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Negative consequences of intensive forest management on biodiversity are often mitigated by setting aside old forest, but alternative strategies have been suggested. We have compared using simulations the consequences of two of these alternatives − setting aside young forests or extending rotation periods − to that of current practice in managed boreal forest. In all scenarios we applied a constant conservation budget and predicted forest development and harvesting over 200 years. As a proxy for biodiversity conservation, we projected the extinction risk of a dead wood-dependent beetle, Diacanthous undulatus , in a 50 km 2 landscape in central Sweden, using a colonization-extinction model. During the first century, setting aside young forest stands rather than old stands increased extinction risk because young stands have lower habitat quality. However, habitat quality of young forests increased as they aged and they were much cheaper to set aside than old stands. Therefore, the strategy allowed a larger set-aside area (within the budget constraint), resulting in lower extinction risk and harvested timber volumes in the second century. Prolonging rotations also decreased the extinction risk but was in the long-term less cost-effective. The most cost-effective strategy in the long-term (200 years) was to set aside a mixture of old and young forest. However, setting aside young stands rather than prolonging rotations or setting aside old stands delays both the benefits (lower extinction risk) and costs (lost harvest volumes), so the optimal strategy depends on the assumed societal values and hence discount rates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Ecosystem Management Emulating Natural Disturbances ( EMEND) project tests the hypothesis that varying levels of green tree retention maintain and retain forest biodiversity better than conventional clear-cutting. We studied epigaeic spiders to assess biodiversity changes 2, 5, and 10 yr following a range of partial retention harvests (clear-cut, 10-75% retention) and unharvested controls in four boreal mixedwood cover types. A total of 56 371 adult spiders representing 220 species was collected using pitfall traps. Lasting effects on forest structure were proportional to harvest intensity. These changes strongly influenced spider richness, abundance, and species composition, as well as assemblage recovery. Distinctive assemblages were associated with disturbance level, especially with partial harvests (≤50% retention), and these were dominated by open-habitat species even 10 yr after harvest. Assemblages were more similar to those of controls in the highest (75%) retention treatment, but significant recovery toward the structure of pre-disturbance assemblages was not detected for any prescription in any cover type. Although early responses to retention harvest suggested positive effects on spider assemblages, these are better explained as lag effects after harvest because assemblages were less similar to those of unharvested controls 5 yr post-harvest, and only minor recovery was observed 10 yr following harvest. Retention of forest biodiversity decreased over time, especially in conifer stands and the lower (10-50%) retention treatments. Overall, retention harvests retained biodiversity and promoted landscape heterogeneity somewhat better than clear-cutting; however, there was a clear gradient of response and no retention 'threshold' for conservation can be recommended on the basis of our data. Furthermore, results suggest that retention harvest prescriptions should be adjusted for cover type. We show that low retention ameliorated impacts in broadleaved forests characteristic of earlier stages in mixedwood succession, but only higher retention was associated with less impact in successionally older conifer forests. Although these short-term responses (10 yr) of spider assemblages support use of retention harvests, understanding the true conservation merit of these practices, relative to conventional approaches, requires evaluation over longer time scales, with work more focused on recovery of biodiversity than on its preservation after harvest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increasingly frequent 'megafires' in North America's dry forests have prompted proposals to restore historical fire regimes and ecosystem resilience. Restoration efforts that reduce tree densities (eg via logging) could have collateral impacts on declining old-forest species, but whether these risks outweigh the potential effects of large, severe fires remains uncertain. We demonstrate the effects of a 2014 California megafire on an iconic old-forest species, the spotted owl ( Strix occidentalis). The probability of owl site extirpation was seven times higher after the fire (0.88) than before the fire (0.12) at severely burned sites, contributing to the greatest annual population decline observed during our 23-year study. The fire also rendered large areas of forest unsuitable for owl foraging one year post-fire. Our study suggests that megafires pose a threat to old-forest species, and we conclude that restoring historical fire regimes could benefit both old-forest species and the dry forest ecosystems they inhabit in this era of climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Structural diversity of forests is important for biodiversity. In managed forests, structural diversity can be maintained by retaining living and dead trees, and by creating dead wood during logging operations. In Sweden, a small percentage of the trees is currently retained on each clear-cut. Since retention decreases revenues from forest harvesting, it is important to understand the consequences of retention for both forestry economy and biodiversity conservation. Thus, in this study we compared effects of retaining percentages ranging from 5% to 50% of the initial number of trees in 12 Scots pine-dominated stands in central Sweden. The retained trees in each stand consisted of equal proportions of green living trees, felled trees, high-cut trees and girdled trees. We estimated costs associated with tree retention and, as indicators of biodiversity conservation values, dead wood volumes, number of dead wood types, and dead wood diversity. We also estimated the damage caused by the logging operations on old dead wood. Revenue declined with increases in retention level, due mainly to associated reductions in harvested volumes, but partly to increases in logging costs. Both harvester and forwarder performance were lower at high than at low retention levels. The volume of dead wood increased with increases in retention level, since the number of retained trees killed per stand was proportional to the retention level. The number of dead wood types and dead wood diversity increased continuously up to the highest retention level of almost 50%. Moreover, old dead wood that was deemed particularly valuable for biodiversity was not destroyed at retention levels above 30%. In conclusion, dead wood destruction decreased with increasing retention level and costs increased proportionally to the retained volume. There were no signs of saturation of dead wood diversity as retention level increased. Therefore, mainly economic restrains will determine the retention level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The oak-dominated woodlands and forests of northern Europe have experienced dramatic declines due to agriculture, urbanization, and conifer-dominated production forestry. These losses have had a substantial negative impact on biodiversity due to the large number of forest species which depend on oak and the environments oak-dominated forests provide. Production oak stands may serve as a means of supplementing or complementing the habitat provided by the limited remaining natural oak remnants in this region. Here we evaluate the extent to which oak plantations in temperate southern Sweden provide habitat and resources for bird communities, by surveying and contrasting the bird species composition and diversity found in mature and young production oak stands (5 and 8 replicates respectively) and protected oak-dominated remnant forests (5 replicates). The mature production stands possessed a bird community partially overlapping in bird species composition, and comparable in species richness (34 species) to that found within protected oak forests (39 species). Furthermore, the production oak forests surveyed hosted threatened or near threatened bird species, including black woodpecker ( Dryocopus martius ), goldcrest ( Regulus regulus ), starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ), and yellowhammer ( Emberiza citrinella ). Though production oak forests cannot replace the habitat provided by protected oak forests, these stands do appear to provide conditions consistent with the habitat and resource requirements of a diverse cross-section of bird species in this region, including species of substantial conservation concern. Production oak forests thus have the capacity to make a positive contribution to biodiversity conservation, as well as providing a diverse range of goods and services to society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite growing evidence that, on average, diverse forests tend to be more productive than species-poor ones, individual studies often report strongly contrasting relationships between tree species richness and above-ground wood production ( AWP). In the attempt to reconcile these apparently inconsistent results, we explored whether the strength and shape of AWP-diversity relationships shifts along spatial and temporal environmental gradients in forests across Europe., We used tree ring data from a network of permanent forest plots distributed at six sites across Europe to estimate annual AWP over a 15-year period (1997-2011). We then tested whether the relationship between tree species richness and AWP changes (i) across sites as a function of large-scale gradients in climatic productivity and tree packing density and (ii) among years within each sites as a result of fluctuating climatic conditions., AWP-species richness relationships varied markedly among sites. As predicted by theory, the relationship shifted from strongly positive at sites where climate imposed a strong limitation on wood production and tree packing densities were low, to weakly negative at sites where climatic conditions for growth were most suitable. In contrast, we found no consistent effect of interannual fluctuations in climate on the strength of AWP-species richness relationships within sites., Synthesis. Our results indicate that the shape and strength of the relationship between tree diversity and forest productivity depends critically on environmental context. Across Europe, tree diversity shows the greatest potential to positively influence forest productivity at either end of the latitudinal gradient, where adverse climatic conditions limit productivity and lead to the development of less densely packed stands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rotation length is a key component of even-aged forest management systems. Using Fennoscandian forestry as a case, we review the socio-ecological implications of modifying rotation lengths relative to current practice by evaluating effects on a range of ecosystem services and on biodiversity conservation. The effects of shortening rotations on provisioning services are expected to be mostly negative to neutral (e.g. production of wood, bilberries, reindeer forage), while those of extending rotations would be more varied. Shortening rotations may help limit damage by some of today's major damaging agents (e.g. root rot, cambium-feeding insects), but may also increase other damage types (e.g. regeneration pests) and impede climate mitigation. Supporting (water, soil nutrients) and cultural (aesthetics, cultural heritage) ecosystem services would generally be affected negatively by shortened rotations and positively by extended rotations, as would most biodiversity indicators. Several effect modifiers, such as changes to thinning regimes, could alter these patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Forest certification management standards aim at maintaining forest ecosystem integrity, including forest biodiversity conservation. However, studies from the Amazon and Congo basin find that forest certification may not protect forest biodiversity and ecosystems, and may therefore be unsustainable. This study evaluates the influence of forest certification on conserving biodiversity. Specifically, we (a) estimate tree (adult and seedling) species richness, diversity and density among different forest management regimes; (b) assess the relationship between environmental and human forest use variables, and species richness, diversity and density among the forest management regimes; and (c) assess the influence of forest governance of villages adjacent to the forests on tree (adult and seedling) species richness, diversity and density among the forest management regimes. This is achieved in a comparative study of Forest Stewardship Council certified community forests, non-certified open access forests, and non-certified state forest reserves in the Kilwa District in Tanzania. Our results show that forest certification standards and implementation processes are positively related to biodiversity conservation. There are significantly higher tree (adults) species richness, diversity, and density in certified community forests than in open access forests and state forest reserves. These findings suggest that forest certification may be a good policy option to conserve biodiversity. The present study is one of the first studies in tropical Africa, which contributes to the limited data on the influence of forest certification on conserving biodiversity. Our results may also serve as baseline for further research on the contribution of certified forests in conserving biodiversity at both temporal and spatial scales. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agriculture is expanding rapidly in the miombo woodlands of sub-Saharan Africa. Clear felling results in the loss of species and ecosystem services. The remaining woodland is used as a vital support system for the farming communities, and the impact of this utilisation on biodiversity and ecosystem service provision is not clear. Understanding these effects will aid the development of effective, sustainable land management strategies for multiple outcomes, including biodiversity conservation and resource utilisation. This study provides new data on miombo woodland tree species diversity, structure and carbon storage from a 8766 km 2 landscape in south-western Tanzania, which is undergoing rapid conversion to tobacco cultivation. Human utilisation of the woodland was classified by ground surveys which recorded evidence of use (e.g. cut poles and timber, removal of bark and roots, access routes). Nine sites were surveyed and categorised into three groups: high, medium and low utilisation. To determine the effect of utilisation on the tree community stem density, diameter at breast height, tree species richness and carbon storage were recorded. In the low utilisation sites carbon storage was similar to that found in other miombo woodlands (28 t Ha −1 ), and the Shannon Wiener diversity score for tree species diversity was 3.44. However, in the high utilisation sites, tree species diversity (2.86) and carbon storage declined (14.6 t Ha −1 ). In areas of moderate utilisation diversity and carbon storage were maintained, but the structure of the woodland was affected, with a reduction of Class 1 (Diameter at Breast Height (DBH) < 10 cm) stems, demonstrating low recruitment which leads to a reduction in sustainability. Tree species richness and abundance demonstrated an intermediate disturbance effect in relation to utilisation, with highest levels at medium utilisation sites. Key miombo woodland species from the subfamily Caesalpinioideae in the two genera Brachystegia and Julbernardia were present in all sites, but the frequency of Brachystegia species declined by 60% from low to high utilisation. The IUCN near-threatened timber species Pterocarpus angolensis , highly protected in Tanzania, was harvested throughout the study site, and the majority of trees recorded were immature (DBH ⩽ 20 cm), suggesting that it is commercially extinct for the foreseeable future. These findings illustrate that in miombo woodlands with low to medium utilisation levels key miombo species are retained, and tree species diversity and carbon storage remains optimal. Sustainable land management plans need to regulate utilisation within miombo landscapes and retain areas of woodland. This will ensure their long term viability, and continue to support the 100 million people who are reliant on miombo woodlands for their goods and services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent decades have seen a rapid movement towards decentralising forest rights and tenure to local communities and indigenous groups in both developing and developed nations. Attribution of local and community rights to forests appears to be gathering increasing momentum in many tropical developing countries. Greater local control of forest resources is a response to the failure of government agencies to exercise adequate stewardship over forests and to ensure that the values of all stakeholders are adequately protected. We reviewed evidence of the impact of decentralised forest management on the biodiversity values of forests and conclude that special measures are needed to protect these values. There are trade-offs between shorter-term local needs for forest lands and products and longer-term global needs for biodiversity and other environmental values. We present evidence of local forest management leading to declining forest integrity with negative impacts on both local forest users and the global environment. We advocate greater attention to measures to ensure protection of biodiversity in locally-managed forests.

Background: The biodiversity of forests set aside from forestry is often considered best preserved by non-intervention. In many protected forests, however, remaining biodiversity values are legacies of past disturbances, e.g. recurring fires, grazing or small-scale felling. These forests may need active management to keep the characteristics that were the reason for setting them aside. Such management can be particularly relevant where lost ecological values need to be restored. In this review, we identified studies on a variety of interventions that could be useful for conserving or restoring any aspect of forest biodiversity in boreal and temperate regions. Since the review is based on Swedish initiatives, we have focused on forest types that are represented in Sweden, but such forests exist in many parts of the world. The wide scope of the review means that the set of studies is quite heterogeneous. As a first step towards a more complete synthesis, therefore, we have compiled a systematic map. Such a map gives an overview of the evidence base by providing a database with descriptions of relevant studies, but it does not synthesise reported results. Methods: Searches for literature were made using online publication databases, search engines, specialist websites and literature reviews. Search terms were developed in English, Finnish, French, German, Russian and Swedish. We searched not only for studies of interventions in actual forest set-asides, but also for appropriate evidence from commercially managed forests, since some practices applied there may be useful for conservation or restoration purposes too. Identified articles were screened for relevance using criteria set out in an a priori protocol. Descriptions of included studies are available in an Excel file, and also in an interactive GIS application that can be accessed at an external website. Results: Our searches identified nearly 17,000 articles. The 798 articles that remained after screening for relevance described 812 individual studies. Almost two-thirds of the included studies were conducted in North America, whereas most of the rest were performed in Europe. Of the European studies, 58 % were conducted in Finland or Sweden. The interventions most commonly studied were partial harvesting, prescribed burning, thinning, and grazing or exclusion from grazing. The outcomes most frequently reported were effects of interventions on trees, other vascular plants, dead wood, vertical stand structure and birds. Outcome metrics included e.g. abundance, richness of species (or genera), diversity indices, and community composition based on ordinations. Conclusions: This systematic map identifies a wealth of evidence on the impact of active management practices that could be utilised to conserve or restore biodiversity in forest set-asides. As such it should be of value to e.g.conservation managers, researchers and policymakers. Moreover, since the map also highlights important knowledge gaps, it could inspire new primary research on topics that have so far not been well covered. Finally, it provides a foundation for systematic reviews on specific subtopics. Based on our map of the evidence, we identified four subtopics that are sufficiently covered by existing studies to allow full systematic reviewing, potentially including meta-analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mangrove forests are one of the most important coastal ecosystems as they support many local communities. However, over the last two decades harvesting of mangrove forests has been extensive with effects on mangrove biodiversity and ecosystem services. We investigate the effect of mangrove harvesting on tree biodiversity in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. Using two line transects each in ten mangrove forests, mangrove composition, species dominance, density, frequency, coverage, and stem diameter and diversity were recorded. Interviews detailing provisioning ecosystem services were also conducted with local forestry and fishery workers to determine the level of exploitation. Ten mangrove species were recorded ( Avicennia alba, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Excoecaria agallocha, Lumnitzera racemosa, Nypa fruticans, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, Rhizophora stylosa, and Sonneratia alba) belonging to six families (Avicenniaceae, Rhizophoraceae, Euphorbiaceae, Combretaceae, Arecaceae and Sonneratiaceae). Mangrove forests are now dominated by saplings and seedlings, with few trees above 15 cm diameter at breast height. Rhizophora sp. were found to be the most important and dominant species. Rhizophora sp. was the most widely used as it was deemed the most suitable for firewood and charcoal. In addition, it is the main species planted in mangrove restoration projects, which have focused on establishing production forest rather than restoring natural species composition and structure. Despite the decrease in biodiversity, the mangroves still provide a wide range of ecosystem services to the communities in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tree plantations are rapidly expanding throughout Southeast Asia, and likely pose threats to the conservation of native biodiversity. While the impacts of oil palm expansion on tropical biodiversity has received increasing attention, and several recent reviews, the effects of other tree crops on native flora and fauna biodiversity remain understudied. Here we assess and compare the impact of rubber, acacia, eucalyptus, teak, and cacao plantations on biodiversity throughout the region, and discuss spatial and temporal factors that influence a production landscape's ability to support native species. Using a meta-analysis, we show that rubber and cacao plantations support lower biodiversity than intact forests, and are approximately equivalent to oil palm in their impacts on native biota. In contrast, richness of native species in acacia plantations was not statistically different from that in intact or secondary forests, though species composition could still be radically altered. Furthermore, older plantations are more similar to primary forests regarding community composition than younger plantations, likely due to increased habitat complexity and heterogeneity with plantation age. Though non-oil palm tree plantations are not ecologically equivalent to primary forests with regards to maintaining native community composition, they can support greater biodiversity than other modified landscapes such as annual crops. Increasing habitat complexity and spatial heterogeneity within plantations can improve the quality of the habitat they provide to native species. With industrial plantations projected to continue to expand, identifying ways to mitigate their impacts on biodiversity are increasingly critical. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today wood and nonwood forest resources management meets and often clashes with environment and biological diversity protection. A main problem is to understand relationships between the different roles of forest biodiversity, site, and management parameters. A multivariate statistical analysis has been carried out in order to interpret relationships between some forest biodiversity components and forest inventory data. Several indices of floristic diversity, species abundance, and structural heterogeneity at stand level have been calculated. The different components of forest biodiversity were separated by principal components analysis. Relations between forest biodiversity indices and site and management attributes have been investigated by two multivariate statistical techniques: bivariate correlation analysis and multiple linear regression. Results showed a high correlation between all the investigated components of forest biodiversity and some topographic and/or forest management attributes. Results also gave ancillary information to define sustainable forest management criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

In France, the implementation of the EU biodiversity conservation policy within the Natura 2000 network combines regulatory tools and voluntary contracting. In this article, we empirically assess the cost-effectiveness of Natura 2000 contracts in forest areas. We simultaneously estimate a cost function for biodiversity conservation and the production set of biodiversity output and timber, while controlling for conservation measures. We show strong substitutability between biodiversity conservation and timber production. Estimate results on the cost-elasticity of biodiversity conservation also suggest the possibility of more ecologically ambitious contracts with lower average costs. Results also show that public owners are able to bear higher opportunity costs than private owners. Our findings may help to formulate policy recommendations in terms of contracts' targeting, likely to enhance the cost-effectiveness of the incentive scheme. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regional Forest Agreements (RFAs) are State-Federal agreements underpinning the management of the majority of Australia's commercially productive native forests. Introduced between 1997 and 2001, they were designed to deliver certainty to forest industries while, simultaneously, guaranteeing environmental protection, including the conservation of biodiversity. Using examples, we argue that RFAs in some jurisdictions have failed to do either. We strongly recommend a comprehensive reassessment of RFAs. This is needed to: (1) take into account significant new knowledge on forest ecology and management that has been gathered in the past 20 years, including updated prognoses for some critically endangered species; (2) better evaluate the full range of wood and non-wood products and services provided by forests; (3) accommodate new methods of forest inventory and more environmentally sensitive silvicultural systems; and (4) better account for the impacts of natural disturbances, such as fires, on the area available for logging, sustained yield, and forest ecosystem integrity per se. Without a substantial overhaul of the RFAs, there is a significant risk of undervaluing the full range of native forest values, exacerbating species declines, and permanently damaging forest ecosystems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conservation planning requires setting priorities at the same spatial scale at which decision-making processes are undertaken considering all levels of biodiversity, but current methods for identifying biodiversity hotspots ignore its genetic component. We developed a fine-scale approach based on the definition of genetic hotspots, which have high genetic diversity and unique variants that represent their evolutionary potential and evolutionary novelties. Our hypothesis is that wide- ranging taxa with similar ecological tolerances, yet of phylogenetically independent lineages, have been and currently are shaped by ecological and evolutionary forces that result in geographically concordant genetic patterns. We mapped previously published genetic diversity and unique variants of biparentally inherited markers and chloroplast sequences for 9 species from 188 and 275 populations, respectively, of the 4 woody dominant families of the austral temperate forest, an area considered a biodiversity hotspot. Spatial distribution patterns of genetic polymorphisms differed among taxa according to their ecological tolerances. Eight genetic hotspots were detected and we recommend conservation actions for some in the southern Coastal Range in Chile. Existing spatially explicit genetic data from multiple populations and species can help to identify biodiversity hotspots and guide conservation actions to establish science-based protected areas that will preserve the evolutionary potential of key habitats and species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the processes driving biodiversity changes in forest communities helps to better evaluate sustainable forest management methods and their effects on forest ecosystems. This, in turn, is crucial for the appropriate management of protected areas, in particular those covered under the European protection program Natura 2000. Two datasets from the Polish Eastern Carpathians collected in the 1970s and 2000s were compared to analyse the temporal and spatial changes in the species composition of beech forests in a habitat gradient of soil moisture, acidity and fertility. We found that species favouring fertile and alkaline soils, with low ability for vegetative propagation and without a persistent seed bank became less frequent, whilst frequency of good competitors tolerant to lower soil pH and fertility with a persistent seed bank and a capacity for dispersing seeds over long distances increased. Herb layer vegetation on poor and rich soils became less similar in the past 30 years, though two opposite processes occurred. In poor habitats, the biotic differentiation of herb layer vegetation prevailed, whilst biotic homogenisation was more important in fertile habitats. It is suggested that the ageing of the managed beech stands might have contributed to these changes through the accumulation of litter, top soil acidification and the lowering of the concentration of nutrients as well as due to altered disturbance regimes in older stands. The observed relationships between biotic homogenisation/differentiation and the habitat gradient indicate that differences in soil conditions not only shape the spatial pattern of the forest vegetation, but also the spatial and temporal patterns of changes in vegetation composition resulting from the ageing of tree stands. Our results also suggest that in spite of continuous management the studied beech forests have only slightly changed in their specific species composition. Moreover, the ageing of tree stands did not necessarily generate better conditions for the conservation of the species richness of herbaceous plants, at least those species that are considered a measure of naturalness in beech forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The 1994 Northwest Forest Plan (NWFP) shifted federal lands management from a focus on timber production to ecosystem management and biodiversity conservation. The plan established a network of conservation reserves and an ecosystem management strategy on ~10 million hectares from northern California to Washington State, USA, within the range of the federally threatened northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis caurina). Several subsequent assessments-and 20 years of data from monitoring programs established under the plan-have demonstrated the effectiveness of this reserve network and ecosystem management approach in making progress toward attaining many of the plan's conservation and ecosystem management goals. This paper (1) showcases the fundamental conservation biology and ecosystem management principles underpinning the NWFP as a case study for managers interested in large-landscape conservation; and (2) recommends improvements to the plan's strategy in response to unprecedented climate change and land-use threats. Twenty years into plan implementation, however, the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management, under pressure for increased timber harvest, are retreating from conservation measures. We believe that federal agencies should instead build on the NWFP to ensure continuing success in the Pacific Northwest. We urge federal land managers to (1) protect all remaining late-successional/old-growth forests; (2) identify climate refugia for at-risk species; (3) maintain or increase stream buffers and landscape connectivity; (4) decommission and repair failing roads to improve water quality; (5) reduce fire risk in fire-prone tree plantations; and (6) prevent logging after fires in areas of high conservation value. In many respects, the NWFP is instructive for managers considering similar large-scale conservation efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reconciling conservation and livelihoods is a concern wherever forests are important in local people's lives. We plead for engaging these people in survey activities to clarify what is important to them, as a first step in conservation planning. This will help to address their priorities and gain their guidance and support for interventions. This paper presents the results of such a survey with the community of Kwerba in Mamberamo, a remote and little known part of Indonesian Papua. Views and priorities were explored through interviews, scoring exercises, community mapping and a field survey. Whereas small gardens provided most staple food, culture and livelihoods were linked to the forest. People scored primary forest highest for nearly all use categories. Primary forest was particularly highly valued as a source of construction materials, ornaments and rituals, and as a hunting place. We developed a list of the overall most important plants and animals. Many natural resources were used, but few were commercially exploited. The community had rules to control access to certain areas and resources. Taboos to restrict access to sacred places were also maintained. Our evaluation identified opportunities to achieve conservation outcomes jointly with the Kwerba people. In follow-up activities, the community presented local government with a land-use plan for their territory. The government recognized the value of our approach and requested training to implement it more widely in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Atlantic Forest encompasses a high level of biodiversity, endemism and degradation; hence, it is a biome of particular interest for biological conservation. We aimed to investigate the actual geographic distribution of tree species and, among the indicator species of each vegetation type, the conservation status and potential distribution of each species along a vegetation gradient of the Subtropical Atlantic Forest. We analysed the species' relative constancy to determine their actual distribution, obtained 21 indicator species of the different vegetation types and modelled their potential distribution using the maximum entropy algorithm. The potential distribution models were pooled to yield a single map, which was used to predict the distribution of climatic suitability for these species in South America. Our results showed that the actual geographic distribution is restricted for most species (~72 %). Araucaria angustifolia and Euterpe edulis were categorized as threatened species. The sum of the indicator-species maps showed reduced climatic suitability across most of South America. The southern region of Brazil and the southeastern Brazilian highlands, as well as a few areas of seasonal forests on higher elevations of the Bolivian Chiquitanía and Andean Piedmont, exhibited the best climatic suitability. Elevation was the most important variable in our models. Given the concerning level of forest degradation and the presence of endangered and geographic restricted species, our results are a relevant contribution to biodiversity conservation in the Subtropical Atlantic Forest areas, highlighting their floristic and environmental uniqueness and, therefore, the urgent necessity of preserving their biological heritage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The incentives for resource extraction and development make the conservation of biodiversity challenging within tropical forestlands. The 2007 establishment of the Royal Belum State Park in the Malaysian state of Perak offers lessons for creating protected areas in tropical countries where subnational governments are major forestland owners. This article elucidates the social and political forces that influenced Royal Belum’s creation. Those forces included Malaysian conservation groups’ efforts to establish the ecological uniqueness of the site and rally public support to protect it; the Perak state government, which is the landowner under Malaysia’s constitution, seeking a protection option that would minimize the economic costs to it (and perhaps generate net economic benefits); and the federal government providing a legal framework and support for park protection and ecotourism development. Successful long-run protection of Royal Belum will require action beyond simply designating the area as protected. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The standard rehabilitation objective for open-cut mines in Queensland is to establish a self-sustaining native forest ecosystem. Consequently, mine regulators and managers need tools to project whether sites are likely or not to meet agreed completion criteria and to ensure timely remedial interventions. The Ecosystem Dynamics Simulator ( EDS) is such a tool capable of modelling forest dynamics and projecting long-term growth of woody species only. Here, the model was applied to rehabilitation sites aged between 5 and 22 years in Meandu open-cut coal mine in southeast Queensland. EDS projected structural characteristics for trees (height, diameter, basal area, foliage projective cover and stem density) and tree species composition as a function of rehabilitation age. Projected stand growth attributes were assessed against BioCondition benchmarks developed from eucalypt ( Eucalyptus/Corymbia) remnant forests adjacent to the mine. Growth trajectories indicated that sites with >30% eucalypt basal area composition were more likely to develop into eucalypt-dominated self-sustaining ecosystems compared with sites that were initially dominated by acacias ( Acacia spp.). Projections suggested that some benchmark attributes such as number of large eucalypt trees would take more than 70 years to be met. The application of EDS provided a framework to support decisions on early remedial intervention and assess the risk associated with lease relinquishment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Land management causes changes in forest structure and thus influences the composition and abundance of communities of forest-inhabiting bird species. However, it is unclear how these changes translate into local habitat suitability for certain bird species given that detailed knowledge on habitat use by forest bird species is still scarce. We have analyzed the habitat preferences of 37 breeding bird species in 19 lowland beech forests, each with an average size of 40 ha. We used Jacobs habitat selection index to quantify preference or avoidance of certain forest developmental phases (fdp). Fdp divide the forest life cycle into different periods, each characterized by a certain combination of habitat parameters (canopy cover, tree dimension, deadwood amount, regeneration cover), thereby integrating several age-specific structural properties. We found that fdp representing the last third of the forest life cycle were significantly preferred by most of the bird species. Of the 37 bird species analyzed, 19 showed the highest preference for the terminal phase or the disintegration phase; this was especially true for hole breeders, semi-hole breeders, ground breeders and beech forest indicator species. Moreover, each bird species showed a characteristic profile of preferred and avoided fdp. Some bird species, such as several free breeders, also preferred younger fdp, such as gaps or regeneration phases. Further, mean fdp patch size turned out to be a strong predictor of bird community composition. Our study confirms that most bird species show a strong preference for later fdp, such as the terminal phase and disintegration phase. However, the simultaneous availability of a mixture of different fdp on local scales meets the habitat preferences of most species and promotes biodiversity of breeding bird communities in lowland beech forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the use high-resolution remote sensing images of tropical forests' functional trait variation for the purpose of forest biodiversity conservation, referencing an article in the issue co-authored by scientist G.P.A. Asner in the issue. Remote sensing images of tropical forests' role in land-use planning and decision making are discussed.

A major goal of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is to improve the protection of biodiversity. One approach to meet this goal is the implementation of strictly protected forest reserves (SPFRs). Many countries have adopted this approach and set target values for SPFRs, for example Germany aims to set aside 5 % of the forest area by 2020 (BMU, Strategie zur Biologischen Vielfalt, ). The contribution of SPFRs to biodiversity conservation cannot be assessed without considering the quality or conservation value of these areas. One challenge lies in the selection of specific criteria to evaluate this contribution of existing SPFRs. For Central Europe we reviewed these specific evaluation criteria and their ecological theory and evidence underpinning their relevance for an assessment as well as the interrelations between criteria. In addition, we present a framework for the integration of these criteria into an evaluation process. To identify criteria typically used or recommended for the evaluation of SPFRs, we analyzed the international conventions and reviewed the scientific literature on biodiversity conservation, specifically on area selection, status assessment and gap analysis. Since nearly all criteria were interrelated and operate at different scales, we developed a coherent evaluation framework to integrate them. Within this framework the criteria cover the fundamental aspects: space (completeness and connectivity), time (habitat continuity and persistence), and function (naturalness, rarity/threat and representativeness). This approach, once it is complemented by indicators, may be used to evaluate the extent to which individual SPFRs as well as a system of SPFRs contribute to the protection of natural forest biodiversity at a national level. It may be particularly relevant for Central European countries with a similar ecological, historical and political context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Inclusion of spatially explicit information on ecosystem services in conservation planning is a fairly new practice. This study analyses how the incorporation of ecosystem services as conservation features can affect conservation of forest biodiversity and how different opportunity cost constraints can change spatial priorities for conservation. We created spatially explicit cost-effective conservation scenarios for 59 forest biodiversity features and five ecosystem services in the county of Telemark (Norway) with the help of the heuristic optimisation planning software, Marxan with Zones. We combined a mix of conservation instruments where forestry is either completely (non-use zone) or partially restricted (partial use zone). Opportunity costs were measured in terms of foregone timber harvest, an important provisioning service in Telemark. Including a number of ecosystem services shifted priority conservation sites compared to a case where only biodiversity was considered, and increased the area of both the partial (+36.2%) and the non-use zone (+3.2%). Furthermore, opportunity costs increased (+6.6%), which suggests that ecosystem services may not be a side-benefit of biodiversity conservation in this area. Opportunity cost levels were systematically changed to analyse their effect on spatial conservation priorities. Conservation of biodiversity and ecosystem services trades off against timber harvest. Currently designated nature reserves and landscape protection areas achieve a very low proportion (9.1%) of the conservation targets we set in our scenario, which illustrates the high importance given to timber production at present. A trade-off curve indicated that large marginal increases in conservation target achievement are possible when the budget for conservation is increased. Forty percent of the maximum hypothetical opportunity costs would yield an average conservation target achievement of 79%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Population declines of several successional-scrub bird species are partly associated with decreased habitat availability as abandoned farmlands return to forest and recently harvested forests regrow. Restoration of mixed-oak ( Quercus spp.) forest is also a concern because of widespread oak regeneration failure, especially on moist, productive sites where competition from faster-growing tree species is fierce following stand-replacing disturbances. Several silvicultural methods are proposed to promote oak regeneration but many are not experimentally tested, especially on productive sites. We surveyed birds in 19 stands to assess response to initial application of three proposed oak regeneration treatments on productive sites: prescribed burning (B); oak shelterwood by midstory herbicide (OSW); shelterwood harvests (SW); and controls (C), for one breeding season before, and two breeding seasons after, implementation. Relative density of successional-scrub species Indigo Buntings ( Passerina cyanea), Eastern Towhees (Pipilo erythrophthalmus), and Chestnut-sided Warblers (Setophaga pensylvanica) increased, while Ovenbirds (Seiurus aurocapilla) decreased within 11 to 18 months after SW harvests; understory disturbance treatments B or OSW had no effect. Our results indicated that partial harvests created habitat for breeding birds associated with both young and mature forests, whereas understory treatments had little effect. Additionally, we show that even small patches of young forest habitat are used by more individuals and more species of breeding birds than surrounding closed-canopy forest, and may benefit successional-scrub species by enabling their occurrence in an otherwise forested landscape. Absence of several lower-elevation successional-scrub bird species in our mid-elevation SW harvests suggests that comprehensive conservation in the southern Appalachians necessitates creating and maintaining young forest habitats across elevation gradients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Attempts to study biodiversity hotspots on a regional scale should combine compositional and functionalist criteria. The detection of hotspots in this study uses one ecologically similar group of high conservation value species as hotspot indicators, as well as focal habitat indicators, to detect the distribution of suitable environmental conditions. The method is assessed with reference to thermophilous forests in Poland - key habitats for many rare and relict species. Twenty-six high conservation priority species were used as hotspot indicators, and ten plant taxa characteristic of the Quercetalia pubescenti-petraeae phytosociological order were used as focal habitat indicators. Species distribution data was based on a 10 × 10 km grid. The number of species per grid square was interpolated by the ordinary kriging geostatistical method. Our analysis largely determined the distribution of areas with concentration of thermophilous forest flora, but also regional disjunctions and geographical barriers. Indicator species richness can be interpreted as a reflection of the actual state of habitat conditions. It can also be used to determine the location of potential species refugia and possible past and future migration routes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Species colonization in a new habitat patch is an efficiency indicator of biodiversity conservation. Colonization is a two‐step process of dispersal and establishment, characterized by the compatibility of plant traits with landscape structure and habitat conditions. Therefore, ecological trait profiling of specialist species is initially required to estimate the relative importance of colonization filters. Old planted parks best satisfy the criteria of a newly created and structurally matured habitat for forest‐dwelling plant species. We sampled species in 230 ancient deciduous forests (source habitat), 74 closed‐canopy manor parks (target habitats), 151 linear wooded habitats (landscape corridors), and 97 open habitats (isolating matrix) in Estonia. We defined two species groups of interest: forest (107 species) and corridor specialists (53 species). An extra group of open habitat specialists was extracted for trait scaling. Differing from expectations, forest specialists have high plasticity in reproduction mechanisms: smaller seeds, larger dispersules, complementary selfing ability, and diversity of dispersal vectors. Forest specialists are shorter, less nutrient‐demanding and mycorrhizal‐dependent, stress‐tolerant disturbance‐sensitive competitors, while corridor specialists are large‐seeded disturbance‐tolerant competitors. About 40% of species from local species pools have immigrated into parks. The historic forest area, establishment‐related traits, and stand quality enhance the colonization of forest specialists. The openness of landscape and mowing in the park facilitate corridor specialists. Species traits in parks vary between a forest and corridor specialist, except for earlier flowering and larger propagules. Forest species are not dispersal limited, but they continue to be limited by habitat properties even in the long term. Therefore, the shady parts of historic parks should be appreciated as important forest biodiversity‐enhancing landscape structures. The habitat quality of secondary stands can be improved by nurturing a heterogeneous shrub and tree layer, and modest herb layer management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over recent decades forest management has recognized the fact that forests provide a wide variety of services besides timber, such as carbon sequestration and the preservation of biodiversity. During this time, science has found significant evidence that climate change is actually taking place. Since the change in climatic conditions will affect the vital cycle of trees, the optimal management of forests needs to be adapted to these new conditions to make the best use of forests from the social point of view. From the policy side, forest management is confronted with the task of balancing the objectives of competitiveness, compliance with international agreements with respect to climate change mitigation and the preservation of biodiversity. This study aims to analyze the optimal management regime of forests under changing climatic conditions, taking timber, carbon and biodiversity into account. It finds that the objectives of carbon sequestration and biodiversity should target different stands. The cost of the latter can be reduced substantially if only mature stands are pursued and not young stands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agroforestry for production and ecosystem health is a centuries-old form of ecosystem management used in many cultures indigenous to Mesoamerica, yet implications of such practices for biodiversity conservation are not well understood. Agroforestry systems were studied using interviews of farmers and field surveys of tree and bird diversity in three communities surrounding the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve in Campeche, Mexico to examine how differences in forest management practices affect forest biodiversity. Tree diversity and bird species richness were higher in areas surrounding communities that generated a greater variety of forest products and that cultivated 'restoration trees,' species planted to aid in regeneration of mature forest. We conclude that traditional ecosystem management methods in areas surrounding natural reserves as practiced by inhabitants who depend on resources in the reserve for survival are compatible with maintaining and perhaps enhancing diversity of bird and tree communities at the site level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

High Andean cloud forests are home to a diversity of unique wildlife and are important providers of ecosystem services to people in the Andean regions. The extent of these cloud forests has been widely reduced through conversion to pasture for livestock, which threatens the forests' ability to support biodiversity and provide ecosystem services. This paper explores whether impacts on woody plant biodiversity and four ecosystem properties (woody plant species richness, juvenile timber tree abundance, soil organic matter content and soil moisture) from converting forest to pasture can be mitigated if some woody forest vegetation is maintained within pastures. Woody vegetation in pastures was found to conserve those woody plant species that are more tolerant to exposure and grazing, but conservation of the high montane cloud forest community required areas of forest from which livestock were restricted. The sampled sites clustered according to woody plant species cover; these clusters represented a gradient from pasture with patches of shrubs to mature forest. Clusters differed in both woody plant species richness and number of juvenile timber trees whereas soil organic matter and soil moisture were observed to be similar among all clusters. This suggests that the different habitats may have some equivalent ecosystem properties. We conclude that the presence of woody vegetation in pastures may reduce some of the impacts of converting forest to pasture, but should not be considered a substitute for protecting large areas of forest, which are essential for maintaining woody plant species diversity in high Andean cloud forest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Little is currently known about the biodiversity harboured by China's last remaining pristine temperate forests. Especially, studies into the diversity patterns of highly diverse insect taxa are very rare, while such studies are highly valuable, for example, as baseline to evaluate the effectiveness of China's ongoing large-scale reforestation efforts in restoring forest biodiversity., We sampled ground beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae) on 33 plots distributed across five distinct mature forest ecosystems occurring at altitudes between 700 and 2000 m on Changbai Mountain to address these prevailing knowledge gaps. Pitfall trapping yielded a total of 4834 ground beetles representing 47 species., Carabid abundance increased while α-diversity decreased with increasing elevation. No significant correlation was observed between the abundance of common species and their elevational distribution. Beetle assemblages originating from the high-elevation forest types formed a partly overlapping cluster, while beetle assemblages at lower elevations were more strongly differentiated according to forest type. Our results support the assumption that carabids are highly sensitive to climate change., The Korean pine-dominated forest, which has not previously been distinguished as a discrete forest type, showed a distinct carabid beetle composition, indicating its requirement of specific conservation attention. The carabid diversity in high-elevation birch forest and low-elevation mixed broad-leaved and conifer forests is particularly threatened by climate change, and long-term future monitoring of ground beetle diversity on Changbai Mountain is expected to provide extremely valuable insights into climate change-effects on insect communities in China's pristine temperate forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the pre-historic era, humans have been using forests as a food, drugs and handcraft reservoir. Today, the use of botanical raw material to produce pharmaceuticals, herbal remedies, teas, spirits, cosmetics, sweets, dietary supplements, special industrial compounds and crude materials constitute an important global resource in terms of healthcare and economy. In recent years, DNA barcoding has been suggested as a useful molecular technique to complement traditional taxonomic expertise for fast species identification and biodiversity inventories. In this study, in situ application of DNA barcodes was tested on a selected group of forest tree species with the aim of contributing to the identification, conservation and trade control of these valuable plant resources. The "core barcode" for land plants (rbcL, matK, and trnH-psbA) was tested on 68 tree specimens (24 taxa). Universality of the method, ease of data retrieval and correct species assignment using sequence character states, presence of DNA barcoding gaps and GenBank discrimination assessment were evaluated. The markers showed different prospects of reliable applicability. RbcL and trnH-psbA displayed 100% amplification and sequencing success, while matK did not amplify in some plant groups. The majority of species had a single haplotype. The trnH-psbA region showed the highest genetic variability, but in most cases the high intraspecific sequence divergence revealed the absence of a clear DNA barcoding gap. We also faced an important limitation because the taxonomic coverage of the public reference database is incomplete. Overall, species identification success was 66.7%. This work illustrates current limitations in the applicability of DNA barcoding to taxonomic forest surveys. These difficulties urge for an improvement of technical protocols and an increase of the number of sequences and taxa in public databases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest-agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973-2010) across elevations in 2 forest-agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km2 around Bonga and 3000 km2 in Goma-Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee-growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (−10/20% vs. −40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300-2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee-growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest-specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual-crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] Mauritia flexuosa forests are more structurally complex and diverse than previously thought. [•] Resource extraction is concentrated on the most abundant overstory species. [•] Lack of understanding the ecology of palm swamps hinders best management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ecological edges are increasingly recognized as drivers of landscape patterns and ecosystem processes. In fragmented and patchy landscapes (e.g., a fragmented forest or a savanna with scattered termite mounds), edges can become so numerous that their effects pervade the entire landscape. Results of recent studies in such landscapes show that edge effects can be altered by the presence or proximity of other nearby edges. We considered the theoretical significance of edge-effect interactions, illustrated various landscape configurations that support them and reviewed existing research on this topic. Results of studies from a variety of locations and ecosystem types show that edge-effect interactions can have significant consequences for ecosystems and conservation, including higher tree mortality rates in tropical rainforest fragments, reduced bird densities in grassland fragments, and bush encroachment and reduced wildlife densities in a tropical savanna. To clarify this underappreciated concept and synthesize existing work, we devised a conceptual framework for edge-effect interactions. We first worked to reduce terminological confusion by clarifying differences among terms such as edge intersection and edge interaction . For cases in which nearby edge effects interact, we proposed three possible forms of interaction: strengthening (presence of a second edge causes stronger edge effects), weakening (presence of a second edge causes weaker edge effects), and emergent (edge effects change completely in the presence of a second edge). By clarifying terms and concepts, this framework enables more precise descriptions of edge-effect interactions and facilitates comparisons of results among disparate study systems and response variables. A better understanding of edge-effect interactions will pave the way for more appropriate modeling, conservation, and management in complex landscapes. Interacciones del Efecto de Borde en Paisajes Fragmentados [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Tur River natural protected area we identified 18 terrestrial isopod species: Ligidium hypnorum, L. germanicum, Trichoniscus carpathicus, Hyloniscus riparius, H. transsilvanicus, Haplophthalmus danicus, Cylisticus transsilvanicus, C. convexus, Protracheoniscus politus, Porcellium collicola, Trachelipus difficilis, T. arcuatus, T. rathkii, T. nodulosus, Porcellionides pruinosus, Porcellio scaber, Armadillidium vulgare, A. versicolor. The species L. hypnorum, L. germanicum, T. carpathicus, H. transsilvanicus, P. collicola and T. difficilis occur in wet areas, forested and natural areas; P. politus and T. rathkii in semi-natural forests with relatively moist soil, and T. arcuatus, T. nodulosus and A. vulgare seem to tolerate a wide variety of the characteristics of the habitats. The highest species diversity was found in natural habitats: wetlands and natural forests. The great species richness in semi-natural habitats is due to the presence of both the species typical to natural areas and the synanthropic ones. The high diversity and species richness near distilleries is due to the preference of terrestrial isopods for moisture and the large amounts of organic matter available. Identification of C. transsilvanicus has zoogeographical significance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Walnut fruit forests represent both a valuable hotspot of biological diversity and have significant economic value for the livelihoods of local communities. However, the sustainable management of these forests is a complex task requiring the successful juggling of the different interests of local stakeholders, including fulfilling their economic, social and ecological demands. Birds were chosen as the indicator of biodiversity with which to evaluate the effects of forest management activities. A research study was conducted in 2005 during the birds’ breeding season in five different habitats (primary and secondary forests, plantation, agroforestry and brushwood) using the point sampling method. A total of 23 species were recorded. According to the various diversity indices employed, the best habitats for species richness were areas of agroforestry, while primary forests were found to be the best habitats in terms of species abundance. In contrast, the lowest bird diversity was observed in plantations due to their structural homogeneity. In addition, habitat suitability was assessed according to both horizontal and vertical structural parameters and tested using five selected indicator bird species. The results reveal a link between birds and vegetation, with abundance of old trees, availability of deadwood and habitat understorey density found to be the most important indicators of bird survival. Our research findings highlight that it is imperative to protect existing primary forests which are genetic diversity hotspots for endemic species such asDendrocopos leucopterus. Although areas under agroforestry were primarily found to be relatively promising habitats in terms of species richness, these intensively managed ecosystems may also be useful for simultaneously fulfilling the needs of local people, if such projects are carefully planned and managed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many contemporary societies, multiple functions are connected to hunting. Here, we use the concept of multifunctionality to investigate the role of hunting beyond its traditional function of supplying meat. Hunting may contribute, for example, to biodiversity conservation, recreation and the preservation of economies and cultures in rural areas. Our comparative analysis of hunting in eight study sites in Europe and Africa examines the tensions and trade-offs between these ecological, economic and social functions of hunting, and investigates the interplay between the institutions regulating these functions to better understand conflicts over hunting. Based on this analysis, we present institutional arrangements that have developed to address these challenges of multifunctionality, and explore the institutional change brought about by such arrangements. Finally, we discuss the implications of this study for policy and institutional design. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]