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Implications for Synergus evolution One leading explanation for why parasitoid wasps are so diverse is that adaptations to new insect hosts may lead to host-associated differentiation and speciation (Stireman et al. 2005; Feder and Forbes 2010, Kaiser et al. 2015, König et al. 2015). When a parasitoid adopts a new host, trade-offs associated with adaptation to the new host can result in reproductive isolation from individuals attacking the ancestral host (Hood et al. 2015). We know surprisingly little about whether the same ecological differences can drive lineage divergence in insect inquilines: one exception is the tumbling flower beetle Mordellistena convicta (Coleoptera: Mordellidae), which feeds on the galls of two lineages of Eurosta solidaginis gall flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) on goldenrods (Solidaginis; Compositae). Life history and molecular work has shown that both E. solidaginis and M. convicta have formed host-associated lineages on two different species of goldenrod, suggesting that speciation has ‘cascaded’ across trophic levels (gall former to inquiline) (Abrahamson et al. 2003, Eubanks et al. 2003, Rhodes et al. 2012). This beetle system offers a compelling hint that ecological changes might lead to lineage divergence in inquilines, but missing is a broader study of ecological and host use patterns within an entire inquiline clade. What do we learn about the role of host shifts in Synergus evolution? Though not a comprehensive phylogenetic history of these species, our mtCOI tree of Nearctic Synergus (Fig. 2; Supp Figs 47 and 50 [online only]) nevertheless suggests many historical shifts between host tree sections (Quercus to Lobatae), between gall wasp species, and between gall morphologies. This is not a definitive signature that host shifts drive speciation in Synergus, but the broad correlation between ecological changes and the evolution of reproductive isolation suggests this as a leading hypothesis. Transitions among host wasps, galls, and tree sections all represent changes that—to differing extents—require the evolution of novel behaviors, life histories, and strategies for circumventing host defenses. The accumulation of such divergent characters in the context of different habitats has been shown to directly (Craig et al. 1993, Forbes et al. 2005, Fujiyama et al. 2013, Doellman et al. 2019, Hood et al. 2019) and indirectly (Nosil and Hohenlohe 2012) lead to the evolution of reproductive isolation in many different insect systems. An alternative to the above hypothesis is that ecological divergence among Synergus occurs after reproductive isolation evolves between lineages. For instance, perhaps Synergus speciate in the absence of divergent ecological selection (e.g., Nosil and Flaxman 2011), and then later shift into new hosts or habitats upon secondary contact because partitioning of environments facilitates coexistence of ecologically similar sympatric species (Dufour et al. 2017). One advantage of our renewed exploration of the Nearctic Synergus is that it suggests taxa for further study that may allow the disentanglement of these competing hypotheses. For instance, clades where individuals with little or no mtCOI differentiation have been reared from galls of different morphologies (e.g., clades 3, 9, 27) could be interrogated further. If experimental tests revealed significant host-associated reproductive isolation and/or population genetic analyses suggested evidence of host-associated genetic differentiation, these might support a hypothesis that difference in host use is contributing to divergence. Similarly, as new samples of Synergus from across a wider geographic area are added to this data set, an increasing role for geographic isolation might emerge between sister species.

Nearctic Synergus Diversity andTaxonomy One immediate lesson from this study is that the Nearctic Synergus harbor both cryptic and undiscovered species. For 5 of 11 previously named species in our collections, we find evidence of additional genetic, morphological, phenological (Fig. 4), and/or ecological structure indicative of>1 species. Three other putative species apparently fit no previous description. Because this was a geographically limited survey, it thus seems very likely that many more undiscovered species exist in North America, both as members of morphologically cryptic assemblages, and as undescribed species. Indeed, when recent authors have focused on the Nearctic, they have consistently added new species (e.g., Lobato-Vila and Pujade-Villar 2017; Lobato-Villa et al. 2018, 2019). The incompleteness of the record is perhaps unsurprising as most taxonomic and phylogenetic work has emphasized the Synergus of the western Palearctic (Penzes et al. 2012) while the most comprehensive list of Nearctic Synergus species is now>40 yr old (Burks 1979). A taxonomic revision of the Nearctic Synergus that incorporates molecular, morphological, and ecological data appears warranted, and, though such a revision is beyond the scope of this paper, it might be informed by some of our findings. Morphological characters historically used to sort Synergus into taxonomically relevant groups do not necessarily reflect characters shared due to common evolutionary histories. The Palearctic Synergus were initially divided into two major morphological groups (Mayr 1872): Section I, which are univoltine and usually not lethal to their associated galler, and Section II, which tend to be both bivoltine and lethal (Wiebes-Rijks 1979). The two sections also differed in patterns of microscopic punctures on their metasomal tergites. These sections were more recently revealed to be paraphyletic (Ács et al. 2010). One of the potential reasons for the disconnect between morphological and molecular data is that Synergus can be morphologically cryptic as well as exhibit variance in morphology within species (Wiebes-Rijks 1979). One morphological character previously suggested as useful for organizing the Nearctic fauna seems immediately relevant given these new results. Gillette (1896) split the genus into three ‘natural’ groups based on whether females of each species have 13, 14, or 15 segments in their flagella. Among our collections, we found only 14- and 15-segmented females (with S. lignicola being indeterminately 14-segmented), but all 15-segmented females (clades 12–15) grouped together on the mtCOI tree (Fig. 2; Supp Figs. 47 and 52 [online only]), suggesting a common ancestry among these samples. While we acknowledge caveats about inferring too much from a single short mitochondrial sequence (Funk and Omland 2003; and more on this below), this may be an early indication that antennal segment number is an informative character. To assist future efforts in this regard, we include supplemental profile and forewing pictures of wasps from each clade (Supp Figs. S1–S 46 [online only]) and have deposited examples of most clades into the collection of the University of Iowa Museum of Natural History., Published as part of Ward, Anna K. G., Sheikh, Sofia I. & Forbes, Andrew A., 2020, Diversity, Host Ranges, and Potential Drivers of Speciation the Inquiline Enemies of Oak Gall Wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), pp. 1-13 in Insect Systematics and Diversity 4 (6) on page 7, DOI: 10.1093/isd/ixaa017, {"references":["Lobato-Vila, I., and J. Pujade-Villar. 2017. Description of five new species of inquiline oak gall wasps of the genus Synergus Hartig (Hymenoptera, Cynipidae: Synergini) with partially smooth mesopleurae from Mexico. Zool. Stud. 56: 1 - 28.","Penzes, Z., C. T. Tang, P. Bihari, M. Bozso, S. Schweger, and G. Melika. 2012. Oak associated inquilines (Hymenoptera, Cynipidae, Synergini). TISCIA Monogr. Ser. 11: 1 - 76.","Burks, B. D. 1979. Superfamily Cynipoidea, pp. 1045 - 1107. In K. V. Krombein, P. D. Hurd, and D. R. Smith (eds.), Catalog of Hymenoptera in America north of Mexico, volume 1: Symphyta and Apocrita (Parasitica). Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC.","Mayr, G. 1872. Die Einmiethler der mitteleuropaischen Eichengallen. Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien 22: 669 - 726.","Wiebes-Rijks, A. A. 1979. A character analysis of the species Synergus Hartig, section II (Mayr, 1872) (Hymenoptera, Cynipidae). Zool. Med. Leiden. 53: 297 - 321","Acs, Z., R. J. Challis, P. Bihari, M. Blaxter, A. Hayward, G. Melika, G. Csoka, Z. Penzes, J. Pujade-Villar, J. L. Nieves-Aldrey, et al. 2010. Phylogeny and DNA barcoding of inquiline oak gall wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) of the Western Palaearctic. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 55: 210 - 225.","Gillette, C. P. 1896. A monograph of the genus Synergus. Trans. Am. Entomol. Soc. 23: 85 - 100.","Funk, D. J., and K. E. Omland. 2003. Species-level paraphyly and polyphyly: frequency, causes, and consequences, with insights from animal mitochondrial DNA. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 34: 397 - 423."]}

Spatial light modulators (SLMs) are popular tools for generating structured light fields and have fostered numerous applications in optics and photonics. Here, we explore the limits of what fields these devices are capable of generating and detecting in the context of so-called vortex beams carrying orbital angular momentum (OAM). Our main contributions are to quantify (theoretically and experimentally) how the pixelation of the SLM screen affects the quality of the generated vortex mode and to offer useful heuristics on how to optimise the performance of the displayed digital hologram. In so doing, we successfully generate and detect a very high order optical vortex mode with topological charge $\ell = 600$, the highest achieved to date using SLMs. Since the OAM degree of freedom is frequently touted as offering a potentially unbounded state space, we hope that this work will inspire researchers to make more use of higher order vortex modes.

Structured light, as a general term for arbitrary states of amplitude, phase, and polarization in optical fields, is highly topical because of a myriad of applications it has fostered. A geometric description to graphically group classes of structured light has obvious benefits, with some notable advances in analogous Poincaré sphere (PS) mapping for both spin and orbital angular momentum (OAM), as well as ray-optical PS approaches for propagation-invariant fields, but all limited in dimensionality they can describe. Here we propose a generalizedSU(2) PS for arbitrary dimensional structured light. The states on it represent extended families of beams with multidimensional ray-wave structures, accurately described by SU(2) symmetry groups. We outline how to construct this mapping theoretically, revealing insights into mode transformations involving OAM and geometric phase, and fully verify its efficacy experimentally. The generality of our approach is evident by the reduction to prior PS representations as special cases. We also demonstrate an extension of our approach to explain amore general high-dimensional vector beam. This construction naturally accounts for the salient topology of the classical PSs while bringing to more new degrees of freedom and dimensions for tailoring a larger variety of quantum-to-classical structured beams for a variety of applications.

Importance: Evidence regarding corticosteroid use for severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is limited.Objective: To determine whether hydrocortisone improves outcome for patients with severe COVID-19.Design, Setting, and Participants: An ongoing adaptive platform trial testing multiple interventions within multiple therapeutic domains, for example, antiviral agents, corticosteroids, or immunoglobulin. Between March 9 and June 17, 2020, 614 adult patients with suspected or confirmed COVID-19 were enrolled and randomized within at least 1 domain following admission to an intensive care unit (ICU) for respiratory or cardiovascular organ support at 121 sites in 8 countries. Of these, 403 were randomized to open-label interventions within the corticosteroid domain. The domain was halted after results from another trial were released. Follow-up ended August 12, 2020.Interventions: The corticosteroid domain randomized participants to a fixed 7-day course of intravenous hydrocortisone (50 mg or 100 mg every 6 hours) (n = 143), a shock-dependent course (50 mg every 6 hours when shock was clinically evident) (n = 152), or no hydrocortisone (n = 108).Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary end point was organ support-free days (days alive and free of ICU-based respiratory or cardiovascular support) within 21 days, where patients who died were assigned -1 day. The primary analysis was a bayesian cumulative logistic model that included all patients enrolled with severe COVID-19, adjusting for age, sex, site, region, time, assignment to interventions within other domains, and domain and intervention eligibility. Superiority was defined as the posterior probability of an odds ratio greater than 1 (threshold for trial conclusion of superiority >99%).Results: After excluding 19 participants who withdrew consent, there were 384 patients (mean age, 60 years; 29% female) randomized to the fixed-dose (n = 137), shock-dependent (n = 146), and no (n = 101) hydrocortisone groups; 379 (99%) completed the study and were included in the analysis. The mean age for the 3 groups ranged between 59.5 and 60.4 years; most patients were male (range, 70.6%-71.5%); mean body mass index ranged between 29.7 and 30.9; and patients receiving mechanical ventilation ranged between 50.0% and 63.5%. For the fixed-dose, shock-dependent, and no hydrocortisone groups, respectively, the median organ support-free days were 0 (IQR, -1 to 15), 0 (IQR, -1 to 13), and 0 (-1 to 11) days (composed of 30%, 26%, and 33% mortality rates and 11.5, 9.5, and 6 median organ support-free days among survivors). The median adjusted odds ratio and bayesian probability of superiority were 1.43 (95% credible interval, 0.91-2.27) and 93% for fixed-dose hydrocortisone, respectively, and were 1.22 (95% credible interval, 0.76-1.94) and 80% for shock-dependent hydrocortisone compared with no hydrocortisone. Serious adverse events were reported in 4 (3%), 5 (3%), and 1 (1%) patients in the fixed-dose, shock-dependent, and no hydrocortisone groups, respectively.Conclusions and Relevance: Among patients with severe COVID-19, treatment with a 7-day fixed-dose course of hydrocortisone or shock-dependent dosing of hydrocortisone, compared with no hydrocortisone, resulted in 93% and 80% probabilities of superiority with regard to the odds of improvement in organ support-free days within 21 days. However, the trial was stopped early and no treatment strategy met prespecified criteria for statistical superiority, precluding definitive conclusions.Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02735707.

High-dimensional entangled states are promising candidates for increasing the security and encoding capacity of quantum systems. While it is possible to witness and set bounds for the entanglement, precisely quantifying the dimensionality and purity in a fast and accurate manner remains an open challenge. Here, we report an approach that simultaneously returns the dimensionality and purity of high-dimensional entangled states by simple projective measurements. We show that the outcome of a conditional measurement returns a visibility that scales monotonically with entanglement dimensionality and purity, allowing for quantitative measurements for general photonic quantum systems. We illustrate our method using transverse spatial modes of photons that carry orbital angular momentum and verify high-dimensional entanglement over a wide range of state purities. Our approach advances the high-dimensional tool box for characterising quantum states by providing a simple and direct dimensionality and purity measure, even for mixed entangled states.

It is well-known that electric spin angular momentum and electric orbital angular momentum are conserved under paraxial propagation of travelling waves in free-space. Here we study the electric and magnetic angular momentum in counter-propagating waves and show both theoretically and experimentally that neither component alone is conserved except in special cases. We attribute this non-conservation to spin-spin and orbit-orbit coupling between the electric and magnetic fields. This work generalises previous findings based on travelling waves, explains the apparent spin-orbit coupling in counter-propagating paraxial light, and broadens our understanding of angular momentum conservation in arbitrary structured light waves.

Vectorially structured light has emerged as an enabling tool in many diverse applications, from communication to imaging, exploiting quantum-like correlations courtesy of a non-separable spatially varying polarization structure. Creating these states at the source remains challenging and is presently limited to two-dimensional vectorial states by customized lasers. Here we invoke ray-wave duality in a simple laser cavity to produce polarization marked multi-path modes that are non-separable in three degrees of freedom and in eight dimensions. As a topical example, we use our laser to produce the complete set of Greenberger-Horne-Zeilinger (GHZ) basis states, mimicking high-dimensional multi-partite entanglement with classical light, which we confirm by a new projection approach. We offer a complete theoretical framework for our laser based on SU(2) symmetry groups, revealing a rich parameter space for further exploitation. Our approach requires only a conventional laser with no special optical elements, is easily scaleable to higher dimensions, and offers a simple but elegant solution for at-the-source creation of classically entangled states of structured light, opening new applications in simulating and enhancing high-dimensional quantum systems.

In recent time there has been an increasing amount of interest in developing novel techniques for the generation of complex vector light beams. Amongst these, digital holography stands out as one of the most flexible and versatile with almost unlimited freedom to generate scalar and vector light beams with arbitrary polarisation distributions and spatial transverse profile. Recently, we put forward a novel method to quantify the non-separability of vector modes in which we reported first measurements of a compact and robust device to generate such vector modes that fully exploits the polarisation-independence of Digital Micromirror Devices (DMDs). In this manuscript we fully characterise this device and provide qualitative and quantitative analysis of the generated modes. First by reconstructing their transverse polarisation distribution, using stokes polarimetry, followed by a measure of their degree of non-separability, determined through the concurrence., Comment: 7 pages, 5 figures

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This document includes the completed PRISMA-P checklist for the paper 'Methods used to meta-analyse results from interrupted time series studies: A methodological systematic review protocol'

The non-separability between the spatial and polarisation Degrees of Freedom (DoFs) of complex vector light fields has drawn significant attention in recent time. Key to this are its remarkable similarities with quantum entanglement, with quantum-like effects observed at the classical level. Crucially, this parallelism enables the use of quantum tools to quantify the coupling between the spatial and polarisation DoFs, usually implemented with polarisation-dependent spatial light modulators, which requires the splitting of the vector mode into two orthogonal polarisation components. Here we put forward a novel approach that relies on the use of Digital Micromirror Devices (DMDs) for fast, cheap and robust measurement, while the polarisation-independent nature of DMDs enables a reduction in the number of required measurements by 25\%. We tested our approach experimentally on cylindrical vector modes with arbitrary degrees of non-separability, of great relevance in a wide variety of applications. Our technique provides a reliable way to measure in real time the purity of vector modes, paving the way to novel applications where the degree of non-separability can be used as an optical sensor., Comment: Five pages, 5 figure

Supplemental material, sj-pdf-3-smm-10.1177_0962280220948550 for Extending the I-squared statistic to describe treatment effect heterogeneity in cluster, multi-centre randomized trials and individual patient data meta-analysis by Karla Hemming, James P Hughes, Joanne E McKenzie and Andrew B Forbes in Statistical Methods in Medical Research

One of the most prominent features of quantum entanglement is its invariability under local unitary transformations, which implies the degree of entanglement remains constant during free-space propagation. While this is true for quantum and classically--entangled modes, here we demonstrate a novel type of classically-entangled modes that experience an entanglement decay upon free-space propagation. We show this by numerical simulations and corroborate experimentally. Our results evinces novel properties of classically-entangled modes, which pave the way to novel applications., Comment: 6 pages, 5 figures

This document includes the data extraction form (version 1) for the paper 'Methods used to meta-analyse results from interrupted time series studies: A methodological systematic review protocol'

Vector beams are inhomogeneously polarized optical fields with nonseparable, quantum-like correlations between their polarisation and spatial components, and hold tremendous promise for classical and quantum communication across various channels, e.g. the atmosphere, underwater, and in optical fibre. Here we show that by exploiting their quantum-like features by virtue of the nonseparability of the field, the decay of both the polarisation and spatial components can be studied in tandem. In particular, we invoke the principle of channel state duality to show that the degree of nonseparability of any vector mode is purely determined by that of a maximally nonseparable one, which we confirm using orbital angular momentum (OAM) as an example for topological charges of l = 1 and l = 10 in a turbulent atmosphere. A consequence is that the well-known cylindrical vector vortex beams are sufficient to predict the behaviour of all vector OAM states through the channel, and find that the rate of decay in vector quality decreases with increasing OAM value, even though the spread in OAM is opposite, increasing with OAM. Our approach offers a fast and easy probe of noisy channels, while at the same time revealing the power of quantum tools applied to classical light.

Supplemental_Material for Applications of Two-Eyed Seeing in Primary Research Focused on Indigenous Health: A Scoping Review by Andrew Forbes, Stephen Ritchie, Jennifer Walker and Nancy Young in International Journal of Qualitative Methods

Additional file 1.