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Put forward by democratic theory, it is normatively expected that individuals value and seek news from diverse viewpoints in order to become good citizens. In this normative assumption, this dissertation identifies two paradoxes of media diversity: First, despite values widely ascribed to diversity-seeking, some individuals fail to seek diverse viewpoints (i.e., the diversity deficit). Second, individuals who consume diverse viewpoints do not appear to uniformly garner democratic benefits by becoming more politically informed, engaged, and capable of deliberation (i.e., there are mixed effects of diverse exposure on democratic citizenship). These paradoxes are explained with two sets of moderators: first, by applying the framework of Motivation, Opportunity and Ability (MOA), and second, by expanding on the theory of motivated reasoning. To accomplish this, two waves of survey data from an online panel of 1,328 Americans were collected during the 2016 presidential election campaign. On the first paradox, the results suggest that individuals with the right motivation, opportunity, and ability successfully translate their diversity values into diverse exposure. Specifically, people with strong diversity-seeking skills who also habitually consume news better-match their diversity values with diverse exposure. Political interest additionally helps individuals actualize their diversity values through diverse exposure on social media by following information sources. To explain the second paradox, this dissertation proposes and demonstrates three distinct motivations for cross-cutting exposure—defensive dismissal, defensive deliberation and balanced deliberation. For individuals with defensive motivations (who dismiss or counter-argue opposing views), diverse exposure suppresses political knowledge, but facilitates political participation and diverse news sharing on social media. In contrast to normative expectations, for individuals who are motivated to process opposing views in a balanced fashion, diverse exposure suppresses political knowledge, but increases political participation. These individuals with strong balanced deliberation motivations reap primarily deliberative benefits through diverse exposure by engaging in more cross-cutting discussion. Furthermore, sub-group analyses suggest that the majority of significant findings take place among partisans. Despite the popular negative narrative, partisans appear to function as good citizens in a few notable aspects. Compared to weak or non-partisans, partisans make better use of resources at hand to match their professed diversity values with diverse exposure, through which they in turn garner greater democratic benefits, including political participation and cross-cutting discussion. Overall, this dissertation argues that to better understand the muddied relationship between diverse exposure and democratic citizenship, it is important to consider psychological factors such as individual diversity values, different motivations for cross-cutting exposure, and strength of party affiliation. Finally, it makes practical suggestions regarding the ways in which the news industry, policymakers, and audiences can work together to build a news media landscape for an informed, engaged, and deliberative citizenry.

Abstract: Government information interactions are inevitable at many points in our lives; life events and milestones often intersect with the need for governmental programs and services information that will help or facilitate the resulting life transitions. This qualitative research study takes a constructivist approach to examining the nature of governmental information interactions experienced by those age sixty-five or older. Semi-structured, in-depth qualitative interviews were conducted with ten older adults from Edmonton, Alberta to explore this issue. A grounded theory analysis of research data reveals that experiencing life events, either by oneself or by proxy of another, and financial planning activities prompt older adults’ governmental information interactions. Data also reveals that participants interact with three government information channels when seeking information: human, technological, and print. Use of government-centric language or jargon and bureaucratic inefficiencies are characteristic of all governmental information channels. Human governmental information interactions are characterized by a need or dealing with the “right” person, identification of the importance of body language and non-verbal cues, reliance on health professionals for information, and the growing instance of hybrid human-technological information interactions. Technological information interactions are characterized by perceptions of instant and infinite information availability and polarized experiences with use of technology to facilitate information seeking. Print information interactions are characterized by use of the phonebook as an information-seeking starting point, engaging in orienting information-seeking activities as part of daily routines, such as reading daily newspapers for generalized information intake, and information invisibility in relation to pertinent government information in print resources. Study results indicate clear trust in the credibility of governmental information despite the often arduous process involved in seeking this kind of information, as well as the disparate nature of older adults’ information behaviours and governmental information interactions spanning human, technological, and print information channels.

"Social e-shopping" merges shopping and social networking activities through social media online. Retailers employ social media to target teens and young adult consumers making social networking sites an essential venue to marketing practices and have begun to use Facebook commerce as it helps businesses facilitate and execute sales transactions. The research objectives were to investigate (1) whether personality traits (i.e., openness to experience, material resource needs, arousal needs) affected psychographic characteristics (i.e., market mavenism, social browsing, value consciousness) and intentions to social e-shop apparel, (2) whether psychographic characteristics affected gratifications (i.e., socializing, information-seeking) and intentions to social e-shop apparel, (3) whether gratifications affected intentions to social e-shop apparel, and (4) whether tie strength and homophily moderated the links between gratifications and intentions to social e-shop apparel within the Meta-Theoretical Model of Motivation and Personality developed by Mowen (2000). Participants (n = 601) were Facebook users from 18 to 44 years of age who had social shopping experience. They were drawn from a consumer panel. Data was collected through an online self-administered survey. Participants who were likely to social e-shop using Facebook for the purpose of information-seeking and socializing gratifications indicated that they intended to social e-shop apparel. Participants who were market mavens intended to social e-shop apparel. They were also likely to social e-shop for the purpose of socializing. Participants who were social browsers also intended to social e-shop apparel. They were also likely to social e-shop for the purposes of information-seeking and socializing. Participants who were value conscious intended to social e-shop apparel. They were also likely to social e-shop for the purpose of information-seeking. Participants who were open to experience were likely to be market mavens. Participants who needed arousal were likely to be social browsers. Participants who needed material resources were likely to be market mavens, social browsers, and to be value conscious. Tie strength and homophily moderated the links between both types of gratifications (socialization, information-seeking) and intentions to social e-shop apparel. Theoretical and managerial implications and suggestions for future research based on the findings were provided.

A 60-item mail survey of registered voters in two Rochester, N.Y.-area communities (n=185) assessed differences between information- and entertainment-seeking tendencies of those who use online and/or print media for local news. The research concluded that respondents with high information-seeking scores are not only using print media but also online media. In addition, online-only users showed a significant tendency for entertainment-seeking but not information-seeking. The study occurred amid the print newspapers' fight to survive by launching or upgrading online counterparts. This research also discusses the implications of the findings for public discourse, a role traditionally played by local print newspapers.

The current literature has examined the impact of perceived need for help on the decision to engage in help-seeking behaviors, but no studies to date have interpreted help-seeking through the assumptions of image theory or other alternative theories to the cost/benefit model of making decisions. The relationship between perceived need for help and actual help-seeking behavior was examined through a longitudinal unfolding model of help-seeking behavior. The assumptions of image theory were applied to the help-seeking framework to evaluate the impact of negative shocks on the decision to seek help. Using a repeated measures longitudinal design with three measurement points throughout an academic semester, college students were asked to report their perceived need for help in the course, help-seeking behaviors since the most recent exam feedback, and expected grade in the course. Results of the hierarchical regression analyses showed that perceived need for help explained incremental variance in predicting concurrent interpersonal and written help-seeking behaviors at Time 2, and interpersonal help-seeking behaviors at Time 3, after controlling for reported help-seeking behaviors at Time 1. Despite past research supporting a relationship between achievement motivation and help-seeking behaviors, achievement motivation did not moderate the relationship between perceived need for help and help-seeking at any measurement time point. Self-esteem, however, moderated the relationship between perceived need for help and help-seeking behaviors later in the semester, supporting the cognitive consistency model such that those high in self-esteem reported fewer interpersonal help-seeking behaviors than those low in self-esteem when students perceived a high need for help in the course. Implications for future research are discussed.

The test scores of spatial ability for women lag behind those of men in many spatial tests. On the Mental Rotations Test (MRT), a significant gender gap has existed for over 20 years and continues to exist. High spatial ability has been linked to efficiencies in typical computing tasks including Web and database searching, text editing, and computer programming. The relationships between the components of visuospatial ability and performance are complex. However, research strongly indicates that a connection exists, and further research is necessary to determine the interactions between the variables of environment, genetics, and spatial training. Spatial experience can enhance spatial skills. However, to what extent spatial skills can be enhanced in female adolescents through a spatial curriculum to reduce the gap in scores has not been fully researched, nor has the impact of spatial skill on information seeking. This research project investigated spatial skill in adolescent females by examining (1) the extent to which the intervention of teaching a spatial curriculum in a single-sex setting could improve mental rotation test scores, and (2) the impact of spatial skills on an information seeking task in a single-sex setting. The extent to which a spatial visualization curriculum can improve MRT scores from a pretest to a posttest for girls was the first factor examined using a spatial visualization curriculum. The information seeking task used 4 tasks from a doctoral study and utilized the scholarly journal database JSTOR® (JSTOR, Ann Arbor, MI, www.jstor.org).

This study investigates how people construct representations in sensemaking tasks and explores the design space of systems supporting representation construction. Russell et al (1993) defined sensemaking as a process that searches for appropriate representation to answer task-specific questions. Their approach brought representation into the center of sensemaking research. My research follows this representational approach, narrowing it down to the construction of external and explicit representations in the sensemaking process because these representations provide a medium for people and computer systems to access and interact with the sensemaking process. The research approach is to interlace theoretical analyses and behavioral studies with system design and development in a spiraling process towards greater understanding of and effective support for sensemaking activities. The research starts with the examination of existing sensemaking theories, which lead to the development of a pilot sensemaking supporting system. Using this pilot system, a behavioral study was conducted to investigate representation construction in the early stage of sensemaking. Design implications were drawn from this experiment. Then a preliminary design space of systems supporting structure finding and exploration on the web was laid out. A system framework was proposed and a prototype was implemented. The system prototype provides a platform for further explorations in the design space and for further behavioral studies. This study finds that people not only get ideas for structuring representation from their existing knowledge, but also from the outside information world. Representation construction and information seeking are closely coupled in the process. The findings suggest important revisions of previous sensemaking theories and new opportunities for system design. A system framework is then proposed to help people locate and explore websites with high probabilities of containing useful structures. Many theoretic and design problems are identified for future exploration.

This study examines how experienced archivists locate information in collections of primary source materials. The success of this process is recognized to be highly dependent on the specialized knowledge of these archivists; in their absence the quality and reliability of reference services suffers. Consequently, there is a need to fully understand what constitutes this expertise in order to share it and make it more readily accessible to others. What skills and knowledge do these archivists acquire that make them proficient at finding information in archives? Eight of the participants in this study were archivists with an average of 20 years experience. The other participants were students either in or recently graduated from an LIS masters program with an average of approximately 208 hours of reference and information searching experience. Each participant talked out loud as he or she proceeded to search for information to answer research question scenarios. I audio and video-recorded these processes and reviewed the recording with the participant, asking questions and encouraging comments. The concept of situated knowledge - the perspective that cognition and knowledge are emergent in the body's interaction with the world - informed the analysis of the verbal protocols, direct observation and retrospective interviews of the participants in this study. The experienced archivists' knowledge of their university or college's history, people and departmental functions was, as expected, significant when compared with the novices'. This knowledge allowed the experienced archivists to directly access primary resources whereas the novices often needed to perform meta-searches. The desire to provide effective and efficient reference service influenced the experienced archivists' skill development. They made decisions based on their evaluations of the quality of primary resources in terms of form and format, comprehensiveness and accuracy of content in order to be as efficient as possible while still providing 'good' information. This evaluation extended also to their use of access tools. Additionally, the experienced archivists used cues in the environment and episodic memory of prior events to locate relevant information without referring to labels, texts, etc.: their ability to intellectually and physically access information was intertwined.

Familial caregivers are providing increasing amounts of care to advanced cancer patients. Increased understanding of caregivers' needs is vital in providing necessary support to lessen caregiver burden and comorbidity. This study examines particular information needs across a variety of specific events in the advanced cancer disease trajectory. A cross-sectional sample of 107 familial caregivers (24 current and 83 bereaved) of people with advanced cancer completed a needs assessment survey along with a measure of health information-seeking behavior. Analyses extend current research by including more specific disease-related events along the advanced cancer trajectory through bereavement. In all information categories, endorsement of wanted information differed across broad stages of Cancer Progression, Treatment, End of Life, and Post-Patient Death. For all information categories, except Dying and Spirituality, greatest information was wanted at the Cancer Progression stage. Information need also differed across specific events within broad stages. The categories of Disease/Medical and Relating to the Patient were the most endorsed at events involving patient care. Spirituality was least endorsed. At patient death, Caregiver Well-being has the highest endorsement. For events thereafter, information on Caregiver Well-being, Spirituality, Future Outlook, and Family and Close Others was most endorsed. Information needs did not differ based on age or education. Whether or not a caregiver had experienced a given event on the cancer trajectory impacted some categories of information desired at the events of leaving the hospital for home, going into hospice, patient death, immediately after death, and bereavement. In all cases, those who had experienced the event wanted more information. In comparing current to bereaved caregivers, no differences in information endorsement occurred for events of the Cancer progression or Treatment stages. This study also involved the validation and factor analysis the Health Information-Seeking Behavior Survey. Two factors, Health Information-Seeking and Health Information-Avoiding, emerged. Health Information-Seeking correlates positively with some of the information categories at some of the stages. Increased understanding of caregiver needs at specific key events in the advanced cancer illness trajectory can now be used to inform the development of effective familial caregiver education interventions.

This study examined the information-seeking strategies and science content understandings learners developed as a result of using on-line resources in the University of Michigan Digital Library and on the World Wide Web. Eight pairs of sixth grade students from two teachers' classrooms were observed during inquiries for astronomy, ecology, geology, and weather, and a final transfer task assessed learners' capabilities at the end of the school year. Data included video recordings of students' screen activity and conversations, journals and completed activity sheets, final artifacts, and semi-structured interviews. Learners' information-seeking strategies included activities related to asking, planning, tool usage, searching, assessing, synthesizing, writing, and creating. Analysis of data found a majority of learners posed meaningful, openended questions, used technological tools appropriately, developed pertinent search topics, were thoughtful in queries to the digital library, browsed sites purposefully to locate information, and constructed artifacts with novel formats. Students faced challenges when planning activities, assessing resources, and synthesizing information. Possible explanations were posed linking pedagogical practices with learners' growth and use of inquiry strategies. Data from classroom-lab video and teacher interviews showed varying degrees of student scaffolding: development and critique of initial questions, utilization of search tools, use of journals for reflection on activities, and requirements for final artifacts. Science content understandings included recalling information, offering explanations, articulating relationships, and extending explanations. A majority of learners constructed partial understandings limited to information recall and simple explanations, and these occasionally contained inaccurate conceptualizations. Web site design features had some influence on the construction of learners' content understandings. Analysis of data suggests sites with high quality general design, navigation, and content helped to foster the construction of broad and accurate understandings, while context and interactivity had less impact. However, student engagement with inquiry strategies had a greater impact on the construction of understandings. Gaining accurate and in-depth understandings from on-line resources is a complex process for young learners. Teachers can support students by helping them engage in all phases of the information-seeking process, locate useful information with prescreened resources, build background understanding with off-line instruction, and process new information deeply through extending writing and conversation.