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Strain localization in the lithosphere and the formation, evolution, and maintenance of resulting plate boundaries play a crucial role in plate tectonics and thermo‐chemical mantle convection. Previously activated lithospheric deformation zones often appear to maintain a “memory” of weakening, leading to tectonic inheritance within plate reorganizations including the Wilson cycle. Different mechanisms have been proposed to explain such strain localization, but it remains unclear which operates on what spatio‐temporal scales, and how to best incorporate them in large‐scale mantle convection models. Here, we analyze two candidates, (1), grain‐size sensitive rheology and, (2), damage‐style parameterizations of yield, stress which are sometimes used to approximate the former. Grain‐size reduction due to dynamic recrystallization can drive localization in the ductile domain, and grain growth provides a time‐dependent rheological hardening component potentially enabling the preservation of rheological heterogeneities. We compare the dynamic weakening and hardening effects as well as the timescales of strength evolution for a composite rheology including grain‐size dynamics with a pseudo‐plastic rheology including damage‐ (or “strain”‐) dependent weakening. We explore the implications of different proposed grain‐size evolution laws, and test to which extent strain‐dependent rheologies can mimic the weakening and hardening effects of the more complex micro‐physical behavior. Such an analysis helps to better understand the parallels and differences between various strain‐localization modeling approaches used in different tectonics and geodynamics communities. More importantly, our results contribute to efforts to identify the key ingredients of strain‐localization and damage hysteresis within plate tectonics and how to represent those in planetary‐scale modeling., Key Points: Comparative analysis of strain localization and damage memory for grain‐size dependent and strain/damage parameterized rheologies. Identification of key ingredients of strain localization and damage hysteresis and how to represent those in planetary‐scale modeling. Plastic strain softening enables hysteresis with a memory duration similar to grain growth at lithospheric temperature conditions.

The importance of slab–slab interactions is manifested in the kinematics and geometry of the Philippine Sea Plate and western Pacific subduction zones, and such interactions offer a dynamic basis for the first-order observations in this complex subduction setting. The westward subduction of the Pacific Sea Plate changes, along-strike, from single slab subduction beneath Japan, to a double-subduction setting where Pacific subduction beneath the Philippine Sea Plate occurs in tandem with westward subduction of the Philippine Sea Plate beneath Eurasia. Our 3-D numerical models show that there are fundamental differences between single slab systems and double slab systems where both subduction systems have the same vergence. We find that the observed kinematics and slab geometry of the Pacific–Philippine subduction can be understood by considering an along-strike transition from single to double subduction, and is largely independent from the detailed geometry of the Philippine Sea Plate. Important first order features include the relatively shallow slab dip, retreating/stationary trenches, and rapid subduction for single slab systems (Pacific Plate subducting under Japan), and front slabs within a double slab system (Philippine Sea Plate subducting at Ryukyu). In contrast, steep to overturned slab dips, advancing trench motion, and slower subduction occurs for rear slabs in a double slab setting (Pacific subducting at the Izu–Bonin–Mariana). This happens because of a relative build-up of pressure in the asthenosphere beneath the Philippine Sea Plate, where the asthenosphere is constrained between the converging Ryukyu and Izu–Bonin–Mariana slabs. When weak back-arc regions are included, slab–slab convergence rates slow and the middle (Philippine) plate extends, which leads to reduced pressure build up and reduced slab–slab coupling. Models without back-arcs, or with back-arc viscosities that are reduced by a factor of five, produce kinematics compatible with present-day observations.

Subducted sediments are thought to lubricate the subduction interface and promote faster plate speeds. However, global observations are not clear-cut on the relationship between the amount of sediments and plate motion. Sediments are also thought to influence slab dip, but variations in subduction geometry depend on multiple factors. Here we use 2D thermomechanical models to explore how sediments can influence subduction dynamics and geometry. We find that thick sediments can lead to slower subduction due to an increase of the megathrust shear stress as the accretionary wedge gets wider, and a decrease in slab pull as buoyant sediments are subducted. Our results also show that larger slab buoyancy and megathrust stress due to thick sediments increase the slab bending radius. This offers a new perspective on the role of sediments, suggesting that sediment buoyancy and wedge geometry also play an important role on large-scale subduction dynamics.

Approaching the 250th anniversary of Alexander von Humboldt’s birth, we look back at the life and legacy of “the most scientific man of his age.”

Recent measurements of surface vertical displacements of the European Alps show a correlation between vertical velocities and topographic features, with widespread uplift at rates of up to ~2–2.5 mm/a in the North-Western and Central Alps, and ~1 mm/a across a continuous region from the Eastern to the South-Western Alps. Such a rock uplift rate pattern is at odds with the horizontal velocity field, characterized by shortening and crustal thickening in the Eastern Alps and very limited deformation in the Central and Western Alps. Proposed mechanisms of rock uplift rate include isostatic response to the last deglaciation, long-term erosion, detachment of the Western Alpine slab, as well as lithospheric and surface deflection due to mantle convection. Here, we assess previous work and present new estimates of the contributions from these mechanisms. Given the large range of model estimates, the isostatic adjustment to deglaciation and erosion are sufficient to explain the full observed rate of uplift in the Eastern Alps, which, if correct, would preclude a contribution from horizontal shortening and crustal thickening. Alternatively, uplift is a partitioned response to a range of mechanisms. In the Central and Western Alps, the lithospheric adjustment to deglaciation and erosion likely accounts for roughly half of the rock uplift rate, which points to a noticeable contribution by mantle-related processes such as detachment of the European slab and/or asthenospheric upwelling. While it is difficult to independently constrain the patterns and magnitude of mantle contributions to ongoing Alpine vertical displacements at present, future data should provide additional insights. Regardless, interacting tectonic and surface mass redistribution processes, rather than an individual forcing, best explain ongoing Alpine elevation changes.

A fundamental scientific question is, what controls the Earth's topography? Although the theoretical principles of isostasy, flexure, and dynamic topography are widely discussed, the parameters needed to apply these principles are frequently not available. Isostatic factors controlling lithospheric buoyancy are frequently uncertain and non-isostatic factors, such as lithospheric bending towards subduction zones and dynamic topography, are hard to distinguish. The question discussed here is whether a set of simple rules that relate topography to lithospheric structure in various tectonic environments can be deduced in a way that missing parameters can be approximated; or does each area behave differently, making generalizations problematic. We contribute to this issue analyzing the Asia–Africa–Arabia–Europe domain following a top-down strategy. We compile a new crustal thickness map and remove the contribution of the crust from the observed elevation. Then, the challenge is to interpret the residual topography in terms of mantle lithosphere buoyancy and dynamics. Based on systematic relationships between tectonic environments and factors controlling topography, we argue that crustal buoyancy and mantle lithospheric density can be approximated from available geological data and that regions near mantle upwelling or downwelling are easily identified by their extreme residual topography. Yet, even for other areas, calculating lithospheric thickness from residual topography is problematic, because distinguishing variations in mantle lithosphere thickness from sub-lithospheric dynamics is difficult. Fortunately, the area studied here provides an opportunity to examine this issue. Based on the conjunction between the Afar Plume and the mid-ocean ridge in the nearby Gulf of Aden and southern Red Sea, we constrain the maximal amplitude of dynamic topography to ~ 1 km. This estimate is based on a narrow definition of dynamic topography that only includes sub-lithospheric processes and using mid-ocean ridges as reference, where mantle lithosphere buoyancy is zero.

International audience; Trench motions represent the surface expression of the interaction between subducting plates and the underlyingmantle, but the inherent dynamics are not fully understood. One interesting case is the migration of the Izu-Bonin Marianas trench (IBM) that accommodates the subduction of the Pacific beneath the Philippine Sea Plate (PSP), which is in turn subducting beneath the Eurasian plate along the Ryukyu trench. The history of the IBM trench is dominated by fast, episodic retreat from 40 to 15 Ma. However, around 10–5 Ma, the IBM trenchreversed its motion from retreat to advance. The switch in trench motion occurred soon after the breakoff of thePSP slab along the Ryukyu trench and the onset of new subduction, and represents a fundamental change in thedynamics of the western Pacific subduction zones. Here, Following the modelling study of Čížková and Bina(2015), which suggested a link between IBM trench advance and Ryukyu subduction, we run 2-D numericalexperiments to test the influence of a newly formed Ryukyu slab on the established IBM subduction zone, we runtwo-dimensional numerical experiments to test the influence of this newly formed Ryukyu slab on the IBMsubduction zone. The results from our geodynamic model compare favourably with the reconstructed trend, indicating that the switch in trench motion along the IBM trench may indeed be related to the onset of a new subduction zone along the Ryukyu trench. Our analysis substantiates the idea that advancing trench motions in the western Pacific are due to the establishment of a double subduction system. Further analysis of such dynamics provides insights for the mechanisms controlling subducting plate and trench motions and mantle force transmission.

The life span of high temperature power plant pipework is principally a function of material creep damage - an irreversible plastic deformation of the material when subjected to temperatures and loads beyond a certain threshold. Within Eskom, the South African parastatal power utility, creep damage is primarily quantified by way of Metallographic Replication (replicas). This is a quasi NonDestructive Examination (NDE) technique that looks at the microstructure of the sample in question. Although well-known and used extensively, replicas, as with any technology, have their shortcomings. Extracting of replicas and their subsequent analysis are manual processes that inherently suffer from subjectivity. Furthermore, storage and archiving of vast quantities of physical replica slides for future reference is cumbersome - a challenge that digitisation can address. The aforementioned vulnerability to analysis subjectivity and benefits of digitisation are areas which a technology known as Digital Image Correlation (DIC) - a non-contact, full field, deformation measurement technique - can potentially address. Some research has been done on using DIC for power plant creep measurement; however literature quantifying its performance in this specific application is scarce. This study thus looks into setting up a DIC system optimised for measuring strain in an area of the pipework welds known as the Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) - the weakest part of the weldment. The achievable accuracy is established and the major parameters that affect DIC accuracy are investigated, elucidating the trade-offs between optimising each. In addition, two scenarios exist for the acquisition of DIC measurement data from a plant: when the plant is operating (online); or when the plant is shut down for maintenance (offline). The encumbrance of imaging a hot surface makes the former scenario the more demanding, and was thus investigated. This data was subsequently used to substantiate whether DIC has the potential to be used online (i.e. at elevated temperatures) or is limited to use during shut downs.

The elevation of an orogenic belt is commonly related to crustal/lithosphere thickening. Here, we discuss the Apennines as an example to show that topography at a plate margin may be controlled not only by isostatic adjustment but also by dynamic, mantle-driven processes. Using recent structural constraints for the crust and mantle we find that the expected crustal isostatic component explains only a fraction of the topography of the belt, indicating positive residual topography in the central Apennines and negative residual topography in the northern Apennines and Calabria. The trend of the residual topography matches the mantle flow induced dynamic topography estimated from regional tomography models. We infer that a large fraction of the Apennines topography is related to mantle dynamics, producing relative upwellings in the central Apennines and downwellings in the northern Apennines and Calabria where subduction is still ongoing. Comparison between geodetic and geological data on vertical motions indicates that this dynamic process started in the early Pleistocene and the resulting uplift appears related to the formation and enlargement of a slab window below the central Apennines. The case of the Apennines shows that at convergent margins the elevation of a mountain belt may be significantly different from that predicted solely by crustal isostasy and that a large fraction of the elevation and its rate of change are dynamically controlled by mantle convection.

The Cordillera of the Andes is a double-vergent orogenic belt built up by thickening of South American plate crust. Several models provide plausible explanations for the evolution of the Andes, but the reason why shortening started at ∼50 Ma is still unclear. We explore the evolution of the subduction zone through time by restoring the position of the Nazca trench in an absolute reference frame, comparing its position with seismic tomography models and balancing the evolution of the subducting slab. Reconstructions show that the slab enters into the lower mantle at ∼ 50 ± 10 Ma , and then progressed, moving horizontally at shallow lower mantle depth while thickening and folding in the transition zone. We test this evolutionary scenario by numerical models, which illustrate that compression in the upper plate intensifies once the slab is anchored in the lower mantle. We conclude that onset of significant shortening and crustal thickening in the Andes and its sustained action over tens of million years is related to the penetration of the slab into the lower mantle, producing a slowdown of lateral slab migration, and dragging the upper plate against the subduction zone by large-scale return flow.

Life assessment of critical components and piping is performed in the electrical power plants in order to prevent structural/component failure and prolong safe operation of the equipment. In the event that these components fail, the consequences can be very costly since this may result in power supply disruptions, component replacements, environmental damages and the loss of human life. Regulations, standards and codes are designed to ensure the safe operation of the power plants. However, on their own, they are not adequate to account for aging power plants that have been in service for more than half of their originally designed lifespans, since failures have been experienced due to in-service aging mechanisms (i.e. temper embrittlement, creep, etc.) and poor engineering and maintenance practises. Mechanical, metallurgical and non-destructive techniques are used to evaluate the condition of the in-service materials in order to aid in these life assessments. The structural integrity assessments utilise material toughness properties as determined through fracture toughness testing, which requires a significant quantity of material, and is therefore cumbersome and expensive. Consequently, several other material property testing techniques are used to aid in structural integrity assessments, such as impact energy, tensile and hardness testing. Through empirical correlations, these test results are used to estimate fracture toughness properties and, consequently, the error bands are expected to be as high as 50%. Due to its small size, the small punch test (SPT) technique can be regarded as a quasi-non-destructive test, and is therefore a preferred method for determining the fracture toughness in aid of structural assessment. The SPT technique involves a compression load from the punch to a sample (ϕ8mm x 0.5mm thick) clamped between clamping and receiving dies. This study aims to develop a test rig that will be used to perform the SPT in order to quantify the level of embrittlement on the ex-service, low-pressure steam turbine material (NiCrMoV steel). The data results acquired from the SPT technique are the reaction load of the punch and the deformed displacement of the sample performed at a constant displacement rate according to CWA 15627:2007. Two SPT rigs were designed, manufactured and commissioned. These two were commissioned using FEM and tensile test results for validations. The steel was subjected to three different conditions: as received (AR), de-embrittled (DE) and hardened (HD). The three types of steel illustrated that the SPT can quantify embrittlement levels through the correlation of tensile, Charpy impact energy and fracture toughness testing.

Density anomalies beneath the lithosphere are expected to generate dynamic topography at the Earth's surface due to the induced mantle flow stresses which scale linearly with density anomalies, while the viscosity of the upper mantle is expected to control uplift rates. However, limited attention has been given to the role of the lithosphere. Here we present results from analogue modeling of the interactions between a density anomaly rising in the mantle and the lithosphere in a Newtonian system. We find that, for instabilities with wavelengths of the same order of magnitude as lithosphere thickness, the uplift rate and the geometry of the surface bulge are inversely correlated to the lithosphere thickness. We also show that a layered lithosphere may modulate the topographic signal. With respect to previous approaches our models represent a novel attempt to unravel the way normal stresses generated by mantle flow are transmitted through a rheologically stratified lithosphere and the resulting topographic signal. © 2017. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved., T.W.B. was partially supported through NASA OSP 201601412-001.

Isostatic and dynamic models of Earth's surface topography can provide important insights into the driving processes of tectonic deformation. We analyze these two estimates for the tectonically-active western United States using refined structural models derived from EarthScope USArray. For the crust, use of recent Moho depth measurements and crustal density anomalies inferred from passive source seismology improve isostatic models. However, seismically determined lithospheric thickness variations from “lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary” (LAB) maps, and lithospheric and mantle density anomalies derived from heat flow or uppermost mantle tomography, do not improve isostatic models substantially. Perhaps this is a consequence of compositional heterogeneity, a mismatch between thermal and seismological LAB, and structural complexity caused by smaller-scale dynamics. The remaining, non-isostatic (“dynamic”) component of topography is large. Topography anomalies include negative residuals likely due to active subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate, and perhaps remnants of formerly active convergence further south along the margin. Our finding of broad-scale, positive residual topography in the Basin and Range substantiates previous results, implying the presence of anomalous buoyancy there which we cannot fully explain. The Colorado Plateau does not appear dynamically anomalous at present, except at its edges. Many of the residual topography features are consistent with predictions from mantle flow computations. This suggests a convective origin, and important interactions between vigorous upper mantle convection and intraplate deformation.

The Middle East region represents a key site within the Tethyan domain where continental break-up, collision, backarc extension and escape tectonics are kinematically linked together. We perform global mantle circulation computations to test the role of slab pull and mantle upwellings as driving forces for the kinematics of the Arabia-Anatolia-Aegean (AAA) system, evaluating different boundary conditions and mantle density distributions as inferred from seismic tomography or slab models. Model results are compared with geodetically inferred crustal motions, residual topography, and shear wave splitting measurements. The AAA velocity field with respect to Eurasia shows an anti-clockwise toroidal pattern, with increasing velocities toward the Aegean trench. The best match to these crustal motions can be obtained by combining the effect of slab pull exerted in the Aegean with a mantle upwelling underneath Afar and, more generally, with the large-scale flow associated with a whole mantle, Tethyan convection cell. Neogene volcanism for AAA is widespread, not only in the extensional or subduction settings, but also within plates, such as in Syria-Jordan-Israel and in Turkey, with geochemical fingerprints similar of those of the Afar lava. In addition, morphological features show large uplifting domains far from plate boundaries. We speculate that the tectonic evolution of AAA is related to the progressive northward entrainment of upwelling mantle material, which is itself associated with the establishment of the downwelling part of a convection cell through the segmented Tethyan slab below the northern Zagros and Bitlis collision zone. The recently established westward flow dragged Anatolia and pushed the Aegean slab south-westward, thus accelerating backarc extension. Our model reconciles Afar plume volcanism, the collision in the Bitlis mountains and northern Zagros, and the rapid increase of Aegean trench rollback in a single coherent frame of large scale mantle convection, initiated during the last similar to 40 Ma. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

International audience; The tectonic and topographic evolution of southeast Asia is attributed to the indentation of India into Eurasia, gravitational collapse of the uplifted terrains and the dynamics of the Sunda and other western Pacific subduction zones, but their relative contributions remain elusive. Here, we analyse 3D numerical geodynamic modeling results involving a collision-subduction system and show that vigorous asthenospheric flow due to differential along-strike slab kinematics may contribute to the surface strain and elevations at collision-subduction transition zones. We argue that protracted northward migration of the collisional front and Indian slab during south to south-westward rollback subduction along the Sunda margin might have produced a similar asthenospheric flow. This flow could have contributed to the southeast Asia extrusion tectonics and uplift of the terrains around the eastern Himalayan syntaxis and protruding from southeast Tibet. Therefore, we suggest that the tectonics and topographic growth east and southeast of Tibet are controlled not only by crustal and lithospheric deformation but also by asthenospheric dynamics.

Ethiopia is a key site to investigate the interactions between mantle dynamics and surface processes because of the presence of the Main Ethiopian Rift (MER), Cenozoic continental flood basalt volcanism, and plateau uplift. The role of mantle plumes in causing Ethiopia's flood basalts and tectonics has been commonly accepted. However, the location and number of plumes and their impact on surface uplift are still uncertain. Here we present new constraints on the geological and topographic evolution of the Ethiopian Plateau (NW Ethiopia) prior to and after the emplacement of the large flood basalts (40–20 Ma). Using geological information and topographic reconstructions, we show that the large topographic dome that we see today is a long-term feature, already present prior to the emplacement of the flood basalts. We also infer that large-scale doming operated even after the emplacement of the flood basalts. Using a comparison with the present-day topographic setting, we show that an important component of the topography has been and is presently represented by a residual, nonisostatic, dynamic contribution. We conclude that the growth of the Ethiopian Plateau is a long-term, probably still active, dynamically supported process. Our arguments provide constraints on the processes leading to the formation of one of the largest igneous plateaus on Earth.

The focus of this research project was to determine experimentally the fatigue and fracture toughness characteristic, from a fracture mechanics perspective, of Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy manufactured by Selective Laser Melting (SLM). Three build orientations are considered where a fatigue crack is grown parallel and two are grown perpendicular to the build orientation. The project then endeavours to generate a fracture mechanics based Paris equation from the fatigue crack growth rate results and together with the fracture toughness, fatigue life predictions may be determined based on crack propagation lifetimes. SLM is an Additive Manufacturing (AM) technique whereby an object is fabricated in a layerwise manner via the use of lasers, directly from a 3D CAD model. This process allows for the manufacture of complex designs in its net or near net shape form, which is not possible with conventional manufacturing techniques. There are minimal amounts of material wastage and it potentially eliminates post manufacture machining and processing costs. Ti- 6Al-4V is used in many applications where high strength at low density is required at moderate temperatures. Corrosion resistance qualities of the alloy are also considered for many applications. Some of the applications where this alloy is used include turbine engine components, aircraft structural components, aerospace fasteners, high-performance automotive parts, marine applications, medical implant devices and sports equipment. Due to the large use of the alloy in industry and with the potential benefits of manufacturing by SLM, there is a great need for investigating SLM Ti-6Al-4V as a viable alternative to conventional casting, forging and machining. There is limited literature covering the fatigue crack growth rate and fracture toughness of SLM Ti-6Al-4V and the effect of build orientation on these characteristics. However, it is clear, from the limited available literature that fatigue crack growth rate behaviour is affected by build orientation, and so this project investigates the effect of these orientations, and aims to contribute to understanding why these orientation effects occur. Since there is even less literature available on the fracture toughness of SLM Ti-6Al-4V with respect to build orientation, this project also endeavours to characterise orientation effects on fracture toughness, if any, and compares these with those of conventionally manufacture Ti-6Al-4V.

Results from mantle flow models reveal a relationship between seismicity away from the plate boundary in the western United States and the rate change of the vertical normal stress from mantle flow, showing that mantle flow plays an important part in shaping topography, tectonics and seismic hazard within such intraplate settings. Thorsten Becker et al. present results from mantle flow models that reveal a relationship between seismicity away from the plate boundary in the western United States and the rate change of 'dynamic topography' (that is, the vertical normal stress from mantle flow). They conclude that mantle flow plays a significant and quantifiable role in shaping topography, tectonics and seismic hazard within such intraplate settings. Understanding the causes of intraplate earthquakes is challenging, as it requires extending plate tectonic theory to the dynamics of continental deformation. Seismicity in the western United States away from the plate boundary is clustered along a meandering, north–south trending ‘intermountain’ belt1. This zone coincides with a transition from thin, actively deforming to thicker, less tectonically active crust and lithosphere. Although such structural gradients have been invoked to explain seismicity localization2,3, the underlying cause of seismicity remains unclear. Here we show results from improved mantle flow models that reveal a relationship between seismicity and the rate change of ‘dynamic topography’ (that is, vertical normal stress from mantle flow). The associated predictive skill is greater than that of any of the other forcings we examined. We suggest that active mantle flow is a major contributor to seismogenic intraplate deformation, while gravitational potential energy variations have a minor role. Seismicity localization should occur where convective changes in vertical normal stress are modulated by lithospheric strength heterogeneities. Our results on deformation processes appear consistent with findings from other mobile belts4, and imply that mantle flow plays a significant and quantifiable part in shaping topography, tectonics, and seismic hazard within intraplate settings.

Includes bibliographical references., In the design of many engineering components subjected to cyclic or repetitive loading,fatigue is an ever-present challenge. The engineer often endeavors to design the structural or component system in such a way that the cyclic stresses are below a particular fatigue limit, or, in fracture mechanics terms, at stress levels below threshold. In the Paris formulation, fatigue threshold, Δҝₜₕ, may be regarded as that value of cyclic stress intensity below which fatigue crack growth does not occur. For a particular material and environment, this threshold value, Δҝₜₕ, is determined experimentally by monitoring growth of a crack (typically in a compact tension ( CT) specimen) and continually reducing cyclic stress levels until the threshold condition is reached. This procedure is very cumbersome and time-consuming, and this project rather considers the design of a fracture mechanics specimen geometry in which there is a decreasing stress in tensity (with crack length) that facilitates determination of the threshold value simply at constant applied cyclic amplitude, and the crack length at which fatigue crack growth arrests.