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Assessments of respiratory response and animal activity are useful endpoints in drug pharmacology and safety research. We investigated whether continuous, direct monitoring of breathing rate and body motion in animals in the home cage using the Vum Digital Smart House can complement standard measurements in enabling more granular detection of the onset and severity of physiologic events related to lung injury in a well-established rodent model of paraquat (PQ) toxicity. In rats administered PQ, breathing rate was significantly elevated while body motion was significantly reduced following dosing and extending throughout the 14-day study duration for breathing rate and at least 5 days for both nighttime and daytime body motion. Time course differences in these endpoints in response to the potential ameliorative test article bardoxolone were also readily detected. More complete than standard in-life measurements, breathing rate and body motion tracked injury progression continuously over the full study time period and aligned with, and informed on interval changes in clinical pathology. In addition, breathing rates correlated with terminal pathology measurements, such as normalized lung weights and histologic alveolar damage and edema. This study is a preliminary evaluation of the technology; our results demonstrate that continuously measured breathing rate and body motion served as physiologically relevant readouts to assess lung injury progression and drug response in a respiratory injury animal model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Increased firing across glutamatergic synapses may contribute to both the motor dysfunction and L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia seen in Parkinson's disease. Given their ability to reduce glutamate release, activation of group III metabotropic glutamate receptors such as metabotropic glutamate receptor 4 may prove effective against both motor dysfunction and dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease. Objective: We hypothesised that activation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 4 by an orthosteric agonist ((2S)-2-amino-4-(hydroxy(hydroxy(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-5-nitrophenyl)methyl)phosphoryl)butanoic acid, LSP1-2111) would produce antiparkinsonian activity and reduce expression of dyskinesia in a 1-methyl-4-phenyl,1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-treated marmoset model of Parkinson's disease. Methods: Common marmosets were previously treated with MPTP and pre-primed with L-DOPA for up to 28 days to express dyskinesia. LSP1-2111 (1, 3, or 6 mg/kg s.c.) or vehicle (0.9% saline s.c.) were administered immediately prior to L-DOPA (8 mg/kg + benserazide (10 mg/kg) p.o.) or vehicle (10% sucrose p.o.). Locomotor activity was measured in automated test cages and animals were scored for dyskinesia and disability. Results: As expected, L-DOPA reversed motor disability and induced moderate dyskinesia. By contrast, LSP1-2111 alone significantly reduced the motor disability without any accompanying expression of dyskinesia. When administered in combination with L-DOPA, LSP1-2111 did not significantly reduce the severity of L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia. Conclusion: Systemic administration of LSP1-2111 reduces motor disability without causing dyskinesia in MPTP-treated marmosets, supporting a role for metabotropic glutamate receptor 4 orthosteric agonists as promising monotherapy for PD. Conversely, this study found no evidence to support their use as antidyskinetic agents within the dose range tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Though the concept of Functional Foods (FFs) did exist thousands of years ago hence research on its beneficial effects on human beings started in Japan in 1980. It has been globally recognized that FFs have promising effect on human health. The research studies empirically supported the idea that FFs provide protection against certain cancer, cardiovascular, hypertension, bowl movement, constipation, diabetes, improved brain, metabolic and eye health etc. It is worth mentioning that Pakistan has 216.57 million people and the 6th most populous country of the world. No significant effort has planned to explore the peoples' knowledge and perceptions about the health benefits of different categories of FFs, such high anti-oxidant, green high fiber, pro-biotic, pre-biotic, omega 3, nuts & seeds, teas, herbs and spices. Keeping in view the promising health benefits of this food, a qualitative study with 50 participants/shoppers from the super stores situated in Faisalabad, Pakistan was conducted. Conservation analysis (CA) based on views of participants demonstrates that majority respondents were of the opinion that FFs have beneficial health impacts and provide the protection against many chronic diseases. As analysis indicates, there is no other opinion that fruits, vegetables, dry fruits, legumes, whole grain, herbs & spices which are used by the peoples of this region from centuries are the best for the healthy life of the people. Organic foods, protein from grass fed animals and cage free poultry and river fish are the best FFs for protecting and maintaining human health. It is suggested that the use of sweet, sweeten dairy products and beverages with added sugar and processed food which is poor in nutrients, vitamins and minerals may be avoided to develop immune system for providing protection against chronic diseases. Bulk of FFs of different varieties with different health benefits are available in the supermarkets, Government should frame policy of logo for those FFs which have promising health benefits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated the gross and histological description of the rabbit testes with the histomorphometrical indices of the testes. Four male intact New Zealand white rabbits were procured with average weight of 1.35 ±0.13kg and were housed in individual cages at the animal house of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Ibadan. Gross pictures and measurements of the testes were recorded while the testes tissues were processed for histology and histometric assessment of seminiferous tubules. Results showed that gross measurement of the right testis were about 2.88cm in length and 0.61cm in breadth. The measurement of the left testis were about 2.65cm and 0.65cm. The average histomorphometrical readings for the seminiferous tubular diameter and seminiferous epithelial height were 265.84μm and 204.09μm respectively. The histological slides revealed normal testicular architecture in the rabbits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A total of twenty four does of New Zealand White (NZW), Dutch (DUT) and their crosses i.e. NZW x DUT were used to determine the effects of breed and dam's body weight on litter weight and number of rabbits in South South Nigeria. The rabbits were kept in cages and were artificially inseminated and monitored for a period of one year. Data on body weight before mating (BWBM), body weight after mating (BWAM), body weight before kindling (BWBK), body weight after kindling (BWAK), litter size (LS) and litter weight (LW). Data generated were analyzed using Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). The results showed significant difference (p<0.05) in BWBM and BWAM in DUT and NZW x DUT breeds of rabbits, DUT recorded the highest values of BWBM and BWAM, while NZW x DUT had the least values of BWBM and BWAM. BWAK was significantly different between DUT and NZW x DUT. More so, NZW x DUT recorded the highest values for LS and LW. The results also showed that breed effect had negative correlation with BWBW, BWAM and BWAK with correlation values of -0.64, -0.64 and - 0.207 respectively. The breed of rabbits also revealed a high correlation between BWBM and BWAM. BWAK showed a high correlation between BWAM and BWBK. The information provided by this study revealed that breed and the body weight of the dam influenced litter weight and litter number which can be harnessed in improvement programmes for rabbits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Social conformity is considered a possible promoter of alcohol use disorder in humans. The goal of this study was to explore the impact of conformity as one of the social factors that might contribute to the alcohol preference in a rat model of ethanol intake.Methods: To model social conformity, 105 Wistar rats were group housed (3 animals per cage) with a different number of rats drinking either 10% ethanol or water during daily drinking sessions. Ethanol preference tests were performed.Results: Ethanol preference significantly increased if the majority of cage mates received ethanol during drinking sessions. The analysis also showed an increase in the number of approaches to the ethanol bottle versus the water bottle and an increased duration of a single ethanol approach during the 2 bottle preference test in such groups.Conclusion: These results demonstrate that social conditions promote the ethanol consumption in the novel conformity model used in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many neuroscience experiments with animal subjects require free motion of the animal within a metal cage environment. In such cage environments, wireless communication with implanted devices, e.g., neural recording and stimulation is particularly challenging because the metal cage walls form a reverberant cavity with dense multipath. In the case of backscatter communication with the implanted device, the multipath challenge is particularly acute because of the round-trip nature of the backscatter channel. This paper demonstrates the reverberant cavity effect via measurement of the channel transfer function inside a metal cage used for nonhuman primate research in the 902–928 MHz ultrahigh-frequency industrial, scientific, and medical band. A reduced-size ceramic patch antenna developed for the Neurochip neural recording and stimulation device was affixed to a saline tissue proxy, while a commercial air-dielectric patch antenna was affixed to the ceiling of the cage. A measured 3 dB channel bandwidth greater than 6.5 MHz with a port-to-port insertion loss between 14 and 37 dB was achieved at 126 surveyed locations within the cage volume. A 6.25 Mb/s backscatter data uplink using a differential quadrature phase shift keying constellation was successfully validated inside the cage, with effectively 0% packet error rate for all but two of the surveyed locations. The simulation and experimental results show good agreement and reveal that wideband backscatter communication systems can perform well despite the significant multipath inside the reverberant cage environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Automated behaviour systems allow long-term assessment of complex CNS injury models. • Home cage grouped-housed animal are relevant for subtle spontaneous behaviour studies. • Spinal cord injury affects locomotion and the grooming /rearing ability of animals. • Group behaviour analysis facilitates the study of aggression in brain injury models. • Home cage non-invasive behaviour systems provides a unique 3Rs advantage. Neurotrauma patients face major neurological sequelae. The failure in the preclinical-to-clinical translation of candidate therapies could be due to poor evaluation of rodent behaviours after neurotrauma. A home cage automated system was used to study the long term behaviour of individual rats with traumatic brain injury (TBI), spinal cord injury (SCI) and non-CNS injured controls, whilst group-housed in their home cages. Naïve rats were used as baseline controls. Automated locomotor activity and body temperature recordings were carried out 24 h /day for 3 days/week during 12 weeks post-injury. Behavioural patterns, including aggression, rearing, grooming, feeding and drinking were analysed from automated video recordings during week 1, 6 and 12. SCI animals showed a lower locomotor activity compared to TBI or control animals during light and dark phases. TBI animals showed a higher aggression during the dark phase in the first week post-injury compared to SCI or control animals. Individual grooming and rearing were reduced in SCI animals compared to TBI and control animals in the first week post-injury during the dark phase. No differences in drinking or feeding were detected between groups. Locomotor activity did not differ between naïve male and female rats, but body temperature differ between light and dark phases for both. Injury severity was compared to standard SCI and TBI behaviour scores (BBB and mNSS, respectively) and histological analysis. This study demonstrates the practical benefits of using a non-intrusive automated home cage recording system to observe long term individual behaviour of group-housed SCI and TBI rats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There are several reports on unfavourable effects of metabolic cage housing on animal welfare mainly due to the characteristic structures of these cages such as single housing and grid flooring. This study was aimed to compare the effects of long-term metabolic cage housing and conventional housing (normal grouped housing in standard cages) on the anxiety/depression-like behaviours in male rats. Anxiety/depression-related behaviours were evaluated by use of forced swimming test and open field test. Swimming and climbing were significantly lower and immobility duration higher in the metabolic cage group. In the open field test, total distance, mean velocity, time spent in the central area, zone transition, grooming, and rearing scores were significantly lower in the metabolic cage. Moreover, serum corticosterone level was higher in the metabolic cage group. The results of the study indicate that long-term metabolic cage housing may cause an increase in the anxiety- and depression-related behaviours in male rats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A field campaign was conducted around salmon cages, using a combination of a towed ADCP and a free‐fall multi‐parameter profiler, in order to investigate flow structures and the possible distribution of effluent materials. Two transect observations showed that hydrographic conditions changed dramatically within 5 days, from highly stratified open water conditions to weak stratification. Three‐dimensional observation revealed that flow was blocked behind the cages and that the blockage was reduced as the distance from the cages increased. The flow speed was positively correlated with the intensity of the backscattering signal. The R2 value was high immediately behind the cages and decreased with distance from the cages. The flow time series behind the cages exhibited a k–2 power law spectrum that was consistent with a typical internal wave spectrum. This suggests that eddies shed from the cages were highly influenced by stratification. We estimated the rate of kinetic energy dissipation, ε, from YODA Profiler data based on the Thorpe scale approach. We also estimated the eddy diffusivity coefficient, Kρ. Both ε and Kρ followed a lognormal probability density function. The mean Kρ was consistent with a one‐dimensional diffusion model assessed from the R2 values of flow speed and backscatter intensity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Random samples of individual fish for the cause of estimating body size average and variation in fish groups is a widespread practice in scientific experiment as well as in fish production. Sample accuracy and precision naturally increases with sample size, but may very well depend on other factors such as fish size dependent success rate of capture method and spatial-behavioural size segregation. In 4 case studies with Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) where the entire population was crowded and measured for length and weight, we show how the estimated mean weight and condition factor, and their deviation from the true population mean, evolve with number of sampled fish: 1) sampling of 3400 pre-smolts (77 g) netted by hand from a 5 m tank, 2) 466 post-smolts (711 g) netted by hand from a 5 m sea cage, 3) 5569 post-smolts (394 g) netted by hand from a 12 m sea cage, 4) the same fish as in 3, but 9 months later (3367 g, n = 5288) and netted out by using a crane mounted tarpaulin container. Sampling of cases 1, 3 and 4 took place over consecutive days. Cumulative mean, i.e. the mean for each new fish sampled, of weight and condition factor were calculated for each sampling day. To simulate a perfectly random sampling to compare with that observed, the order in which the individuals in the entire population were sampled were randomized, and cumulative means calculated in the same manner. With the randomized sampling order the cumulative mean values rapidly approached true population mean and remained at that level for both weight and condition factor in all days on all sampling events. In contrast, the cumulative mean weight and/or condition factor of the observed sampling order generally deviated from the true mean even after a large number of fish had been sampled, and the patterns in how cumulative mean values developed was inconsistent between days. Highlights • Accuracy of estimation of the population mean size in a rearing unit is dependent of sampling method and sample size. • In 4 case studies, we calculated how mean weight and condition factor evolved with number of fish sampled. • Mean weight and/or condition factor deviated from the true mean even after hundreds of fish had been sampled. • The study shows that estimation of the population mean is easily biased even when a large number of fish is sampled. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The poem "Slave Pedigree" by Eduardo (Echo) Martinez is presented. First Line: we're all pets chained like Pandora charms; Last Line: it won't break.

Abstract There is increasing concern about Norwegian salmon farming and the possible environmental impacts from sea lice, escaped fish and release of toxic chemicals and organic emissions to the coastal waters. Closed containment systems (CCS) have the potential to eliminate the problems with sea lice and to reduce escapes and emissions. When closing the cages, water volumes and velocity are regulated and the identification of optimal current velocities for growth and fish welfare from sea transfer to harvest size becomes necessary. This study describes two trials with LOW (0.10–0.27 BL/s) and MODERATE (0.36–0.63 BL/s) water velocity on performance of post-smolt Atlantic salmon in CCS. In trial 1 (168 days, 10.9 °C, fish size: 884–3007 g and 41.5–59.0 cm), round weight increased with 219 g (p =.012) and condition factor with 0.11 (p =.016) in the MODERATE group compared with LOW group. The MODERATE group obtained specific growth rate (SGR) of 0.76 and thermal growth coefficient (TGC) of 2.75, compared to 0.72 and 2.56 in the LOW group. MODERATE water velocity was also associated with higher relative heart size (RHS) (p =.016), higher liver index (HSI) (p =.005), increased fillet yield (p ≤.001) and lower levels of cathepsin activity in muscle tissue. In trial 2 (46 days, 7.1 °C, fish size: 327–482 g and 29.9–33.7 cm), round weight increased with 52 g (p =.019) and condition factor with 0.05 (p =.009) in the MODERATE group compared with LOW group. The MODERATE group obtained SGR of 0.77 and TGC of 2.68, compared to SGR of 0.60 and TGC of 2.02 in the LOW group. No significant difference was observed in white muscle cell hyperplasia, measured as the proportion of small (< 20 μm diameter) muscle fibres (p =.145). Both trials showed only minor differences in slaughter yield, fillet quality (protein, fat, water) and mortality. The present study shows that moderate water velocity (0.36–0.63 BL/s) is favourable for growth rates for Atlantic salmon during the entire on-growing period in CCS. Effects on a broader range of metabolic variables and welfare indicators were also documented. Highlights • Increasing water velocity from LOW (.10 –.27 BL/s) to MODERATE (.36 –.63 BL/s) enhanced the growth rates in Atlantic salmon raised in closed containment systems (CCS). • Increased water velocity reduced the cathepsin enzyme activity in muscle tissue and moderate effect on relative heart weight and liver index. • There was a tendency of white muscle cell hyperplasia in the MODERATE group. • There were no or minor group differences in relative fillet quality (protein, fat, water). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Ventilation and roof sprinkles reduced roof surface temperature of maternity pens. • Cooled system didn't reduced surface temperature of sows free of cage. • Infrared thermography is an efficient to evaluate the thermal conditions of pigs. Abstract Infrared thermography is a non-invasive method of body surface temperature analysis in pigs. This study aimed to evaluate the body surface temperature of sows and piglets kept in individual pens free of cages with or without cooling system with the use of infrared thermography. The study was conducted during the summer and autumn in Pirassununga, Brazil. Twenty-six sows during lactating phase and 281 piglets until 21 days-old were evaluated in two treatments: cooled pens with fans and water sprinklers on the roof and non-cooled pens. Both areas had ceramic roof tiles. Thermographic images were collected at intervals of seven days in the morning and afternoon in sows and randomly in five piglets per litter, and salivary cortisol were collected only on sows. The thermographic images were analyzed using the software IRSoft Version 3.6 Testo. Every three days respiratory rate and rectal temperatures were collected from sows and five piglets per litter. It was included fixed effect of treatment, period of the day, seasons and their interactions, besides the correlations of Pearson. In summer and autumn, the hottest surface area of sows was the mammary gland and the coldest the vaginal. For the piglets, the hottest area in the summer was the head and the coldest the snout. Summer presented the highest surface temperatures of the sugarcane bagasse bed, concrete floor and roof. No correlations were found between air temperature of and facilities. The respiratory rate presented moderate correlation with the back and with the snout of the sows. Rectal temperatures were higher in summer and in the afternoon, but it was similar between treatments. Although the cooling system had reduced the air temperature of the pens free of cage, it was not enough to reduce body superficial temperatures of the sows and piglets during lactating phase. Nevertheless, the use of infrared thermography allows to identify the hottest and coldest surface body areas of pigs and can be a tool to assess pig facilities and animal welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Stress in shelter cats may cause inactivity and hiding, but adopters seek friendly, outgoing animals. • Clicker training was found to increase cats' exploratory behaviour and time spent at the front of the cages in a rescue shelter. • Clicker training was also found to reduce the time spent inactive. • Human-approach response improved in 4 cats after training but the sample size was small and the results were non-significant. Abstract The rescue shelter environment is known to be stressful for domestic cats, which can lead to them becoming less active, playful and exploratory as well as spending a long time hiding. Early adoption can prevent long term stress in shelter cats, but adopters often look at behaviour and friendliness as criteria when choosing a cat to rehome. This study aimed to test the efficacy of a clicker training intervention to promote behaviours indicative of improved welfare and increase the potential adoptability of cats in rescue shelters. Twelve cats were clicker trained over two weeks their behaviour and response to humans was recorded before and after the training schedule. Cats showed significantly more exploratory behaviour, a decrease in inactivity and spent more time at the front of their enclosures after training. Four of the cats which failed the human approach test initially, passed it after training but this result was nonsignificant. Clicker training may be a simple and rapid way to improve welfare and adoptability in rescue cats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rabbits are housed on various types of cages including single tier, multi-tier cages etc. The effect of housing system on the floor bacterial load is variable, and its effect on animal production is limited. An attempt has been made to evaluate and compare the floor bacterial load between single-tier and multi-tier caging system in rabbitary. The study was carried out in rabbitary which housed broiler rabbits. The samples were taken in sterile cotton tipped swabs. The floor bacterial load was determined by dilution method where serial dilutions were done with sterile normal saline. An aliquot of 1 ml was taken from dilution and poured in sterile petri plates in triplicate and mixed with liquefied sterilized plate count agar. Following incubation, the bacterial colonies were counted. The bacterial load in the single-tier was comparatively lower than the multi-tier cage even before washing of cages. There was significant difference (P<0.01) in the floor bacterial load before (1.73x1012±0.30) and after water wash (1.35x1011±0.29) and between single (1.50x109±0.30) and multi-tier cages (1.35x1011±0.29). The bacteria up to genes level found using Hi-Media bacterial kit were Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Flavobacterium sp, Micrococcus sp, Proteus sp, Mannheimia sp, Klebsiella sp, Bordetella sp, Bacillus sp, Actinomyces sp, Cornybacterium sp and Pseudomonas sp. This study concluded that reduced bacterial load found in single tier may be due to good aeration and better handling facilities. In single tier cage the dung and urine gets settled at the floor which facilities easy washing which slows down the bacterial growth [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Colony cages for natural mating have been applied in many layer breeder farms. However, feather pecking and cloacal cannibalism are considered as prominent problems for these systems. This study aimed to investigate the effects on feather pecking and vent pecking behaviors by providing layer breeders with nest boxes (0.90 m L × 0.40 m W × 0.60 m H) in colony cages for natural mating (4.80 m L × 1.20 m W × 0.71 m H). Video recording and artificial observation were adopted. The results showed that the usage of nest boxes gradually increased from the beginning of nest boxes providing at the age of 37 weeks to the end of the experiment at the age of 55 weeks. The utilization rate of nest boxes was 36.75%, 44.75% and 50.38% at the ages of 41 weeks, 47 weeks and 53 weeks, respectively. The hens in the cages without nest boxes showed significantly more frequent gentle feather pecks (both given and received) than hens in the cages with nest boxes at the ages of 41 weeks, 47 weeks and 53 weeks. A decreasing trend of gentle feather pecking frequency (both given and received) was found with the increasing age for both the two groups. No significant difference was found in the number of given or received severe feather pecks at the age of 41 weeks. The hens in the cages without nest boxes showed a significantly higher frequency of given and received severe feather pecks than hens in the cages with nest boxes at the ages of 47 weeks and 53 weeks (p<0.05). Both cannibalistic injury occurrence and mortality rate in the cages with nest boxes were significantly lower than in the cages without nest boxes. In conclusion, providing nest boxes in colony cages for natural mating could decrease abnormal pecking behaviors and improve welfare conditions of layer breeders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growth performances and meat quality of free-range or cage raised rabbits were compared in 36 male animals. Rabbits were raised in free-range areas (2000 cm 2 /head) or in open-air cages (800 cm 2 /head) from weaning to 99 days old. Daily weight gain and final live weight were higher (P < 0.05) for the rabbits raised in cages which presented a more favourable feed conversion ratio (P < 0.05) than in the free-range group. The average feed intake, liver and empty gastro-intestinal tract weights were higher (P < 0.05) in the free-range group, while the interscapular fat percentage was higher (P < 0.05) in the caged rabbits. Loins of free-range rabbits had higher amount of PUFA n-6 in neutral lipids (P < 0.05) whereas their polar lipids were richer in PUFA n-6 and n-3 than in those of the cage group. Muscular fat of free-raised rabbits was found to be less susceptible to be oxidized, having a higher antioxidant capacity than the caged group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Working dogs often spend a large amount of their time in cars. It has been hypothesized that a larger compartment in the car would be more comfortable for the dog, but that a smaller space could be safer, especially while driving. This presents a potential conflict. In this study, working dogs of the breeds German Shepherd (N = 8) and Springer Spaniel (N = 8) from the Swedish Police and Customs respectively, were each tested in four different car cage sizes; two cages were the minimum size allowed according to Swedish regulations (one of fixed size and one adapted to the size of the dog) and for comparison we tested one larger (fixed sized) and one smaller (adapted sized) cage. These were tested under two different driving phases; normal driving (including turns and changes in speed) and slow cruising (without turning forces and of an even speed). The study was conducted at a test track using an estate car, typical of that used by these organizations. Testing of each cage size involved 30 min in the car, excluding the habituation period. The dogs’ behaviour and heart rate activity was recorded. Statistical analyses used a mixed model and pairwise comparisons. We found a large effect of our two driving phases, for example heart rate was higher and behavioural stress indicators more frequent during normal driving, implying that this was a more demanding situation for dogs compared to the slow cruising. Regarding cage size effects, there were fewer overall movements and body position changes by dogs in the three smaller cages compared to the largest cage size. That this could be a sign of decreased comfort is supported by the finding that dogs could not turn around in these cages without curving their back upwards or lowering their rump in these cages. This could have negative physical effects, especially in German Shepherds which are predisposed to musculoskeletal disease. Furthermore, German Shepherd dogs showed more bracing postures, i.e. more attempts to maintain their balance, in the small fixed cage size. For these dogs this cage size was shorter than their own body length. However, this bracing did not result in them losing their balance any less often, illustrating the importance of space allowance for maintaining balance during transportation and implying that a smaller cage is not necessarily safer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aggression in mice often results in injury leading to unplanned euthanasia or the initiation of protocols to isolate animals, thereby increasing research costs and straining resources. Here, we tested if adding a partial cage divider into existing mouse cages affected aggressive-like behavior in group-housed male mice (18 mice; 3 per cage). Mice were randomly assigned to one of two groups upon arrival to the vivarium: (1) standard cage; (2) cage with a partial cage divider. Behavioral observation over 12 hours were conducted at day one, two, and seven after receipt at the facility in order to assess aggression during the course of establishing dominance hierarchies. Observers blinded to study design and hypothesis scored each video for the number and type of aggressive behaviors, which were summed for each hour and analyzed. Results indicated a statistically significant decrease in aggressive behaviors of mice in cages with dividers compared to mice in standard cages. We conclude that cage dividers, which resemble burrows and provide access to common food/water, may promote rigorous research by reducing the number of animals used in a study and refining housing, thus, improving animal welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Stereotypic behaviours (SBs) are common in confined animals including captive Carnivora, which display diverse forms of SB: often whole-body movements (e.g. pacing), but also head-only movements (e.g. head twirling) and ‘scrabbling’ (scratching at enclosure boundaries). Although often pooled together, emerging evidence indicates that SBs are heterogeneous, suggesting that subtypes differ in their causes, triggers, and consequently treatments. In mink, a model carnivore, scrabbling seems to be elicited by neighbouring conspecifics. We tested this hypothesis via three studies of 32 males (individually caged in rows and separated by solid partitions). Study 1 investigated whether neighbour proximity affects the location of any SBs, and Study 2, whether removing neighbours reduces any SBs. Results revealed that although mink typically avoided proximity to their neighbours, scrabbling was uniquely directed towards neighbours who were close to the shared cage partition. It was also the only SB significantly elevated by having all-male neighbours, and reduced by removing neighbours. Study 3 then investigated whether environmental enrichment, a standard SB treatment, would reduce or abolish different SBs equally, to assess whether scrabbling is simply easier to alleviate than other SBs. Enrichment reduced all SB subtypes, but logistic regressions revealed that the odds of complete abolition were higher for whole-body and head-only SBs than for scrabbling. Overall, these naturally solitary carnivores thus seem to avoid conspecific proximity, but they specifically direct their stereotypic scrabbling at neighbours; and their scrabbling is reduced by neighbour removal, while their whole-body and head-only SBs are instead better alleviated with enrichment. Understanding that carnivore SBs are heterogeneous in their triggers and most effective treatments may help zoos, breeding centres and mink farms improve the design of their enclosures and the efficacy of their enrichments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present work tries to determine the best location of wooden sticks for environmental enrichment, considering usage and level of contamination as variables. A total of 540 rabbits at 4 wk of age were caged in 60 groups of nine animals in conventional rabbit cages, and the effect of the allocation of wooden sticks was studied by fixing them on the floor in 30 cages and on the cage ceiling in the other 30 cages. The sticks were sampled during the fattening period (5 wk) to evaluate the contamination of the sticks, with detection of the most common faecal indicator bacteria in rabbit production (E. coli and Clostridium spp.). Likewise, quantitative enumeration analyses for E. coli were performed at the same sampling times for detection of both bacteria. Sticks used for environmental enrichment of the cage in this experiment were made of fir (Picea abies). According to the results, placing the wooden stick on the ceiling instead of the floor reduces stick consumption (6.28±1.75 vs. 13.55±1.75% of stick consumed). Moreover, microbiological analyses revealed that wooden sticks placed on the ceiling were less contaminated than those placed on the floor (2.8 and 22.8% for E. coli, respectively and 1.1 and 10.6% for Clostridium spp., respectively). In conclusion, fixing the sticks on the ceiling of the cage was revealed as a safer choice during most weeks of the growing period. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is proposed to grow rabbits in the modern production technology with the use of the developed technology of using recycled materials in the construction of cages for keeping rabbits. It is also proposed to use interbreed crossing of New Zealand White breed and Flanders, and also breeds Californian and Flanders breed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Layer cage cleaning and disinfection are important for disease prevention; however, published research is limited. The objective of this study was to determine the efficacy of commonly used products on soiled layer cages. Trial one was conducted at a university poultry research farm, and trial two was completed in a commercial pullet house. All products were mixed according to manufacturer recommendations. Treatments consisted of a negative control, a low-pressure water rinse (LPWR, garden hose), a high-pressure water rinse (HPWR, power washer), a soap, a chlorinated cleaner, a quaternary ammonium, a glutaraldehyde, a peroxyacetic acid, a phenolic, a potassium peroxymonosulfate, a hydrogen peroxide, and a quaternary/glutaraldehyde blend product. Swabs of cage floors were collected post treatment to determine if bacterial loads were reduced (P < 0.05) as compared to the appropriate controls. Aerobic bacteria were significantly reduced by 4 disinfectants in trial one and by all 7 disinfectants in trial two as compared to the HPWR control. No treatment in the first trial decreased (P < 0.05) coliforms or Staphylococcus spp. when compared to untreated control cages and the HPWR. However, reduction (P < 0.05) of coliforms and Staphylococcus spp. were observed with all disinfectants in trial two. Two disinfectant products reduced (P < 0.05) Pseudomonas spp. in trial one, and 5 disinfectant products reduced Pseudomonas spp. in trial two. These data suggest that characteristics of cleaning and disinfection regimens can vary significantly and should be taken into consideration when choosing a chemistry for disinfecting agricultural surfaces. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate knowledge of the health status of experimental animals is pivotal to high scientific and ethical standards in biomedical research. Individually ventilated cages (IVCs) are becoming the predominant system for housing laboratory mice, as they prevent cage-to-cage infections. However, this feature constitutes a major drawback for hygienic monitoring of mouse colonies, as traditional screening programs build on reliable transmission of infectious agents from experimental animals to sentinel mice commonly tested as representatives for the mouse colonies. In recent years, the laboratory animal community has realized that sentinels are ineffectual for screening mouse colonies in IVC systems because infections are often not transmitted to sentinels and therefore remain undetected. Furthermore, sentinel monitoring results in high numbers of used animals. In contrast, environmental monitoring provides a more reliable approach to identify and exclude pathogens in rodent colonies. In recent studies we provided evidence that polymerase chain reaction analysis of exhaust air particles is superior to soiled bedding sentinels for different agents. In this study, we show that testing pooled environmental samples generates more meaningful information compared to soiled bedding sentinels during routine hygienic monitoring in different barriers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lateral habenula (LHb) is involved in emotional and cognitive behaviors. Recently, we have shown in rats that blockade of excitatory inputs to the LHb not only induced deficits of memory retrieval in the water maze, but also altered swim strategies (i.e., induced excessive thigmotaxis). The latter observation, although consistent with the occurrence of memory deficits, could also possibly be the consequence of an excessive level of stress, further suggesting a role for the LHb in the stress response in our behavioral paradigm. To test this hypothesis we performed in rats intra-LHb infusion of 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX, 267 ng/side in 0.3 μL), or vehicle, and assessed the responsiveness of the hypothalamo-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis to environmental stressful or non-stressful situations. We have measured plasma corticosterone (CORT) concentrations at different time points before and following intra-LHb infusion of CNQX – or of the same volume of vehicle – in three conditions: during the probe test of a water maze experiment; in an anxiety test, the elevated plus maze; and in a home cage condition. Whereas there were no differences in the home cage condition and in the elevated plus maze, in the water maze experiment we observed that CNQX-treated rats presented, along with memory deficits, a higher level of blood CORT than vehicle-treated rats. These results suggest that perturbations of the modulation of the HPA axis are consecutive to the alteration of LHb function, whether it is the result of a defective direct control of the LHb over the HPA axis, or the consequence of memory deficits. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present review is to discuss how housing conditions affect behavioral performance in laboratory rodents from an ethological view. Commonly used laboratory rodents such as rats and mice, are originally captured animals that largely retain species-typical natural behaviors, while have fully adapted to a laboratory setting after long-term domestication. Laboratory settings including caging and artificial group housing are a considerable ethological factor influencing rodents’ behaviors in commonly employed behavioral test paradigms, including emotional and defensive behaviors, learning and memory, and attention-related behaviors. Particularly, isolation rearing, single-housed in a cage, is referred to a deprivation of social relationships with cagemates, has a substantial impact on behavioral performance in laboratory rodents. In this review, we will fully examine the importance of caging related ethological factors, e.g., social relationships and its deprivation, which are essential for unraveling the nature of housing effect in laboratory rodents. These discussions regarding the housing conditions will provide valuable information for appropriately conducting behavioral studies and interpreting data of rodents’ behaviors in neuroscience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Comfort around resting is one of the key factors affecting farm animal welfare. The aim of the present study is to document the resting preferences in the Finnraccoon ( Nyctereutes procyonoides ussuriensis ) with special attention to the use of a platform. Sixteen sister-pairs of Finnraccoons were housed in 1.2 m 2 cages furnished with a platform made of plastic-coated wire mesh, similar to the mesh on the cage floor. The sister pairs were assigned to two experimental groups. In one group, the housing conditions remained unchanged throughout the growing season from weaning in July to the end of the study in December. In the other group, the access to the platform was temporarily prevented for two weeks in two occasions, i.e. in early autumn (September) and late autumn (November/December). The behaviour of the Finnraccoons was video recorded for six times: before each removal of the platform, during each removal of the platform and after returning access to the platform. The Finnraccoons rested in 67–74% of the daily observations. Allohuddling on the cage floor was the most common type of resting (61–91% of total resting time), being at a high level especially during the night-time. Resting alone on the cage floor and resting on the platform accounted 9–20% and 2–23% of the total resting time, respectively. These resting places were used more during the daytime than night. Including also activity, the platform was used for 2–17% of the total time. Due to the generally low level of platform use, the temporary deprivation of the platform did not affect the resting behaviour, but after the access to the platform was returned, the Finnraccoons did not quite discover the platform once again. Resting and sitting behaviours increased while the autumn proceeded. In contrast, the general activity level, including interaction with the activity object (bone), social behaviour, maintenance (eating and drinking), locomotion and stereotypic behaviour decreased. The Finnraccoons showed a clear circadian activity rhythm adjusted by daylight and human activities on the farm. Activity, including stereotypic behaviour, peaked in the early morning/before feeding. The results show that Finnraccoons prefer allohuddling on the cage floor instead of resting on a platform at night-time, whereas at daytime no so clear preference for resting site is observed. The platform is used for resting and activity during the daytime, which indicates that it is used for surveillance of human activities on the farm. Availability of a platform may enhance the welfare of Finnraccoons through increased complexity of the cage, although it is not used much. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

IntelliCage is an automated system for recording the behavior of a group of mice housed together. It produces rich, detailed behavioral data calling for new methods and software for their analysis. Here we present PyMICE, a free and open-source library for analysis of IntelliCage data in the Python programming language. We describe the design and demonstrate the use of the library through a series of examples. PyMICE provides easy and intuitive access to IntelliCage data, and thus facilitates the possibility of using numerous other Python scientific libraries to form a complete data analysis workflow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Voluntary wheel cage assessment of mouse activity is commonly employed in exercise and behavioral research. Currently, no standardization for wheel cages exists resulting in an inability to compare results among data from different laboratories. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the distance run or average speed data differ depending on the use of two commonly used commercially available wheel cage systems. Two different wheel cages with structurally similar but functionally different wheels (electromechanical switch vs. magnetic switch) were compared side-by-side to measure wheel running data differences. Other variables, including enrichment and cage location, were also tested to assess potential impacts on the running wheel data. We found that cages with the electromechanical switch had greater inherent wheel resistance and consistently led to greater running distance per day and higher average running speed. Mice rapidly, within 1-2 days, adapted their running behavior to the type of experimental switch used, suggesting these running differences are more behavioral than due to intrinsic musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, or metabolic limits. The presence of enrichment or location of the cage had no detectable impact on voluntary wheel running. These results demonstrate that mice run differing amounts depending on the type of cage and switch mechanism used and thus investigators need to report wheel cage type/wheel resistance and use caution when interpreting distance/speed run across studies. NEW & NOTEWORTHY The results of this study highlight that mice will run different distances per day and average speed based on the inherent resistance present in the switch mechanism used to record data. Rapid changes in running behavior for the same mouse in the different cages demonstrate that a strong behavioral factor contributes to classic exercise outcomes in mice. Caution needs to be taken when interpreting mouse voluntary wheel running activity to include potential behavioral input and physiological parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The design and operation of ventilation systems for animal housing is a crucial component in maintaining a suitable environment for both animals and workers by removing heat, moisture, and gas species. However, important design and operational criteria, such as profiles of velocity and extent of mixing within animal housing, can be difficult to study experimentally. Thus, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model of a commercial dairy holding area, including the generation of transport of heat and gas species within the domain, was developed. The animal-occupied zone (AOZ) was modeled using porous media. The model was evaluated with experimental data of velocity and gas concentration. Results indicated that the airflow uniformity and air speed could be increased within the holding area by modifying the configuration of the side curtain openings and using concrete walls to guide airflow; a 20% increase in average velocity within the AOZ was achieved. Results of the CFD model have shown it to be an effective tool for gaining insight into the complex mixing patterns within holding areas to improve the design of animal housing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Furnished cages for laying hens have advantages in allowing normal behaviors and maintaining productivity. As the cost of introduction is a barrier for farms, we developed furnished cages that re‐use conventional cages. To determine the minimum and functional cage design, we compared six designs, combinations of two floor designs (artificial turf or wire cage floor) and three screening designs in the integrated area (no screening, one entrance side or four sides). In total, 144 hens were used, and we measured behavior, physical condition and productivity. Comparing the floors, the percentages of hens performing dust‐bathing and laying eggs in the integrated area were higher in cages with turf than wire floor (P < 0.05 for both). Comparing the screening, dust‐bathing, litter‐exploring and active behavior tended to be more frequent in cages with the integrated area screened on one side than four sides. Feather damage was lower in cages with the integrated area screened on one side than with no screening (P < 0.05). These results suggest that the cage design with an integrated area with artificial turf floor, screened on one side, was effective for furnished cages that re‐use conventional cages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The growth of fish farming in Brazil has been noticeable over the past few years, and the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) is the most bred species in the country. Studies on the physiology of these animals are necessary so that the production continues to grow and to improve its rates. However, very discrepant data are still found in the area of blood biochemistry. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physiological variations in serum concentrations of proteins, metabolites, electrolytes and serum enzymes in Nile tilapias bred in net cages in Cachoeira Dourada, state of Minas Gerais, Brazil, during summer and winter. Materials, Methods & Results: During the year of 2016, samples from 100 Nile tilapias were collected during summer (January and February) and samples from 100 Nile tilapias were also collected during winter (July and August). Only one blood sample was collected by caudal venipuncture of each fish, just before the slaughter, always in the morning. The serum samples obtained were then analyzed for serum concentrations of proteins, metabolites, electrolytes, lipids and serum enzymes. Serum concentrations of total proteins, globulins, triglycerides, high density lipoprotein (HDL), alkaline phosphatase, sodium and chloride were significantly higher during winter in comparison to summer, while the serum concentration of uric acid was significantly lower during winter in comparison to summer. Discussion: Due to the lower temperature of water during winter, tilapias reduced food intake and became more susceptible to diseases, which led to an increase in circulating globulins. In that same season, there was an increase in serum concentrations of sodium and chloride as a result of adding sodium chloride to the water in order to stimulate mucus secretion on the fishes' skin and gills to prevent pathologies. Triglycerides, HDL, and uric acid are considered indicators of nutritional status of animals. The increase in serum concentrations of triglycerides and HDL indicates that tilapias are mobilizing energy reserves, however, when the increase in serum concentrations of uric acid is observed, it is fair to assume there has been an increase in food intake, raising protein catabolism. The increase of serum concentration in alkaline phosphatase is caused by the presence of multiple forms of enzymes that are induced by the action of endogenous corticosteroids, which are produced as a result of the stress suffered by tilapias during the fishing process and during winter, when the water temperature is lower than the ideal for this species. It can be concluded that the season has influence on some serum biochemical constituents of Nile tilapias bred in net cages, and that the predominant variations happen during winter due to immunity decline and during summer due to the increase in food intake and, consequently, in the metabolism of tilapias. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upper respiratory infection (URI) is not an inevitable consequence of sheltering homeless cats. This study documents variation in risk of URI between nine North American shelters; determines whether this reflects variation in pathogen frequency on intake or differences in transmission and expression of disease; and identifies modifiable environmental and group health factors linked to risk for URI. This study demonstrated that although periodic introduction of pathogens into shelter populations may be inevitable, disease resulting from those pathogens is not. Housing and care of cats, particularly during their first week of stay in an animal shelter environment, significantly affects the rate of upper respiratory infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scientists and laypeople have long expressed concern that animals in non-enriched, unchanging environments might experience boredom. However, this had attracted little empirical study: the state is difficult to assess without verbal self-reports, and spontaneous behavioural signs of boredom can vary in humans, making it hard to identify signs likely to be valid in other species. We operationally define boredom as a negative state induced by barren conditions that causes an increased, generalised interest in diverse stimuli. Previously, we demonstrated that this state existed in mink housed in non-enriched cages, compared to those in preferred, stress-reducing enriched enclosures. Further, in some analyses this heightened interest in stimuli positively correlated with time spent lying still but awake, while negatively correlating with locomotor stereotypic behaviour. However, these results needed replication. The current study tested for the same effects, in a new cohort of 20 male mink, by presenting 11 stimuli ranging from those predicted to typically be aversive (e.g. predator cues) to those predicted to be rewarding (e.g. food rewards; moving objects to chase). Where housing treatments differed, non-enriched mink were again more interested in the stimuli presented, spending longer oriented towards and in contact with them (e.g. for aversive stimuli: F 1,9 = 6.27, p = 0.034 and F 1,9 = 8.24, p = 0.019, respectively). Lying still but awake again correlated with interest in the stimuli (shorter latencies to contact rewarding stimuli: F 1,17 = 3.70, p = 0.036; in enriched mink only, more time oriented to and in contact with all stimuli: F 1,8 = 9.49, p = 0.015 and F 1,8 = 15.9, p = 0.004). In contrast, the previous correlations with stereotypic behaviour were not replicated. We therefore conclude that mink housed in non-enriched cages likely experience boredom-like states, and that time spent lying still while awake could, at least in some types of housing, potentially be used as a cage-side indicator of these states. We also suggest how future researchers might address further fundamental and practical questions about animal boredom, in mink and other species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Fish cages attract a high variety of wild fish, and therefore are similar to fish aggregation devices. Aquaculture cages enhance local fisheries, with a more diverse and abundant fish assemblages compared to control stations, not influenced by fish cages. Previous studies have been mainly focused on taxonomic and ecological indices, such as species richness, individual abundances or Shannon-Weaver index. In the present study, we explore if functional diversity may be feasible to understand the consequences of changes in the composition of fish aggregates around cages. We studied fish aggregates from three cages on the coast of Tenerife (Canary Islands, Atlantic Ocean) over several years. All fishes were identified and counted using rapid visual counts (RVCs) in cage and control stations. An increase of species richness and individual abundance occurred in fish aggregates around the studied cages persisting over time. Functional diversity showed increase on cage stations, with higher values of functional evenness and functional divergence relative to control stations. A slight dissimilarity in the taxonomic composition was only observed in the eastern farm. In terms of functional diversity, the studied aquaculture cages exhibited a slight increase in wild fish aggregates over time. These results are similar to previous studies based on taxonomic and ecologic diversity in which a long lasting effect was observed on wild fish aggregates. Thus, aquaculture cages might be considered as a figure of conservation or fishery interest. Statement of relevance Our results showed a functionally diverse fish community around offshore cages. Thus, aquaculture leases could work as a “reservoir”, promoting the development of diverse fish assemblages, as marine protected areas (MPAs) are designed for. The development of aquaculture offshore cages might include their positive effects on wild fish aggregates, with a “buffer” fish-ban zone to protect fish stocks from the fishermen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study aimed to investigate the effects of enrichment resources (a perch, dustbath, and nest) layout in furnished laying-hen cages (FC) on exterior quality of eggs. Methods: One hundred and sixty-eight (168) Hy-Line Brown laying hens at 16 weeks of age were randomly distributed to four treatments: small furnished cages (SFC), medium furnished cages type I (MFC-I), medium furnished cages type II (MFC-II), and medium furnished cages type III (MFC-III). Each treatment had 4 replicates or cages with 6 hens for SFC (24 birds for each SFC) and 12 hen/cage for MFC-I, -II, and -III (48 birds for each MFC-I, -II and -III). Following a 2-week acclimation, data collection started at 18 weeks of age and continued till 52 weeks of age. Dirtiness of egg surface or cracked shell as indicators of the exterior egg quality were recorded each week. Results: The results showed that the proportion of cracked or dirty eggs was significantly affected by the FC type (p<0.01) in that the highest proportion of cracked or dirty eggs was found in MFC-I and the lowest proportion of dirty eggs in SFC. The results of this showed that furnished cage types affected both dirty eggs and cracked eggs (p<0.01). The results also indicated that not nest but dustbath lead to more dirty eggs. Only MFC-I had higher dirty eggs at nest than other FC (p< 0.01). The results of dirty eggs in MFC-I and MFC-II compared with SFC and MFC-III seemed suggest that a low position of dustbath led to more dirty eggs. Conclusion: SFC design affected exterior egg quality and the low position of dustbath in FC resulted in higher proportion of dirty eggs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Measuring the activity and temperature of rats is commonly required in biomedical research. Conventional approaches necessitate single housing, which affects their behavior and wellbeing. We have used a subcutaneous radiofrequency identification (RFID) transponder to measure ambulatory activity and temperature of individual rats when group-housed in conventional, rack-mounted home cages. The transponder location and temperature is detected by a matrix of antennae in a baseplate under the cage. An infrared high-definition camera acquires side-view video of the cage and also enables automated detection of vertical activity. Validation studies showed that baseplate-derived ambulatory activity correlated well with manual tracking and with side-view whole-cage video pixel movement. This technology enables individual behavioral and temperature data to be acquired continuously from group-housed rats in their familiar, home cage environment. We demonstrate its ability to reliably detect naturally occurring behavioral effects, extending beyond the capabilities of routine observational tests and conventional monitoring equipment. It has numerous potential applications including safety pharmacology, toxicology, circadian biology, disease models and drug discovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diet board (DB) feeding aims to reduce the health hazards associated with ad libitum (AL) feeding. Rats have to gnaw wood to detach food from the DB, reducing their food consumption. We studied the welfare effects of DB by measuring faecal corticosterone metabolites (FCM), elevated plus-maze (EPM) behaviour and cage behaviour. In this two-year experiment, 147 group housed (n = 3) Hsd:Sprague Dawley ® male and female rats were subjected to DB or AL feeding. DB feeding in females elevated FCMs and increased eating observations by 85%. The DB males were observed eating 30% more often and resting 4.2% less than their AL counterparts. The DB rats of both sexes had 19% increased cage exploration during daytime and 20% reduced grooming during night-time compared to the AL rats. The increased FCMs may indicate slight stress in DB females. The EPM results indicate there was no anxiety due to DB feeding at six months. The cage behaviour could point to mild chronic stress in DB rats, but the lack of effect on escape-related behaviour and agonism suggests that there were no substantial welfare problems. DB feeding did not seem to disturb the circadian rhythm. The smaller food requirements of DB females meant they had to sacrifice less time than males gnawing at the DB to satisfy their appetite. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aims of this study were to investigate the occurrence of stereotypic behaviours and the activity level in farmed mink when group housed in climbing cages and if group housing increase aggression by assessing the prevalence of bite marks. This was studied in juvenile mink of the colour types “demibuff” (n = 165) and “half sapphire” (n = 165). The animals were housed in standard cages (S2: one male, one female), or in climbing cages (C2: one male, one female; C3: one male, two females; C4: two males, two females). Behaviours were recorded for two hours beginning at sunrise and two hours before sunset during six periods of five days each from August-October. After pelting, the leather side of the undried skins were visually inspected for bite marks. Stereotypic behaviours were infrequent (0.1% of observations). Pair housed mink in climbing cages were more “inactive out in cage” than pair housed mink in standard cages (p < 0.0001), but cage type had no effect on the behaviours “being in nest box”, “active out in cage”, “interactions with enrichments” or “social interactions” (n.s.). Group sizes of three or four mink increased the behaviours “active out in cage” (P < 0.0001) and decreased “being in nest box” (P < 0.001) but had no effect on “interactions with enrichments”, “inactive out in cage” or “social interactions” (n.s.). Males had lower growth when kept in groups of four compared to groups of three or pairs (P < 0.001), and shorter skin lengths when kept in groups of four compared to pairs (P < 0.001), but females did not differ in growth or skin lengths between group sizes (n.s.). Number of bite marks on the leather side of the skins did not differ between cage types (n.s.) or group sizes (n.s.). In conclusion, neither the cage design nor the group size affected the occurrence of stereotypies or the occurrence of bite marks, but activity levels increased and the use of a nest box and male growth decreased in larger groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]