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A correction to the article on mutational dynamics and phylogenetic utility of noncoding chloroplast DNA in which colors of intron and intergenic spacer were exchanged is presented.

In this study, we present an overall phylogenetic framework for Dianthus using four plastid regions (matKtrnK-psbA, rpl32-trnL, trnQ-rps16) and nuclear ITS and a species-level checklist for the genus developed by using all available databases and the literature. The trees from the plastid dataset depict a clade of Dianthus that also includes Velezia and a few taxa of Petrorhagia. New combinations in Dianthus are provided for these species. The checklist of Dianthus in this new delimitation covers 1781 names, with 384 accepted species, 150 subspecies, 12 heterotypic varieties and two forms (not counting autonyms), 1050 synonyms, 22 hybrid names and 172 unresolved names, 3 names were excluded. Implications for the evolution of flower characters, life forms, biogeography, as well as sectional classification are discussed based on the phylogenetic framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A spectrum of eight pharmacologically important secondary compounds, all putatively belonging to the polyketide pathway (hypericin, pseudohypericin, emodin, hyperforin, hyperoside, rutin, quercetin, and quercitrin) were analyzed in several hypericin-producing species of Hypericum by LC–MS/MS. Different organs such as leaves, stems and roots of wild-grown plants of Hypericum hirsutum L., Hypericum maculatum Crantz s. l., Hypericum montanum L., Hypericum tetrapterum Fr. collected in Slovakia and of Hypericum perforatum L. collected in India were examined individually. Highest contents of hypericin, pseudohypericin, and emodin were found in H. montanum, suggesting that there are alternative species to H. perforatum with high pharmaceutical value. Amounts of hyperforin and quercetin were highest in H. perforatum, whereas highest contents of hyperoside and quercitrin were found in H. maculatum. A significant positive correlation between hypericin and pseudohypericin as well as between hypericin and emodin was observed by Kruskal’s multidimensional scaling (MDS), indicating a parallel enhancement of emodin as a common precursor in the biosynthetic pathways of hypericin and pseudohypericin. Furthermore, MDS combined with principal component analysis (PCA) revealed strong correlations in the occurrence of pseudohypericin and emodin, pseudohypericin and quercitrin, hypericin and quercitrin, emodin and quercitrin, hyperoside and quercitrin, rutin and quercetin, and, hyperforin and quercetin. On the other hand, rutin showed a negative correlation with emodin as well as with quercitrin. Furthermore, hierarchical agglomerative cluster analysis (HACA) clustered hypericin and pseudohypericin, grouping emodin at equal distance from both. Considerable infraspecific variability in secondary compound spectrum and load of different populations of H. maculatum from Slovakia underscores the need for detailed studies of genotypic variation and environmental factors in relation to polyketide biosynthesis and accumulation. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

High Andean forests harbor a remarkably high biodiversity and play a key role in providing vital ecosystem services for neighboring cities and settlements. However, they are among the most fragmented and threatened ecosystems in the neotropics. To preserve their unique biodiversity, a deeper understanding of the effects of anthropogenic perturbations on them is urgently needed. Here, we characterized the plant communities of high Andean forest remnants in the hinterland of Bogotá in 32 0.04 ha plots. We assessed the woody vegetation and sampled the understory and epiphytic cover. We gathered data on compositional and structural parameters and compiled a broad array of variables related to anthropogenic disturbance, ranging from local to landscape‐wide metrics. We also assessed phylogenetic diversity and functional diversity. We employed nonmetric multidimensional scaling (NMDS) to select meaningful variables in a first step of the analysis. Then, we performed partial redundancy analysis (pRDA) and generalized linear models (GLMs) in order to test how selected environmental and anthropogenic variables are affecting the composition, diversity, and aboveground biomass of these forests. Identified woody vegetation and understory layer communities were characterized by differences in elevation, temperature, and relative humidity, but were also related to different levels of human influence. We found that the increase of human‐related disturbance resulted in less phylogenetic diversity and in the phylogenetic clustering of the woody vegetation and in lower aboveground biomass (AGB) values. As to the understory, disturbance was associated with a higher diversity, jointly with a higher phylogenetic dispersion. The most relevant disturbance predictors identified here were as follows: edge effect, proximity of cattle, minimum fragment age, and median patch size. Interestingly, AGB was efficiently predicted by the proportion of late successional species. We therefore recommend the use of AGB and abundance of late successional species as indicators of human disturbance on high Andean forests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Campanula is one of the species-rich genera of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), in a wider sense with ∼600 species, growing in a wide range of habitats in the northern hemisphere. The Caucasus is one of the areas with especially many endemic Campanula species. The Scapiflorae group comprises alpine and subalpine perennial rocky plants, which develop numerous short single-flowered stems from a basal leaf rosette. In its current circumscription based on the comparative analysis of selected morphological characters, it consists mostly of species endemic to the Caucasus, and some in the Alps and North-East Asia, and it is classified as C. subg. Scapiflorae. We performed a molecular phylogenetic analysis including a dense sampling of C. subg. Scapiflorae and other Caucasian Campanula species and representatives of the large Eurasian Campanula CAM17 clade. Campanula subg. Scapiflorae is non-monophyletic in its current circumscription, but the Caucasian species of this group form a well-supported clade. Ancestral character state reconstruction across the Eurasian CAM17 clade shows that unbranched inflorescences, a basal leaf rosette, calyx appendages and a perennial life form with numerous low stems, which is characteristic for the Scapiflorae group, evolved convergently at least five times in unrelated high mountain species such as C. alpina or C. petrophila. The Caucasian clade comprises four major sublineages in our analyses, suggesting complex biogeographic patterns among the Greater and Lesser Caucasus mountain ranges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Premise of the Study: Philodendron is a large genus of ~560 species and among the most conspicuous epiphytic components of Neotropical forests, yet its phylogenetic relationships, timing of divergence, and diversification history have remained unclear. We present a comprehensive phylogenetic study for Philodendron and investigate its diversification, including divergence‐time estimates and diversification rate shift analyses. Methods: We performed the largest phylogenetic reconstruction for Philodendron to date, including 125 taxa with a combined dataset of three plastid regions (petD, rpl16, and trnK/matK). We estimated divergence times using Bayesian evolutionary analysis sampling trees and inferred shifts in diversification rates using Bayesian analysis of macroevolutionary mixtures. Key Results: We found that Philodendron, its three subgenera, and the closely related genus Adelonema are monophyletic. Within Philodendron subgenus Philodendron, 12 statistically well‐supported clades are recognized. The genus Philodendron originated ~25 mya and a diversification rate upshift was detected at the origin of subgenus Philodendron ~12 mya. Conclusions: Philodendron is a species‐rich Neotropical lineage that diverged from Adelonema during the late Oligocene. Within Philodendron, the three subgenera currently accepted are recovered in two lineages: one contains the subgenera Meconostigma and Pteromischum and the other contains subgenus Philodendron. The lineage containing subgenera Meconostigma and Pteromischum underwent a consistent diversification rate. By contrast, a diversification rate upshift occurred within subgenus Philodendron ~12 mya. This diversification rate upshift is associated with the species radiation of the most speciose subgenus within Philodendron. The sections accepted within subgenus Philodendron are not congruent with the clades recovered. Instead, the clades are geographically defined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Species-rich dry grasslands have declined drastically in recent decades leading to spatial isolation of associated species. This can disrupt gene flow leading to genetic erosion, inbreeding and increased differentiation. Using Scabiosa canescens as a case for a threatened central European species confined to dry grasslands, we investigate the genetic consequences of spatial and functional isolation. In particular, inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity are expected to be more pronounced in populations at the northern margin of the sampling area due to more intense agriculture, less suitable habitat and potential post-glacial colonization from the south. Location Germany. Methods We genotyped 563 individuals at 10 microsatellite loci from 22 populations across the species' range in Germany. We analyse spatial genetic structure and patterns of isolation by distance ( IBD) at multiple scales. Further, we identify latitudinal and altitudinal patterns of genetic diversity and inbreeding. Results We found strong population differentiation but no IBD up to at least 200 km. Levels of inbreeding were positively correlated with latitude and tended to decline with altitude. An integration of altitude and latitude into temperature-corrected altitude ( CA) was positively correlated with genetic diversity. Populations in the Upper Rhine Valley appear to have a distinct ancestry. Main conclusions We interpret the strong population differentiation combined with no IBD up to at least 200 km as a sign for disrupted extensive gene flow. A trend for reduced genetic diversity towards the northern populations occurring at lower altitudes is probably driven by more intense land use but cannot be conclusively distinguished from other potential factors such as a more recent colonization history. Apart from the distinct Upper Rhine Valley populations, our findings suggest that assisted gene flow up to 100 km would mitigate genetic differentiation, inbreeding and loss of genetic diversity caused by disrupted long-distance dispersal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim Using the Acalyphoideae, we explore the origin and diversification of the Caribbean flora. This lineage of flowering plants constitutes an important component of the flora of the Caribbean islands with many endemics. Furthermore, because it is also diverse in adjacent Mexico, Mesoamerica and South America, it allows a representative analysis of possible migration routes into the Caribbean. Location Neotropics, Cuba, Hispaniola and the Caribbean region, Mexico and Mesoamerica. Methods We generated a well-resolved and dated phylogenetic hypothesis based on a dense sampling, in particular of the New World taxa but also representing all remaining Acalyphoideae, and combined datasets of chloroplast spacers and introns. Bayesian divergence-time estimation was applied to determine node ages. Ancestral states of distributional areas were reconstructed in a Bayesian framework to determine the geographical origin of the Caribbean ancestors. Results A Neotropical clade started to diversify 59.29 [50.41-68.44 95% highest posterior density ( HPD)] Ma within the Acalyphoideae. The Caribbean islands then were reached several times independently from the Miocene onwards. The exclusively Caribbean Leucocroton- Lasiocroton- Garciadelia [9.1 (6.3-12.3 95% HPD) Ma] and Acidoton- Platygyna [9.3 (5.2-15.4 95% HPD) Ma] clades exhibit one of the most successful plant radiations in the region, and Caribbean subclades of Acalypha and Bernardia just date back to the Pliocene and Pleistocene, respectively. Main conclusions Our data show that Mexico and Mesoamerica have played a key role as a source for today's Caribbean Acalyphoideae. Their ancestors arrived from the mainland to the Caribbean islands during the Miocene when Caribbean land masses were completely separated and then diversified in situ. We postulate long-distance dispersal to have played a major role for colonizing the Caribbean. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Campanula L. is among the genera with the highest number of endemics in the Caucasus ecoregion. A group of attractive alpine and subalpine perennial rosette plants with short single-flowered stems centred in the Caucasus has been treated as Campanulasubg.Scapiflorae or at other ranks, with considerably varying circumscription and classification. Molecular phylogenetic analysis of three plastid DNA regions ( trnK/matK , petD , rpl16 ) of a strongly extended sampling, comprising 23 of the 27 commonly accepted taxa (85%) with 330 accessions built on and guided by the results of our previous study of the group, confirmed the polyphyly of C.subg.Scapiflorae in any of its circumscriptions. The core clade of the group comprises exclusively endemics and near-endemics of the Caucasus and is treated here as C.sect.Tridentatae in a revised circumscription. The phylogenetic relationships of the disparate other elements of the Scapiflorae group are outlined., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Nana Silakadze, Marine Mosulishvili, Thomas Borsch, Norbert Kilian.)

A taxonomic backbone of the Plumbaginaceae is presented and the current state of knowledge on phylogenetic relationships and taxon limits is reviewed as a basis for the accepted taxon concepts. In total, 4,476 scientific names and designations are treated of which 30 are not in the family Plumbaginaceae. The Plumbaginaceae are subdivided in three tribes with 26 genera and 1,179 accepted species. Two subgenera, 17 sections, two subsections and 187 infraspecific taxa are accepted. At the species and infraspecific level 2,782 synonyms were assigned to accepted taxa, whereas 194 names were excluded from the core checklist (i.e., unplaced taxa, infrageneric subdivisions with still uncertain application, names of verified uncertain application, invalid horticultural names, excluded names from other families, other excluded designations, and unresolved names). The EDIT Platform for Cybertaxonomy was utilized as the tool to compile and manage the names and further taxonomic data under explicit taxon concepts. Secundum references are given in case taxon concepts were taken from the literature, whereas this study serves as reference for newly circumscribed taxa. The family's division into the tribes Aegialitideae, Limonieae, and Plumbagineae departs from earlier two-subfamily classifications, prompted by recent phylogenetic findings that challenge the subfamilial affinity of Aegialitis . The genus Acantholimon was extended to include Gladiolimon , as currently available phylogenetic and morphological data support this merger. In Limonium , all accepted species could be assigned to sections and subsections or the "Mediterranean lineage", respectively, making use of the phylogenetic distribution of their morphological characters and states. A new combination and/or status is proposed for Dyerophytumsocotranum , Limoniumthymoides , Limonium×fraternum , Limonium×rossmaessleri , and Limoniumsect.Jovibarba. Special attention is given to nomenclatural issues, particularly for Staticenomenambiguum to resolve the names under accepted names. The use of artificial groupings like "aggregates", "complexes" and "species groups" in alpha-taxonomic treatments is discussed. The taxonomic backbone will receive continued updates and through the Caryophyllales Taxonomic Expert Network, it contributes the treatment of the Plumbaginaceae for the World Flora Online., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Maryam Malekmohammadi, Konstantina Koutroumpa, Manuel B. Crespo, Gianniantonio Domina, Nadja Korotkova, Hossein Akhani, Sabine von Mering, Thomas Borsch, Walter G. Berendsohn.)

The Gynoxyoid clade of the Senecioneae (Asteraceae) until now included the five genera Aequatorium , Gynoxys , Nordenstamia , Paracalia and Paragynoxys as diagnosed using selected morphological characters. In their pre-phylogenetic circumscription, the genera Aequatorium and Paragynoxys were considered to inhabit the northern Andes in contrast to Nordenstamia and Paracalia that occur in the central Andes. The most species-rich genus, Gynoxys , was believed to be distributed throughout the Andes. We use a recently established plastid phylogenomic framework that rendered Gynoxys paraphyletic to further evaluate the delimitation of genera in the Gynoxyoid clade. We examine the morphological variation of all members of the Gynoxyoid to identify characters potentially informative at genus level. This results in a matrix of eleven, mostly multistate characters, including those originally used to diagnose these genera. The ancestral character state inference displays a high level of homoplasy, but nevertheless supports the recognition of four genera. Aequatorium is characterised by white radiate capitula. Paracalia and Paragynoxys share white flowers and floral characteristics, such as flower opening and length of disc flowers lobes, as plesiomorphic states, but differ in habit (scandent shrubs vs. trees). Paracalia also retained white flowers, but its two species are characterised by the absence of outer phyllaries. The genera Gynoxys and Nordenstamia comprise species with yellow capitula which appear to be a derived feature in the Gynoxyoids. The genus Nordenstamia , with eight species, is synonymised under Gynoxys since molecular evidence shows its species nested within various parts of the Gynoxys subclade and the morphological variation of Nordenstamia falls well within that of Gynoxys . With the goal to assign all species to four genera ( Aequatorium , Gynoxys , Paracalia and Paragynoxys ), we assess the states for the eleven characters for all members of the Gynoxyoids and generate new ETS and ITS sequences for 171 specimens belonging to 49 species to further support their generic placement. We provide a taxonomic treatment for the four genera recognised here including amended diagnoses and morphological descriptions. Furthermore, a species-level taxonomic backbone is elaborated for all genera using electronic tools that list 158 currently accepted names and synonyms (209 names in total) with the respective protologue and type information, as well as notes on the current understanding of species limits. Eleven names are newly synonymised, two are lectotypified and eight are newly transferred to other genera., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist., (Belen Escobari, Thomas Borsch, Norbert Kilian.)

Background and Aims: The genus Buxus has high levels of endemism in the Caribbean flora, with ~50 taxa. In Cuba, 82 % grow on ultramafic substrates and 59 % are nickel (Ni) accumulators or Ni hyperaccumulators. Hence it is an ideal model group to study if this diversification could be related to adaptation to ultramafic substrates and to Ni hyperaccumulation., Methods: We generated a well-resolved molecular phylogeny, including nearly all of the Neotropical and Caribbean Buxus taxa. To obtain robust divergence times we tested for the effects of different calibration scenarios, and we reconstructed ancestral areas and ancestral character states. Phylogenetic trees were examined for trait-independent shifts in diversification rates and we used multi-state models to test for state-dependent speciation and extinction rates. Storms could have contributed to Cuba acting as a species pump and to Buxus reaching other Caribbean islands and northern South America'., Key Results: We found a Caribbean Buxus clade with Mexican ancestors, encompassing three major subclades, which started to radiate during the middle Miocene (13.25 Mya). Other Caribbean islands and northern South America were reached from ~3 Mya onwards., Conclusions: An evolutionary scenario is evident in which Buxus plants able to grow on ultramafic substrates by exaptation became ultramafic substrate endemics and evolved stepwise from Ni tolerance through Ni accumulation to Ni hyperaccumulation, which has triggered species diversification of Buxus in Cuba. Storms could have contributed to Cuba acting as a species pump and to Buxus reaching other Caribbean islands and northern South America'., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Annals of Botany Company. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Most plastid genome sequences are assembled from short-read whole-genome sequencing data, yet the impact that sequencing coverage and the choice of assembly software can have on the accuracy of the resulting assemblies is poorly understood. In this study, we test the impact of both factors on plastid genome assembly in the threatened and rare endemic shrub Calligonum bakuense . We aim to characterize the differences across plastid genome assemblies generated by different assembly software tools and levels of sequencing coverage and to determine if these differences are large enough to affect the phylogenetic position inferred for C. bakuense compared to congeners. Four assembly software tools (FastPlast, GetOrganelle, IOGA, and NOVOPlasty) and seven levels of sequencing coverage across the plastid genome (original sequencing depth, 2,000x, 1,000x, 500x, 250x, 100x, and 50x) are compared in our analyses. The resulting assemblies are evaluated with regard to reproducibility, contig number, gene complement, inverted repeat length, and computation time; the impact of sequence differences on phylogenetic reconstruction is assessed. Our results show that software choice can have a considerable impact on the accuracy and reproducibility of plastid genome assembly and that GetOrganelle produces the most consistent assemblies for C. bakuense . Moreover, we demonstrate that a sequencing coverage between 500x and 100x can reduce both the sequence variability across assembly contigs and computation time. When comparing the most reliable plastid genome assemblies of C. bakuense , a sequence difference in only three nucleotide positions is detected, which is less than the difference potentially introduced through software choice., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Giorgashvili, Reichel, Caswara, Kerimov, Borsch and Gruenstaeudl.)

In this study, we present an overall phylogenetic framework for Dianthus using four plastid regions ( matK - trnK - psbA , rpl32 - trnL , trnQ - rps16 ) and nuclear ITS and a species-level checklist for the genus developed by using all available databases and the literature. The trees from the plastid dataset depict a clade of Dianthus that also includes Velezia and a few taxa of Petrorhagia . New combinations in Dianthus are provided for these species. The checklist of Dianthus in this new delimitation covers 1781 names, with 384 accepted species, 150 subspecies, 12 heterotypic varieties and two forms (not counting autonyms), 1050 synonyms, 22 hybrid names and 172 unresolved names, 3 names were excluded. Implications for the evolution of flower characters, life forms, biogeography, as well as sectional classification are discussed based on the phylogenetic framework., (Georgia Fassou, Nadja Korotkova, Anush Nersesyan, Marcus A. Koch, Panayotis Dimopoulos, Thomas Borsch.)

VIETBIO [Innovative approaches to biodiversity discovery and characterisation in Vietnam] is a bilateral German-Vietnamese research and capacity building project focusing on the development and transfer of new methods and technology towards an integrated biodiversity discovery and monitoring system for Vietnam. Dedicated field training and testing of innovative methodologies were undertaken in Cuc Phuong National Park as part and with support of the project, which led to the new biodiversity data and records made available in this article collection. VIETBIO is a collaboration between the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin - Leibniz Institute for Evolution and Biodiversity Science (MfN), the Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum, Freie Universität Berlin (BGBM) and the Vietnam National Museum of Nature (VNMN), the Institute of Ecology and Biological Resources (IEBR), the Southern Institute of Ecology (SIE), as well as the Institute of Tropical Biology (ITB); all Vietnamese institutions belong to the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology (VAST). The article collection "VIETBIO" (https://doi.org/10.3897/bdj.coll.63) reports original results of recent biodiversity recording and survey work undertaken in Cuc Phuong National Park, northern Vietnam, under the framework of the VIETBIO project. The collection consist of this "main" cover paper - characterising the study area, the general project approaches and activities, while also giving an extensive overview on previous studies from this area - followed by individual papers for higher taxa as studied during the project. The main purpose is to make primary biodiversity records openly available, including several new and interesting findings for this biodiversity-rich conservation area. All individual data papers with their respective primary records are expected to provide useful baselines for further taxonomic, phylogenetic, ecological and conservation-related studies on the respective taxa and, thus, will be maintained as separate datasets, including separate GUIDs also for further updating., (Virginia K. Duwe, Lien Van Vu, Thomas von Rintelen, Eckhard von Raab-Straube, Stefan Schmidt, Sinh Van Nguyen, Thong Dinh Vu, Tu Van Do, Truong Hong Luu, Vuong Ba Truong, Vanessa Di Vincenzo, Olga Schmidt, Falko Glöckler, Regine Jahn, Robert Lücking, Katharina C. M. von Oheimb, Parm Viktor von Oheimb, Sandra Heinze, Nelida Abarca, Sarah Bollendorff, Thomas Borsch, Eliana Buenaventura, Huong Thi Thu Dang, Thuy Dieu Dinh, Hai Thi Do, Sarah Ehlers, Jörg Freyhof, Sofía Hayden, Peter Hein, Tuan Anh Hoang, Duc Minh Hoang, Son Nghia Hoang, Harald Kürschner, Wolf-Henning Kusber, Han Ngoc Le, Trang Quynh Le, Mattes Linde, Wolfram Mey, Hiep Duc Nguyen, Man Thi Nguyen, Minh Trung Nguyen, Dat Van Nguyen, Tu Van Nguyen, Vu Dang Hoang Nguyen, Dat Quoc Nguyen, Michael Ohl, Gerald Parolly, Tan Nhat Pham, Phu Van Pham, Katharina Rabe, Bernhard Schurian, Oliver Skibbe, Anna Sulikowska-Drozd, Quang Van To, Tam Quang Truong, Jonas Zimmermann, Christoph L. Häuser.)

Premise: The genus Gynoxys and relatives form a species-rich lineage of Andean shrubs and trees with low genetic distances within the sunflower subtribe Tussilaginineae. Previous molecular phylogenetic investigations of the Tussilaginineae have included few, if any, representatives of this Gynoxoid group or reconstructed ambiguous patterns of relationships for it., Methods: We sequenced complete plastid genomes of 21 species of the Gynoxoid group and related Tussilaginineae and conducted detailed comparisons of the phylogenetic relationships supported by the gene, intron, and intergenic spacer partitions of these genomes. We also evaluated the impact of manual, motif-based adjustments of automatic DNA sequence alignments on phylogenetic tree inference., Results: Our results indicate that the inclusion of all plastid genome partitions is needed to infer well-supported phylogenetic trees of the Gynoxoid group. Whole plastome-based tree inference suggests that the genera Gynoxys and Nordenstamia are polyphyletic and form the core clade of the Gynoxoid group. This clade is sister to a clade of Aequatorium and Paragynoxys and also includes some but not all representatives of Paracalia., Conclusions: The concatenation and combined analysis of all plastid genome partitions and the construction of manually-curated, motif-based DNA sequence alignments are found to be instrumental in the recovery of well-supported relationships of the Gynoxoid group. We demonstrate that the correct assessment of homology in genome-level plastid sequence data sets is crucial for subsequent phylogeny reconstruction and that the manual post-processing of multiple sequence alignments improves the reliability of such reconstructions amid low genetic distances between taxa., (© 2021 The Authors. American Journal of Botany published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Botanical Society of America.)

Background and Aims: Many African genera of the Amaranthaceae exhibit unique inflorescences that include sterile flowers modified to hooks or spines. Considering that the abundance of large terrestrial herbivores increased on the African continent with the expansion of grassland and savannah ecosystems, modified sterile flowers could have been an innovation that boosted the diversification of an African achyranthoid clade of Amaranthaceae, with large animals serving dispersal., Methods: We generated an extensively sampled phylogeny comprising 26 of the 31 achyranthoid genera as well as representatives of all other lineages of Amaranthaceae. Phylogenetic tree inference employed four genomic regions, using parsimony, likelihood and Bayesian inference methods. We estimated divergence times, evaluated trait-dependant changes and species diversification rates using state-dependent speciation and extinction models, and reconstructed ancestral character states for modified sterile flowers., Key Results: The achyranthoids were found to be a major clade of the Amaranthaceae, comprising mostly African members. Phylogenetic relationships within this clade were well resolved and supported two main subclades. Several genera were found to be polyphyletic. Our results indicate that the achyranthoids started to diversify ~28 million years ago, and that modified sterile flowers evolved multiple times. An asymmetry in transition rates towards the gain of sterile flowers was observed, whereas no trait-dependent increase in species diversification rates was detected. Bayesian rate heterogeneity analyses indicated that the achyranthoids diversified without significant rate shifts., Conclusions: The accumulation of modified sterile flowers within achyranthoids appears to result from the higher transition rates in favour of modified sterile flowers. Multiple gains suggest an adaptive value for this trait. However, epizoochory does not appear to fuel species diversification, possibly due to extensive gene flow through regularly migrating mammals, which limits the possibility of speciation by isolation.

The conceptualization and coding of characters is a difficult issue in phylogenetic systematics, no matter which inference method is used when reconstructing phylogenetic trees or if the characters are just mapped onto a specific tree. Complex characters are groups of features that can be divided into simpler hierarchical characters (reductive coding), although the implied hierarchical relational information may change depending on the type of coding (composite vs. reductive). Up to now, there is no common agreement to either code characters as complex or simple. Phylogeneticists have discussed which coding method is best but have not incorporated the heuristic process of reciprocal illumination to evaluate the coding. Composite coding allows to test whether 1) several characters were linked resulting in a structure described as a complex character or trait or 2) independently evolving characters resulted in the configuration incorrectly interpreted as a complex character. We propose that complex characters or character states should be decomposed iteratively into simpler characters when the original homology hypothesis is not corroborated by a phylogenetic analysis, and the character or character state is retrieved as homoplastic. We tested this approach using the case of fruit types within subfamily Cinchonoideae (Rubiaceae). The iterative reductive coding of characters associated with drupes allowed us to unthread fruit evolution within Cinchonoideae. Our results show that drupes and berries are not homologous. As a consequence, a more precise ontology for the Cinchonoideae drupes is required.

Biosynthesis of the hypericins that accumulate in the dark glands of some members of the genus Hypericum is poorly understood. The gene named hyp-1, isolated from Hypericum perforatum L. has been proposed as playing an important role in the final steps of hypericin biosynthesis. To study the role of this candidate gene in relation to the production of hypericins, the expression of this gene was studied in 15 Hypericum species with varying ability to synthesise hypericin. While the accumulation of hypericins and emodin, an intermediate in the respective pathway, was associated with the dark glands in the hypericin-producing species, the hyp-1 gene was expressed in all studied species regardless of whether hypericins and emodin were detected in the plants. The coding sequences of hyp-1 cDNA were isolated from all species and showed more than 86% similarity to each other. Although, in general, an increased level of the hyp-1 gene transcript was detected in hypericin-producing species, several of the hypericin-lacking species expressed comparable levels as well. Our results question the role of the hyp-1 gene product as a key enzyme responsible for biosynthesis of hypericins in the genus Hypericum. The function of the hyp-1 gene may not be restricted to hypericin biosynthesis only, or some additional factors are necessary for completion of hypericin biosynthesis.