intervals. The results showed a gradual increase in the effective thermal resistance of the Pb5Sn solder joints from 0.047 to 0.133 K/W from zero to 41k power cycles, followed by a rapid escalation to 0.5018 K/W at 52k cycles. This was accompanied with the formation and development of oblique cracks within the Pb5Sn die attachments until delamination occurred at the solder/device and solder/substrate interfaces. By contrast, the effective thermal resistance of the sintered Ag joints remained almost constant at 0.040 K/W up to 116k power cycles. This was explained in terms of thermally induced continuation of densification of the sintered structure and the formation and development of networked vertical cracks within the sintered Ag die attachments, some of which further extended into the Cu tracks of the AlN substrate.

This paper presents a review of the commonly adopted physics-of-failure-based life prediction models for wire bond interconnects in power electronic modules. In the discussed models, lifetime is generally accounted for by loading temperature extremes alone. The influence of the time spent at temperature on bond wear-out behavior and damage removal phenomena resulting from thermally activated processes is not addressed. The phenomenological considerations based on some unusual observations highlight the need for new approaches to wire bond life prediction models and thus motivate the proposal of a new time-domain damage-based crack propagation model.

In this work we report on a reliability investigation regarding heavy copper wires ultrasonically bonded onto active braze copper substrates. The results obtained from both a non-destructive approach using 3D X-ray tomography and shear tests showed no discernible degradation or wear out from initial conditions to 2900 passive thermal cycles from − 55 to 125 °C. Instead, an apparent increase in shear strength is observed as the number of thermal cycles increases. Nanoindentation hardness investigations suggest the occurrence of cyclic hardening. Microstructural investigations of the interfacial morphologies before and after cycling and after shear testing are also presented and discussed.

Both real Si insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT) with conventional Ni\Ag metallization and a dummy Si die with thickened Ni\Ag metallization have been bonded on Ag foils electroplated with 2.7 m and 6.8 m thick Sn as an interlayer at 250ºC for 0 min, 40 min and 640 min. From microstructure characterization of the resulting joints, suitable thicknesses are suggested for the Ag base metal and the Sn interlayer for Ag/Sn/Ag transient liquid phase (TLP) joints used in power die attachment, and the diffusivities of Ag and Sn in the Ag phase are extracted. In combination with the kinetic constants of Ag3Sn growth and diffusivities of Ag and Sn in Ag reported in the literature, the extracted diffusivities of Ag and Sn in Ag phase are also used to simulate and predict the diffusion-controlled growth and evolution of phases in the Ag/Sn/Ag TLP joints during an extended bonding process and in service.

The samples of sintered Ag joints for power die attachments were prepared using paste of Ag nanoparticles at 240 °C and 5 MPa for 3 to 17 minutes. Their microstructural features were quantitatively characterized with scanning elec-tronic microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction and image analysis method. The resulting nor-malized thickness, pore size and porosity decreased, and grain size increased with increasing the sintering time. A time dependence of the form t1/n with n close to 2 or 3 can be further derived for the kinetics of the thinning, densification and grain growth within the sintered Ag joints.

Comments have recently been made by Yuan et al. [1] to deny one statement in our paper [2], Eq. (21) in Wagner's paper [3] can be used to accurately calculate the integrated interdiffusion coefficient for an incremental diffusion couple only under the assumption of constant Molar volume for all phases. We respond here to explain how they misunderstood our mathematical deduction, made a mistake in deriving a couple of equations, falsely cited our work and employed unjustifiable assumption. As a result, we believe that their comments are invalid to deny our statement.

Ultrasonically bonded heavy Al wires subjected to a small junction temperature fluctuation under power cycling from 40°C to 70°C were investigated using a non-destructive three-dimensional (3-D) x-ray tomography evaluation approach. The occurrence of irreversible deformation of the microstructure and wear-out under such conditions were demonstrated. The observed microstructures consist of interfacial and inter-granular cracks concentrated in zones of stress intensity, i.e., near heels and emanating from interface precracks. Interfacial voids were also observed within the bond interior. Degradation rates of ‘first’ and ‘stitch’ bonds are compared and contrasted. A correlative microscopy study combining perspectives from optical microscopy with the x-ray tomography results clarifies the damage observed. An estimation of lifetime is made from the results and discussed in the light of existing predictions.

Routine monitoring of the wire bonding process requires real-time evaluation and control of wire bond quality. In this paper, we present a nondestructive technique for detecting bond quality by the application of a semisupervised classification algorithm to process the signals obtained from an ultrasonic generator. Experimental tests verified that the classification method is capable of accurately predicting bond quality, indicated by bonded area measured by X-ray tomography. Samples classified during bonding were subjected to temperature cycling between -55 °C and +125 °C, and the distribution of bond life amongst the different classes was analyzed. It is demonstrated that the as-bonded quality classification is closely correlated with thermal cycling life and can, therefore, be used as a nondestructive tool for monitoring bond quality and predicting useful service life.

Transient thermal impedancemeasurement is commonly used to characterize the dynamic behaviour of the heat flowpath in power semiconductor packages. This can be used to derive a “structure function”which is a graphical representation of the internal structure of the thermal stack. Changes in the structure function can thus be used as a non-destructive testing tool for detecting and locating defects in the thermal path. This paper evaluates the use of the structure function for testing the integrity of the thermal path in high powermulti-chipmodules. A 1.2 kV/200 A IGBT module is subjected to power cycling with a constant current. The structure function is used to estimate the level of disruption at the interface between the substrate and the baseplate/case. Comparison with estimations of cracked area obtained by scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) imaging shows excellent agreement, demonstrating that the structure function can be used as a quantitative tool for estimating the level of degradation. Metallurgical cross-sectioning confirms that the degradation is due to fatigue cracking of the substrate mount-down solder.

This paper presents a review of the commonly adopted physics-of-failure-based life prediction models for wire bond interconnects in power electronic modules. In the discussed models, lifetime is generally accounted for by loading temperature extremes alone. The influence of the time spent at temperature on bond wear-out behavior and damage removal phenomena resulting from thermally activated processes is not addressed. The phenomenological considerations based on some unusual observations highlight the need for new approaches to wire bond life prediction models and thus motivate the proposal of a new time-domain damage-based crack propagation model.

This paper characterizes thermal and reliability performance of a SiC MOSFET power module with embedded decoupling capacitors and without anti-parallel diodes. Active and passive temperature cycling, supported by transient thermal impedance characterisation and scanning acoustic microscopy, are used to evaluate key degradation mechanisms. The forward voltage drop of the body diode is used as a thermo-sensitive electrical parameter to estimate the junction temperature and the thermal structure function is analysed to elucidate the degradation in the heat flow path inside the module. Comparisons are made with commercial Si IGBT power modules.

This paper concerns the non-destructive visualisation of the evolution of damage within ultrasonically bonded alumini-um wires using three dimensional x-ray computed tomography. We demonstrate the potential to observe the progressive accumulation of damage within the same wires during passive thermal cycling between -55°C and 190°C. Tomography datasets were obtained prior to and after cycling. Cracks could be seen emerging from the extreme ends of the bonds when imaged after 105 cycles. Subsequent cycling lead to the advancement of these cracks toward the centres of the bonds. In addition, damage developed within the interior of the bonds; these also grew with increase in number of cy¬cles, and merged with existing cracks. Virtual cross-sections have been analysed to quantify the rate of damage build up.

This work is to investigate the relevant packaging / assembling technologies for developing a SiC-based planar power module which is aimed to meet the requirements such as operating temperature of -60 °C to 200 °C, SiC devices connected to 540 V DC bus and non-hermetic module. The results reported in this paper include: (i) design of a compact wire-less SiC-based power module with low parasitic inductance; (ii) demonstrated feasibility and reliability for the sintering of Ag nanoparticles and flexible printed circuit board as alternative joining and interconnect technologies which have been selected to assemble the designed power module; and (iii) preliminary construction of the designed module and electrical switching test of the constructed module.

13.5 mm × 13.5 mm sintered nano-silver attachments for power devices onto AlN substrates were prepared at 250 ºC and a pressure of 10MPa for 5 minutes and compared with Pb5Sn solder joint die attachments under constant current power cycling with an initial temperature swing of 50-175 ºC. Both the effective thermal resistance and microstructural evolution of the samples were monitored using transient thermal impedance measurement and non-destructive X-ray computed tomography at regular power cycling intervals. The results showed a gradual increase in the effective thermal resistance of the Pb5Sn solder joints from 0.047 to 0.133 K/W from zero to 41k power cycles, followed by a rapid escalation to 0.5018 K/W at 52k cycles. This was accompanied with the formation and development of oblique cracks within the Pb5Sn die attachments until delamination occurred at the solder/device and solder/substrate interfaces. By contrast, the effective thermal resistance of the sintered Ag joints remained almost constant at 0.040 K/W up to 116k power cycles. This was explained in terms of thermally induced continuation of densification of the sintered structure and the formation and development of networked vertical cracks within the sintered Ag die attachments, some of which further extended into the Cu tracks of the AlN substrate.