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Türkiye, bulunduğu matematiksel konumuna ve yeryüzü şekillerine bağlı olarak son derece zengin doğal ortam özelliklerine sahiptir. Türkiye topografyasının büyük bölümünü dağlık alanlar oluşturur. Bu alanlar, taşıdığı doğal güzelliğin yanında farklı jeomorfolojik üniteler nedeniyle pek çok endemik bitki ve hayvan türüne de ev sahipliği yapar. Ayrıca önemli sulak alanların oluşmasında, suyun kaynağı konumundadır. Son yıllarda hızla gelişen ve çeşitlenen turizm etkinlikleri içerisinde, Dağlık alanların taşıdığı önem gün geçtikçe artmaktadır. Bu alanlarda pek çok yeni hizmet kolunun da doğmasına neden olmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, Türkiye’nin fiziki yapısı içerisinde dağlık alanların taşıdığı turizm potansiyeline dikkat çekilmiş, kırsal kalkınma açısından bu alanlardaki alternatif turizm imkânları araştırılmıştır. Turkey, depending on the location and forms of the earth surfaces, has an extremely rich natural environment. A large part of Turkey topography consists of the mountainous areas. These areas, beside natural beauty, have rich recourses from the aspects of wild life, endemic plants and geomorphologic units. Furthermore they are source of significant wetlands. In recent years, the importance of the mountainous areas in the rapidly growing and diversifying tourism activities is increasing day by day In this study, researched for the rural tourism potential and alternative tourism opportunities of mountainous areas in Turkey

83 σ., Εθνικό Μετσόβιο Πολυτεχνείο--Μεταπτυχιακή Εργασία. Διεπιστημονικό-Διατμηματικό Πρόγραμμα Μεταπτυχιακών Σπουδών (Δ.Π.Μ.Σ.) “Περιβάλλον και Ανάπτυξη”, Η παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία πραγματεύεται την ανάπλαση της πλατείας του Μετσόβου και του περιβάλλοντος υπαίθριου δημόσιου χώρου. Σε πρώτη φάση αναλύονται τα προβλήματα και τα χαρακτηριστικά της περιοχής μελέτης και του ευρύτερου χώρου μέσα από τη διαδικασία της επιτόπιας έρευνας, την καταγραφή των υφιστάμενων χρήσεων γης καθώς και την έρευνα με αεροφωτογραφίες και επιστημονικές μελέτες που έχουν πραγματοποιηθεί για το Μέτσοβο. Αναζητούνται οι ανάγκες και οι λόγοι που καθιστούν απαραίτητο τον ανασχεδιασμό της πλατείας και του ευρύτερου υπαίθριου χώρου γύρω της και μέσα από τον αρχιτεκτονικό σχεδιασμό, τα εργαλεία του και τη θεωρία που αφορά στις αστικές αναπλάσεις προτείνονται οι βέλτιστες δυνατές λύσεις οι οποίες θα αποδώσουν:  Αισθητική αναβάθμιση.  Λειτουργική βελτίωση.  Ανάδειξη του ιστορικού και πολιτισμικού πλούτου.  Εναρμόνιση του προτεινόμενου έργου με το φυσικό περιβάλλον καθώς και τον αρχιτεκτονικό χαρακτήρα του οικισμού.  Συμβολή στην ολοκληρωμένη ανάπτυξη του Δήμου Μετσόβου. Αναλύονται όλες οι προτάσεις με σχέδια και χάρτες, αποτυπώνεται η υπάρχουσα κατάσταση της περιοχής και αποδίδονται οι λύσεις με κατόψεις, τομές, σκίτσα και τρισδιάστατα σχέδια σε υπολογιστικό περιβάλλον. Παράλληλα, παρουσιάζεται το συνολικό κόστος κατασκευής της πρότασης ανάπλασης, προκειμένου να αποδοθεί μία πραγματική διάσταση στο αντικείμενο της εργασίας, αλλά και να αποτυπωθεί η λύση με πραγματικούς αριθμούς και κόστη., This study deals with the restoration of the central square of the town of Metsovo. The main space of the central square along with its surrounding public space (the streets and the small hill) are the object of this architectural study. The aesthetic and the functional problems as well as the characteristics of the study area are studied and analyzed through a fieldwork process, which consists of identification of the existing land uses, aerial photo survey and analysis of scientific studies carried out for Metsovo. In a next step, the needs and the causes which necessitate the redesign and restoration of the central square and its surrounding public space are examined and documented. The best possible design solutions are then stated through the architectural design process and its tools, along with and the relative urban regeneration theory. These aim to:  Aesthetic enhancement.  Functional improvement.  Promotion of local historical and cultural heritage.  Embodiment of the proposed project to the local natural environment and the local traditional architectural character of the settlement.  Contribution to the integrated development of the Municipality of Metsovo. All of the restoration proposals are analyzed and presented with drawings and maps. The existing status of the study area and the proposed solutions are depicted with floor plans, elevations, sketches and three-dimensional designs materialized in computer environment. Furthermore, the total construction cost of the proposed redevelopment plan is estimated, in order to document the realistic dimension of the design proposal as well as to present real numbers and construction costs., Χριστίνα Ε. Λέκκα

127 σ., Εθνικό Μετσόβιο Πολυτεχνείο--Μεταπτυχιακή Εργασία. Διεπιστημονικό-Διατμηματικό Πρόγραμμα Μεταπτυχιακών Σπουδών (Δ.Π.Μ.Σ.) “Περιβάλλον και Ανάπτυξη”, Στην παρούσα εργασία δημιουργείται μια μεθοδολογία, η οποία δίνει την δυνατότητα ποσοτικοποίησης της εξοικονόμησης ενέργειας στους απαιτητικούς - ως προς την ενεργειακή κατανάλωση - ορεινούς οικισμούς. Ως περιοχή εφαρμογής της μεθοδολογίας επιλέχθηκε ο οικισμός του Μετσόβου. Η μεθοδολογία, η οποία κατασκευάστηκε, έχει ως βασικό της στοιχείο την μοντελοποίηση του υπό μελέτη οικισμού και την ένταξη αυτού σε ένα τεχνικό λογισμικό, το οποίο λαμβάνοντας υπόψη τις ιδιαίτερες συνθήκες της περιοχής, υπολογίζει το ακριβές ποσό κατανάλωσης ενέργειας του οικισμού και κατατάσσει τα μοντέλα κατοικιών στην ανάλογη ενεργειακή κλάση. Με βάση τις ιδιαίτερες απαιτήσεις του οικισμού σε θερμική ενέργεια, διατυπώθηκαν τέσσερα διαφορετικά σενάρια εξοικονόμησης ενέργειας. Για κάθε ένα από τα σενάρια υπολογίστηκε, η εξοικονόμηση ενέργειας που επιτυγχάνεται, το οικονομικό όφελος που προκύπτει από την εφαρμογή τους, καθώς και το κόστος επένδυσης. Η βιωσιμότητα των επεμβάσεων σε οικονομικούς όρους, έγινε με την χρήση δύο οικονομικών κριτηρίων: της Καθαρής Παρούσας Αξίας και του Εσωτερικού Βαθμού Απόδοσης. Η κατανάλωση ενέργειας αποδεικνύεται ότι είναι ιδιαίτερα αυξημένη στον ορεινό οικισμό του Μετσόβου και ότι εξαρτάται άμεσα από τα ιδιαίτερα κλιματικά χαρακτηριστικά κάθε περιοχής, αλλά και από τη φυσιογνωμία του κτιριακού της αποθέματος. Επιπλέον, ενισχύεται η άποψη ότι η εξοικονόμηση ενέργειας, η οποία μάλιστα μπορεί να φτάσει το 34% στην υπό μελέτη περίπτωση, αποτελεί επιτακτική ανάγκη για τους ορεινούς οικισμούς γενικά. Ως προτεραιότητα, προς την κατεύθυνση αυτή, προκύπτει η εφαρμογή θερμομόνωσης στις αμόνωτες εξωτερικές επιφάνειες των κατοικιών. Επιπλέον, με την κατασκευή των συναρτήσεων κόστους-οφέλους των επεμβάσεων που προτείνονται, δίνεται η δυνατότητα ενσωμάτωσης της εξοικονόμησης ενέργειας στον ολοκληρωμένο ενεργειακό σχεδιασμό μιας ορεινής περιοχής., In this paper, a methodology is created, which allows the quantification of energy saving, in exigent mountainous regions with regard to their energy demand. The settlement of Metsovo in Greece has been used as a case study. The key element of the methodology which has been constructed, is the modeling of the settlement of Metsovo, and the integration of this into a technical software. Taking into account the particular characteristics of the region, the software calculates the exact energy demand and classifies the model houses to the appropriate energy class. Based on the settlement’s special requirements of thermal energy, four different alternatives about energy saving have been formulated. For each one of the alternatives, the amount of energy saving, the economic benefits, as well as the cost of the investments have been estimated. The viability of the investment was made using two economic criteria: the Net Present Value and Internal Rate of Return. The energy consumption is shown to be particularly high in the mountainous town of Metsovo, a fact that depends on the particular climatic characteristics of each region, as well as on the characteristics of its building stock. Energy saving, which may even reach 34% in our case study, is proved to be imperative for mountainous areas. The insulation of the external surfaces of houses should be the basic priority, as far as energy saving interventions are concerned. The construction of cost functions of the proposed interventions makes possible the incorporation of energy saving in an integrated energy planning system in mountainous areas., Αγγελική Λ. Θεοδώρου

Afghanistan faces a severe problem of poor nutrition and food insecurity. Chronic malnutrition among Afghan children is one of the highest in the world. This report investigates the status of food insecurity in Afghanistan with a focus on mapping provincial differences and an emphasis on understanding the impact of rising food prices on key measures of food security. It synthesizes findings from analysis of rising food prices and their impact on different measures of food access and utilization (such as calorie intake, protein consumption and the quality of diet) in Afghanistan. The findings are based on the analysis of data from the National Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (NRVA) 2007/08, a sample of over 20,000 households from all 34 provinces of Afghanistan. This analytical work is an integral part of the on-going collaboration between the Government of Afghanistan and the World Bank in the domain of poverty and vulnerability assessment. It aims to further the understanding of household wellbeing and vulnerability from the standpoint of food security and complements the earlier work presented in 'poverty status in Afghanistan. Finally, given that poor nutrition and food insecurity affect a sizeable proportion of the Afghan population year-round but more so during bad times, there is genuine need for a scaled-up and well-targeted safety nets program in Afghanistan.

This article presents the spatial disparities of demographic changes in the Polish Carpathians and compares them with the general demographic trends of the area in the 19 th and 20 th centuries. Small-area census records for towns and villages between 1869 and 1988 were collected by the author. These records provided data which disclosed new demographic phenomena and processes being formed in this region during the time considered. Using these newly discovered trends, a population redistribution model and a population development scenario for the 21 st century are presented.

This article introduces the basic situation of Yanziqian Tobacco Farmers' Mutual Assistance and Cooperation Association in Jiamachi Town of Xianfeng County. It analyzes the operating mode of tobacco farmers' mutual assistance and cooperation association, and conducts a comparative analysis of tobacco farmers' costs and benefits before and after participating in mutual assistance and cooperation. Studies show that the mode of tobacco farmers' mutual assistance and cooperation, is conducive to reducing labor in curing link, promoting the quality of tobacco, increasing tobacco farmers' income, which is worthy of promotion.

Εθνικό Μετσόβιο Πολυτεχνείο--Μεταπτυχιακή Εργασία. Διεπιστημονικό-Διατμηματικό Πρόγραμμα Μεταπτυχιακών Σπουδών (Δ.Π.Μ.Σ.) “Περιβάλλον και Ανάπτυξη”, Αντικείμενο της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η διερεύνηση της οικιστικής εξέλιξης των ορεινών περιοχών μέσα από το παράδειγμα του οικισμού του Μετσόβου. Η οικιστική εξέλιξη μιας ορεινής περιοχής επηρεάζεται κατά βάση από παράγοντες κλιματολογικής, γεωμορφολογικής, εδαφολογικής, γεωγραφικής, περιβαλλοντικής, ιστορικής και κοινωνικοοικονομικής φύσεως. Στην προκειμένη περίπτωση δημιουργείται ένα μεθοδολογικό πλαίσιο με βάση τα διατιθέμενα δεδομένα για την περιοχή μελέτης, σύμφωνα με το οποίο διερευνάται η οικιστική ανάπτυξη του κατεξοχήν ορεινού οικισμού του Μετσόβου κατά τον τελευταίο μισό αιώνα και οι παράγοντες που την επηρεάζουν. Τα δεδομένα που χρησιμοποιούνται για τη διεξαγωγή της μελέτης αφορούν σε τηλεπισκοπικά δεδομένα και χάρτες, που απεικονίζουν τον εν λόγω οικισμό σε διάφορες χρονικές στιγμές από τη δεκαετία του ’50 μέχρι σήμερα, καθώς και σε διανυσματικό αρχείο του οικισμού στη σημερινή του μορφή, με θεματικά επίπεδα τα σπίτια και τα οικοδομικά του τετράγωνα (Πηγή: Εταιρία Χαρτογραφία, Θεσσαλονίκη). Για τη διεξαγωγή της εν λόγω μελέτης χρησιμοποιούνται τηλεπισκοπικές μέθοδοι σε συνδυασμό με Γεωγραφικά Συστήματα Πληροφοριών (ΓΣΠ). Συγκεκριμένα γίνεται γεωμετρική διόρθωση των αεροφωτογραφιών της περιοχής μελέτης με υπόβαθρο ορθοφωτοχάρτη του Μετσόβου και με χρήση Ψηφιακού Μοντέλου Εδάφους (DEM) της περιοχής, με τη βοήθεια του λογισμικού πακέτου διαχείρισης τηλεπισκοπικών δεδομένων «ERMapper». Στη συνέχεια, με τη βοήθεια του λογισμικού πακέτου των ΓΣΠ «ArcGIS» πραγματοποιείται γεωαναφορά των ορθοφωτογραφιών, που προκύπτουν από την προηγούμενη διαδικασία, καθώς και ενός τοπογραφικού χάρτη της Γ.Υ.Σ. με υπόβαθρο το προαναφερθέν διανυσματικό αρχείο. Έπειτα, στο ίδιο πρόγραμμα και με βάση τις γεωαναφερμένες εικόνες, συμβολίζονται τα κτίρια του Μετσόβου κάθε χρονολογίας με διαφορετικό χρώμα, ώστε να διαφαίνεται ευκολότερα η οικιστική του εξέλιξη με το πέρασμα των χρόνων. Κατά το τελευταίο στάδιο της μελέτης, επιχειρείται συσχέτιση μεταξύ οικοδομικής ανάπτυξης και αιτιών που την επηρέασαν, ιδιαίτερα όπου αυτή είναι πιο έντονη. Άλλωστε απώτερος σκοπός της μελέτης αποτελεί η ανάδειξη ενός μεθοδολογικού εργαλείου που συνδέεται με το μηχανισμό επέκτασης των ορεινών οικισμών προς συγκεκριμένες κατευθύνσεις, με γνώμονα χωρικά ή μη δεδομένα. Εν κατακλείδι, να σημειωθεί ότι η παραπάνω μεθοδολογική προσέγγιση με τα ειδικά συμπεράσματα που προκύπτουν σχετικά με το μοντέλο οικιστικής εξέλιξης των ορεινών περιοχών, μαζί με τα αντίστοιχα γενικότερα στοιχεία που ισχύουν στους ελληνικούς ορεινούς οικισμούς, μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν και σε ανάλογες περιπτώσεις διερεύνησης οικιστικής εξέλιξης ορεινών περιοχών., The study presents the residential development in mountainous areas, investigating the example of the town of Metsovo. The residential development in mountainous areas is primarily influenced by climatic, geomorphologic, geographical, environmental, historical and socio-economic factors. For the case study area examined, a methodological framework was developed d, based on data provided, concerning the last fifty years of evolution of this eminently mountainous. These data were used for the compilation of maps portraying the development of the settlement over time. A vector file showing the current status of the settlement, including houses and building blocks was also used as a thematic layer (Source: Cartographic Company, Thessalonica). For conducting the study, remote sensing methods were used, along with Geographical Information Systems (GIS). More precisely, the remote sensing imagery was geometrically corrected overlaid on the orthophotomap of Metsovo as background and by the use of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) within the "ERMapper" environment. Thereafter, the images were georeferenced by the use of the GSP software of "ArcGIS", using the topographic map of the Hellenic Military Geographical Service as background of the above mentioned vector file. Thus, changes in constructions were detected for each time period and further symbolized using different colours. Finally, the factors affecting residential development have been thoroughly studied. The results obtained from the study area indicate that the use of this methodology can be further applied to similar cases in mountainous areas., Ηρώ-Αγαθή Κ. Καρακώστα

Εθνικό Μετσόβιο Πολυτεχνείο--Μεταπτυχιακή Εργασία. Διεπιστημονικό-Διατμηματικό Πρόγραμμα Μεταπτυχιακών Σπουδών (Δ.Π.Μ.Σ.) “Περιβάλλον και Ανάπτυξη”, 169 σ., Τη χρονική περίοδο από τη Βιομηχανική Επανάσταση έως και σήμερα, οι σύγχρονες κοινωνίες θεμελίωσαν την ανάπτυξη τους στην αξιοποίηση των ορυκτών καυσίμων. Η πρωτοφανής υποβάθμιση της ατμόσφαιρας και των φυσικών οικοσυστημάτων που σημειώνεται έως και σήμερα, καθιστά επιτακτική την εξεύρεση νέων μεθόδων ικανοποίησης των ενεργειακών μας αναγκών, συμβατών με το φυσικό περιβάλλον. Όλα δείχνουν πως οι Ανανεώσιμες Πηγές Ενέργειας (Α.Π.Ε) μπορούν να αποτελέσουν το θεμέλιο λίθο, πάνω στον οποίο θα στηριχθεί μία εκσυγχρονισμένη βιώσιμη ενεργειακή πολιτική. Οι ορεινές περιοχές της Ελλάδας και του κόσμου, λόγω του δυσπρόσιτου χαρακτήρα και άλλων ιδιαίτερων γνωρισμάτων τους, καθιστούσαν πάντα δύσκολη την όποια αναπτυξιακή δραστηριότητα, συγκριτικά με τις προοπτικές που ξεδιπλώθηκαν στις πεδινές περιοχές. Από μία πλευρά, αυτό είχε ως αποτέλεσμα την παρακμή και την περιθωριοποίηση της πλειοψηφίας των οικισμών τους. Από την άλλη, τα φυσικά οικοσυστήματα τους παρέμειναν σε μεγάλο βαθμό ανέπαφα από την ανθρωπογενή εκμετάλλευση. Η μεγάλη τεχνική/ τεχνολογική πρόοδος που σημειώθηκε τα τελευταία χρόνια στον κλάδο των Α.Π.Ε, σε συνδυασμό με το γενικά πλούσιο ενεργειακό δυναμικό των ορεινών περιοχών καθιστούν σαφές πως οι συνθήκες είναι πλέον αρκετά ώριμες ώστε να κάνουμε λόγο τόσο για μία εφικτή και σημαντική αποδέσμευση των ορεινών κοινωνιών από τα συμβατικά καύσιμα και το κεντρικό δίκτυο, όσο και για τη διατήρηση του φυσικού ορεινού περιβάλλοντος, μέσω ένταξης Α.Π.Ε και μεθόδων ενεργειακής εξοικονόμησης στον ενεργειακό τους σχεδιασμό. Επίσης, η αξιοποίηση του ορεινού ενεργειακού δυναμικού αποτελεί σημαντική διέξοδο για την αντιμετώπιση του φαινομένου της ενεργειακής φτώχειας εξαιτίας των ανοδικών τιμών των συμβατικών καυσίμων, ένα οικονομικό και κοινωνικό πρόβλημα που μαστίζει τους ορεινούς οικισμούς. Όλα τα παραπάνω αποτελούν το αντικείμενο της παρούσας εργασίας, όπου η ένταξη των Α.Π.Ε στο ενεργειακό σύστημα του Μετσόβου Ιωαννίνων πραγματοποιείται με την εφαρμογή ενός μοντέλου βασισμένου στις αρχές του Γραμμικού Προγραμματισμού., Since the Industrial Revolution modern societies have based their economic development on the utilization of fossil fuels. The ongoing, unprecedented degradation of the atmosphere and the natural ecosystems, makes research for new and compatible with the natural environment methods, in order to satisfy energy needs an urgent task. It seems that Renewable Energy Sources (RES) can become the cornerstone on which a modern and viable energy policy can be based on. In contrast with plain areas, the remote and inaccessible nature of mountainous areas in Greece and general, have always made developmental actions difficult. On one hand, this led the majority of their settlements on the margin and into general decay. On the other hand, mountainous ecosystems have been kept away from human exploitation. The great technical and technological development of the RES in the past years, in combination with the generally rich energy potential of mountainous areas, makes clear that the right time to plan a feasible and important release of mountainous settlements from conventional fuels and the central electricity grid, as well as the conservation of natural mountainous environments, is now. Moreover, the utilization of the mountainous energy potential constitutes an important way out in confronting energy poverty, a crucial socioeconomic problem on these areas, because of the increasing prices of conventional fuels. All the above constitute the subject of this essay, where the participation of RES on the energy system of the mountainous settlement of Metsovo, in Greece, is being approached, through the application of an energy planning model, based on the principles of Linear Programming., Κωνσταντίνος Ε. Σμπόνιας

Adaptation to human-induced climate change is currently receiving a lot of attention in international development circles. But throughout human existence, natural resource-dependent people have exploited and coped with the effects of climate variability on the ecosystems from which they derive a living. Learning from this experience can help inform the design of appropriate policies for responding to human-induced climate change. This paper presents the results of a World Bank study which sought to better understand the role of local institutions in supporting adaptation to climate variability and change in Ethiopia, Mali and Yemen. The study raised three questions. First, what strategies have been adopted by rural households in the past to adapt to climate variability? Second, to what extent do institutions of various sorts assist households in adopting adaptation strategies? And third, what are the factors that prevent households from adopting appropriate adaptation strategies? For the purposes of this paper, institutions are defined as structured, formal or informal organizations. The study followed a three-step approach. First, drawing on original data from field surveys, focus group discussions and institutional stakeholder interviews, household vulnerability to climate variability was characterized in terms of its three constituent elements: exposure to climate-related shocks and stresses, and sensitivity and adaptive capacity in the face of such stressors. Sensitivity refers to the degree to which people are affected by climate variability and change. High levels of exposure and sensitivity and low levels of adaptive capacity generally result in high levels of vulnerability. But a high level of exposure need not necessarily result in a high level of vulnerability if the household's adaptive capacity is also high.

Mountainous areas with a high dependency on its tourism industry are often relatively small and remote. But some of these areas have faced a population increase due to large in-migration;Wanaka in New Zealand’s Southern Alps is one example. This paper is studying the migration motivations of a few individuals that have moved to Wanaka and how they started to feel like part of their new community. The meaning of the place is important for these newcomers. The results of the study indicate that there is a strong link between the community and the lifestyle that in-migrants are seeking. It also highlights the importance for in-migrants to be a part of the social community. Social Clubs, sport clubs and voluntary work are ways of becoming a part of a social network.

Poverty reduction is one of the three key objectives of the Afghanistan national development strategy. The poverty profile is an important element in the information kit of the policymaker that helps focus policy to attain this objective. A poverty profile is standard methodology to describe the extent and nature of poverty in a country or region. It assesses the magnitude of poverty and its distribution across geographic and socioeconomic domains, provides information on the characteristics of the poor, illustrates the heterogeneity among the poor, and identifies correlates of poverty. The report describes the multidimensional nature of poverty by encompassing the nonmonetary dimensions of poverty, particularly education and health status, and vulnerability to shocks. Tables in the report are also disaggregated by region, income sources, gender, and many socioeconomic characteristics. In addition to providing a picture of the many dimensions of poverty, it is important to also recognize that the poverty estimates in this report are the first nationally representative, seasonally smoothed estimates of wellbeing for Afghanistan. Because previously no such existing estimates were available, the provision of these estimates in this report is new analysis that substantially fills key knowledge gaps in our understanding of the poverty situation in Afghanistan.

International audience; In the last decade, airborne laser scanning (ALS) systems have become an alternative source for the acquisition of altimeter data. Compared to high resolution orthoimages, one of the main advantages of ALS is the ability of the laser beam to penetrate vegetation and reach the ground underneath. Therefore, 3D point clouds are essential data for computing Digital Terrain Models (DTM) in natural and vegetated areas. DTMs are a key product for many applications such as tree detection, flood modelling, archeology or road detection. Indeed, in forested areas, traditional image-based algorithms for road and pathway detection would partially fail due to their occlusion by the canopy cover. Thus, crucial information for forest management and fire prevention such as road width and slope would be misevaluated. This paper deals with road and pathway detection in a complex forested mountaneous area and with their geometrical parameter extraction using lidar data. Firstly, a three-step image-based methodology is proposed to detect road regions. Lidar feature orthoimages are first generated. Then, road seeds are both automatically and semi-automatically detected. And, a region growing algorithm is carried out to retrieve the full pathways from the seeds previously detected. Secondly, these pathways are vectorized using morphological tools, smoothed, and discretized. Finally, 1D sections within the lidar point cloud are successively generated for each point of the pathways to estimate more accurately road widths in 3D. We also retrieve a precise location of the pathway borders and centers, exported as vector data.

Although economic reform has brought remarkable progress in poverty reduction in Vietnam, the scale and depth of ethnic minority poverty in Vietnam presents one of the major challenges to achieving the targets for poverty reduction set out in the Socio-Economic Development Plan, as well as the millennium development goals. The authors first review a series of monetary and non-monetary indicators which show the living standards of the ethnic minorities are improving but still lag seriously behind those of the majority Kinh-Hoa. The minorities' lower living standards result from the complex interplay of overlapping disadvantages, which start in utero and continue until adult life. Next an analysis of the drivers of the ethnic gap, in terms of both differences in characteristics and differences in returns to those characteristics, is undertaken. Mean and quantile decompositions show that at least a half of the gap in per capita expenditure can be attributed to the lower returns to characteristics that the ethnic minorities receive. The reasons underlying such differences in returns are discussed, drawing on both quantitative analysis and the large number of qualitative studies on ethnic issues in Vietnam. Finally, some of the short and longer term policy measures which the authors believe could help to counter ethnic disadvantages in the nutrition, education, and employment sectors are discussed. The authors also emphasize the importance of promoting growth that is geographically broad and socially inclusive without which, the current disparities between the Kinh-Hoa and the ethnic minorities will continue to grow.

The estimation of snow storage and precipitation, essential for managing hydroelectric reservoirs of EDF, still remains subject to considerable uncertainties. EDF-DTG currently seeks to develop some tools for robust interpolations, able to provide a reliable estimate of precipitation and snow water equivalent at any point in mountainous areas. The developed tools are essentially based on the ground sensor network of DTG, which measures precipitations, snow depth and water equivalent over French mountains.In the long term, these tools should make it possible to progress towards a better spatial vision of the daily or “event” precipitation, as well as of the snow cover on the ground, based on measurements taken all over the basins requiring an operational hydrological forecast., Les phénomènes météorologiques en montagne sont influencés par de nombreux facteurs tels que le relief ou l'altitude, et possèdent de ce fait une grande variabilité spatiale, qui rend l'hydrométéorologie des bassins versants de montagne particulièrement complexe. Au regard de cette hétérogénéité spatiale, les postes d'observations sont à ces altitudes trop peu nombreux. Les mesures sont de plus réalisées dans des conditions parfois difficiles (neige, vent) et sont donc souvent entachées d'importantes incertitudes. En conséquence, l'estimation des stocks de neige et des précipitations, primordiale pour les gestionnaires du parc hydroélectrique d'EDF (Électricité De France), reste encore aujourd'hui sujette à des incertitudes non négligeables. La thèse présentée ici, menée au sein de l'équipe hydrologie d'EDF-DTG a, parmi ses objectifs, le développement d'un outil d'interpolation des précipitations en zones de montagne. Ce dernier permettrait à terme de progresser vers une vision spatialisée et cartographiée de la pluie et de la neige mesurées sur les bassins versants faisant l'objet d'une prévision opérationnelle.Pour développer cette méthodologie, une très vaste base de données a été constituée, regroupant des données françaises (EDF et Météo France) mais également suisses, italiennes et espagnoles. Cet outil repose sur un Modèle Numérique de Terrain de maille 1km. Une classification en types de temps est introduite, afin de prendre en compte les variations du gradient orographique de précipitation en fonction du type de circulation atmosphérique considérée. Au sein de chaque type de temps et pour chaque pixel l'effet orographique, considéré comme prépondérant dans l'explication des précipitations en montagne, est modélisé par une relation linéaire reliant les précipitations du type de temps considéré à l'altitude. Cette relation s'appuie sur les points de mesure situés à proximité du pixel, dont le mode de sélection et de pondération a été optimisé.L'utilisation de la validation croisée entre les stations permet d'évaluer le niveau de restitution du modèle aux altitudes proches du réseau d'observation, quant à la qualité des lames d'eau en haute montagne, elle est par ailleurs évaluée à travers le bilan hydrologique intégré sur les bassins versants instrumentés d'une part, et à l'aide d'une confrontation avec les postes de mesure de l'équivalent en eau du manteau neigeux d'autre part.Développé sur les Alpes Françaises, les Pyrénées et le Massif Central, ce modèle présente des résultats très encourageants au regard de ceux obtenus par d'autres méthodes, ce qui est sans doute le fait du caractère résolument régional du mode de reconstitution des précipitations.

In diesem Beitrag werden Ergebnisse einer Expertenbefragung zur Bewertung des Zustandes und der Entwicklungsperspektiven der Landwirtschaft und der ländlichen Räume in ausgewählten Gemeinden der polnischen Karpaten und der deutschen Alpen vorgestellt. Gegenüber der Landwirtschaft und den ländlichen Räumen in den Alpen weist die Karpaten-Subregion eine Reihe von Besonderheiten auf, die ihre Wurzeln sowohl in der Geschichte, als auch in den Bedingungen des Transformationsprozesses haben. Obwohl sich in beiden Subregionen Parallelen in den strukturellen Entwicklungslinien erkennen lassen, besteht in den Karpaten nach wie vor ein großer Nachholbedarf. Die relativ kurze Periode der Implementierung von Instrumenten der Gemeinsamen Agrarpolitik hat bis dato zu keinen relevanten strukturellen Veränderungen in den Karpaten geführt. Die befragten Experten haben die Perspektiven für die Entwicklung der Landwirtschaft ziemlich positiv bewertet. Voraussichtlich wird der Tourismus die bevorzugte Entwicklungsrichtung sein, allerdings bei simultaner Erhaltung der landwirtschaftlichen Produktion. Die Experten betonen, dass der Verzicht auf Landwirtschaft in den Berggebieten nicht akzeptabel ist und dass die Landwirtschaft noch lange in den Berggebieten bestehen wird wenn auch in etwas abgewandelter Form. This paper summarises results of a expert interviews on the state and development of agriculture and rural areas in selected municiapalities in the Polish Carapatian mountains and in the German Alps. Compared to the German Alps, the Polish region has a number of particularities originating from the different history and the transformation process. The overall development in the Polish region is still lagging behind. The implementation of measures of the Common Agricultural Policy has not yet led to significant structural changes in the Carpathian region. The surveyed experts have identified a positive perspective for the development of agriculture. They expect tourism and agriculture to be the main sources of income. A complete disappearance of agriculture from mountainous regions will not be acceptable.

This paper summarises results of a expert interviews on the state and development of agriculture and rural areas in selected municiapalities in the Polish Carapatian mountains and in the German Alps. Compared to the German Alps, the Polish region has a number of particularities originating from the different history and the transformation process. The overall development in the Polish region is still lagging behind. The implementation of measures of the Common Agricultural Policy has not yet led to significant structural changes in the Carpathian region. The surveyed experts have identified a positive perspective for the development of agriculture. They expect tourism and agriculture to be the main sources of income. A complete disappearance of agriculture from mountainous regions will not be acceptable.

Organic agriculture is based on application of assigned methods of organic production. It gains more significance, because it brings a man closer to nature, from which he parted, it represents almost full harmony with environment preservation demands, and finally, it enables the population to feed on the products based on the natural processes, using organic and mineral materials. Products based on organic production are increasingly sought, especially in highly developed states. Their placement is certain, because the demand highly surpasses the supply. For that reason they get better prices than the conventional production goods. Republic of Serbia has very good conditions for founding this kind of production. The environment is preserved, especially in mountainous areas, which take 71,5% of Central part of the Republic (51,7% of whole Republic). Artificial fertilizers are much less used in these areas, as is agro-mechanization, which pollutes the environment. Most of these areas have high quality water, clean air and are far from the roads and other sources of environment pollution. Organic production is processing by very high criteria, regulated by special decrees. Same goes for the environment preservation decrees. These decrees exist in Serbia as well, and are well coordinated with European Union legislation. This paperwork reviews the state of environment, organic production and regulatory rules in these two parts of Republic of Serbia.

Ziel dieser Fallstudie im Landkreis Oberallgäu ist es, die Wirkung der Ausgleichszulage auf verschiedene Bereiche der Landwirtschaft und des ländlichen Raumes in einem 'typischen' benachteiligten Gebiet vertieft zu untersuchen. Dazu wurden vorhandene Statistiken, relevante Literatur und die Daten des Testbetriebsnetzes ausgewertet sowie Befragungen mit Landwirten und Experten durchgeführt. Anhand einer schriftlichen Befragung von Beratern aus strukturell ähnlichen Landkreisen wurde die Übertragbarkeit der Fallstudie geprüft und alle Ergebnisse anschließend auf einem Workshop mit den für die Ausgleichszulage zuständigen Fachreferenten der Länder und des Bundes diskutiert. Ergebnis der Fallstudie war, dass zum Zeitpunkt der Untersuchung die Ziele der Ausgleichszulage insgesamt erreicht wurden. Hinsichtlich der Ausgestaltung der Ausgleichszulage in einem typischen Berggebiet zeigte sich, dass die Benachteiligung in der Fallregion eher aus der Höhenlage, und demzufolge aus dem Klima sowie aus der Hangneigung resultiert als aus der Bodenqualität. Es sollte deshalb erwogen werden, diese Kriterien stärker bei der Festsetzung der Prämienhöhe zu berücksichtigen. Eventuell könnten so auch die gelegentlich auftretenden Über- und Unterkompensationen verringert werden. Eine generelle Erhöhung der Mittel in den Berggebieten scheint zumindest nicht angezeigt, auch wenn dies innerhalb der ELER-Verordnung möglich wäre. The aim of this case study was to further analyse the impact of the compensatory allowance at different fields of agriculture and rural development in a 'typical' less favoured area, the southern Bavarian region, Oberallgäu. Available statistics, relevant literature and data obtained from the German Test Farm Network (Testbetriebsnetz) were analysed, and interviews held with farmers and experts. At a later date, another survey was conducted with agricultural consultants in structurally similar regions to verify the transferability of the case study results. Finally, all results were presented and discussed in a workshop with experts on state and federal level. Overall, the objectives of the compensatory allowance for Less Favoured Areas were achieved in the case study region. With respect to design of the measure, it became evident that the disadvantages in this typical mountainous region result more from altitude - and therefore climate - and gradient than from soil quality. These criteria should thus be given more weight when the premium is determined. Such adjustments could potentially reduce the occasional over- or under-compensation effects. An increase of payments in the Bavarian mountainous regions does not at this time seem to be appropriate, despite the fact that this would be possible in the context of the ELER regulations.

RESUMEN. Buena parte de los espacios de montaña son áreas desfavorecidas y con problemas de despoblación, declive económico y desarticulación territorial. Son territorios que requieren con urgencia de la adopción de medidas para mejorar la situación económica y la calidad de vida de sus habitantes y, en definitiva, para asegurar su supervivencia como espacios vivos. La planificación territorial puede aportar soluciones para obtener un aprovechamiento sostenible de los abundantes recursos que poseen estas áreas. El exhaustivo reconocimiento y diagnóstico territoriales realizados en la emblemática comarca cántabra de Los Montes de Pas, así como las propuestas sugeridas para implementar su desarrollo integral, pueden servir de modelo extrapolable a otras áreas de montaña. ABSTRACT. Quite a large number of mountanous areas are disadvantaged areas suffering such problems as a fall in population, economic decline and territorial disconnection. They are territories that urgently require the adoption of measures to improve the economic situation and the quality of life of their inhabitants in order to assure their survival as living spaces. Territorial planning can offer solutions that will help to achieve a better and sustainable use of the numerous resources that these areas enjoy. The exhaustive territorial reconnaissance and territorial diagnosis undertaken in the emblematic Cantabrian region of The River Pas Mountains, as well as the proposals put forward to implement their integral development, can indeed serve as a comparable model for other mountains areas.

In this work, the nonhydrostatic mesoscale model MM5 was applied over the area of Epirus, Greece, using its nesting capabilities. Specifically, we used a multinest procedure in which the analysis of the inner grid was 1 x 1 km. The model was applied for a day characterised by inversion conditions and stagnation during which the air pollutants' concentrations were expected to increase. The extracted meteorological fields were found to be in good agreement with the measured meteorological parameters in the area, representing the inner grid, although there is only one first class meteorological station in operation there. International Journal of Environment and Pollution

The objective of this study is to analyse the impact of various types of government spending on growth and poverty reduction, using provincial level data over the last decade. Government spending reduces poverty through many channels such as agricultural growth and improved nonfarm employment. We will try to capture all these different effects in the analysis if the data allow. This paper opens with a review of Vietnam’s economic reforms and growth over the past decade. We then sketch Vietnam’s poverty profile, highlighting changes over time, regional distribution, and differences among population groups. In the next two chapters, we will review the trend and composition of government spending, agricultural R&D and infrastructure endowments in Vietnam over the last decade. Chapter 5 presents the analytical framework used to estimate the effect of various types of government spending on growth and poverty reduction. The data, model estimation, and results are presented in chapter 6. We conclude the paper by offering future priorities for government investments in chapter 7.

Precipitation water has been sampled from October 2002 to March 2003 in a number of stations located in a mountainous area (Guadalquivir headwaters, Jaen province, 5. Spain: from 400 m to 2000 m of altitude) in order to quantify chloride, deuterium and oxygen 1 8 contents. The obtained values range approximately between 0,2 and 2,4 mg/L (Cl), -1 00 %o and-15%o (D) and-14 %0 and-3 %q C’O). The respective averages are 1 mg/L, -6,8 %o and -42,8 %o. The obtained values are in good agreement with global estimates (for the isotopes), and with previous measurements in adjacent or nearby areas (for the three species). Thé great variability shown by the data of the three species is mainly caused by: a) the effect of temperature, both'seasonally or altitudinally induced (the gradients for the isotopes are typical values), and b) the different procedence of the vapour masses which produce the precipitations over the area, as is also shown by the dispersion in the deuterium excess values

Precipitation water has been sampled from October 2002 to March 2003 in a number of stations located in a mountainous area (Guadalquivir headwaters, Jaen province, 5. Spain: from 400 m to 2000 m of altitude) in order to quantify chloride, deuterium and oxygen 1 8 contents. The obtained values range approximately between 0,2 and 2,4 mg/L (Cl), -1 00 %o and-15%o (D) and-14 %0 and-3 %q C’O). The respective averages are 1 mg/L, -6,8 %o and -42,8 %o. The obtained values are in good agreement with global estimates (for the isotopes), and with previous measurements in adjacent or nearby areas (for the three species). Thé great variability shown by the data of the three species is mainly caused by: a) the effect of temperature, both'seasonally or altitudinally induced (the gradients for the isotopes are typical values), and b) the different procedence of the vapour masses which produce the precipitations over the area, as is also shown by the dispersion in the deuterium excess values

[Abstract] Soils with a mollic horizon lying directly over limestone were characterized physicochemically, mineralogically and micromorphologically. The development of these soils involves dissolution of limestone and leaching of the released calcium carbonate under favourable climatic and topographic conditions, the incorporation of insoluble residues (chiefly by inheritance rather than transformation), and the action of efficient humification mechanism. They are classified as Lithic Haprendolls by Soil Taxonomy (1998) and as Rendzic Leptosols by the FAO classification (1998)..

International audience; The international symposium on Urban Growth and Natural Hazards, in particular in Developing Countries was held in the Université Blaise-Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand (France) on December 2 and 3, 1994. This meeting brought together about 70 researchers, Ph. D. students, and professionals from France and 12 other countries, representing universities, research agencies, as well as government and private companies. The symposium aimed to gather specialists who are engaged and acting in programmes on hazard appraisal, risk prevention and urban management in the city environment. These people compared experiences acquired in two different fields: on the one hand urban growth and its consequences, and on the other hand, natural hazards and their effects, in particular in developing countries.From the 41 contributions given at the symposium, 4 papers were selected by the editorial board of this Bulletin de l'Association de Géographes Français for this special issue, which includes three chapters corresponding to the three sessions of the symposium: (1) Natural hazards and environmental factors : inventory, diagnostic and classification, (2) Vulnerability of urban society and environment : concepts, approaches, and classification, (3) Tools for urban risk prevention and risk management in case of crisis and catastrophes.; Ce numéro du Bulletin de l'Association de Géographes Français résume les résultats des tables rondes et de 41 contributions de chercheurs français et étrangers au colloque international «Croissance urbaine et risques naturels dans les pays en développement» qui s'est déroulé à l'Université Blaise-Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, les 2 et 3 décembre 1994. L'objectif général du colloque était de rassembler les diverses compétences existant en France et à l'étranger dans le domaine de l'évaluation et de la gestion des risques naturels et de confronter les expériences acquises à l'interface entre les villes en croissance et le champ d'action des phénomènes naturels créateurs de risques. Le colloque a donc réuni des chercheurs, des doctorants et des praticiens de 12 pays, chargés de prévention, de gestion des risques naturels et de gestion urbaine, principalement dans les grandes villes des pays en développement (P.E.D.).Les contributions ont été regroupées, exposées et discutées lors du colloque sous forme de 3 thèmes : (1) Les phénomènes naturels créateurs de dommages (= menaces) : diagnostic, inventaire et typologie, (2) Les vulnérabilités des sociétés et des espaces urbanisés : concepts, typologie et modes d'analyse, (3) Les outils d'aide à la prévention et à la gestion du risque en milieu urbain. Certaines d'entre elles ont fait l'objet des quatre articles de ce Bulletin de l'Association de Géographes Français.

International audience; The international symposium on Urban Growth and Natural Hazards, in particular in Developing Countries was held in the Université Blaise-Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand (France) on December 2 and 3, 1994. This meeting brought together about 70 researchers, Ph. D. students, and professionals from France and 12 other countries, representing universities, research agencies, as well as government and private companies. The symposium aimed to gather specialists who are engaged and acting in programmes on hazard appraisal, risk prevention and urban management in the city environment. These people compared experiences acquired in two different fields: on the one hand urban growth and its consequences, and on the other hand, natural hazards and their effects, in particular in developing countries.Three themes correspond to the three sessions of the symposium. (1) Natural hazards and environmental factors: inventory, diagnostic and classification, (2) Vulnerability of urban society and environment: concepts, approaches, and classification, (3) Tools for urban risk prevention and risk management in case of crisis and catastrophes.

In some mountain areas of northeastern Italy, the present forest road network has been partially developed using the previous military road network built during the First World War (WW I). The current management of the areas of forest considers the road network essential to provide access for forestry activities, but also to increase the value of recreational activities and tourism related to the historical importance of this area. The aim of the study was to investigate the technical evolution of a mountain road network from the beginning of the last century to today. The research consisted in a preliminary reconnaissance of the original road network using the WW I military maps, a further reconnaissance using the technical maps dated to the 1960s, and the survey of the current road network through the differential global positioning system (D-GPS). The study also aimed to evaluate the current condition of the original road network according to the use made of it today in order to highlight how building standards influenced its evolution in terms of transportation systems and traffic management.

International audience; The international symposium on «Urban Growth and Natural Hazards, in particular in Developing Countries» was held in the University Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand (France) on December 2 and 3, 1994. This meeting brought together about 70 research people, Ph.D. students, and professionals from France and 12 countries, representing universities, research agencies, as well as government and private companies. The symposium aimed to gather specialized people who are engaged and acting in programmes on hazard appraisal, risk prevention and urban management in city environment. These people aimed to compare experiences acquired in two different fields: on the one hand urban growth and its consequences, and on the other hand, natural hazards and effects, in particular in Developing Countries.Half-way through the International Decade for Natural Hazard Disaster Reduction, we strove to reconcile two points of view usually distincts: nature-oriented research and society-oriented research on hazards. These convergent approaches should merge, not only to improve knowledge of natural hazards and risks, but also to cope with hazard and risk situation on a day-basis in a city. We also choose to study both approaches in Developing Countries (DC) because most of the large cities of the world already are or will be located there in near future. In addition, city location in DC coincides with tropical areas where natural hazards are most frequent threats to life, in particular in mountains, on seashores, and on active convergent plate margins. We stress the fact that the 3 following topics are often lacking in studies which have been carried out on natural hazard appraisal and management. 1) How should we include social and economical factors, and particularly a sound analysis of vulnerability of people and values at risk ? 2) How should we cope with hazard management in large cities of Developing Countries ? 3) What is the specific task of research people in hazard case studies engaged in urban environment and management?Three themes correspond to the three sessions of the symposium. (1) Natural hazards and environmental factors : inventory, diagnostic and classification, (2) Vulnerability of urban society and environment : concepts, approaches, and classification, (3) Tools for urban risk prevention and risk management in case of crisis and catastrophes.; Ce numéro de la Revue de Géographie Alpine reprend une dizaine parmi les 41 contributions exposées par des chercheurs français et étrangers lors du colloque international « Croissance urbaine et risques naturels dans les pays en développement » qui s'est déroulé à l'Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont-Ferrand, les 2 et 3 décembre 1994. L'objectif général du colloque était de rassembler les diverses compétences existant en France et à l'étranger dans le domaine de l'évaluation et de la gestion des risques naturels et de confronter les expériences acquises à l'interface entre les villes en croissance et le champ d'action des phénomènes naturels créateurs de risques. Le colloque a donc réuni des chercheurs, des doctorants et des praticiens français et leurs collègues étrangers chargés de prévention, de gestion des risques naturels et de gestion urbaine, principalement dans les grandes villes des pays en développement (P.E.D.).Parvenus à mi-chemin de la Décennie Internationale pour la Prévention des Catastrophes Naturelles, nous avons porté des regards croisés sur les approches naturalistes et sociologiques des risques naturels. Il est maintenant nécessaire de faire converger ces approches, non seulement dans la connaissance des menaces et des risques, mais dans la gestion du risque quotidien en milieu urbain. Nous avons concentré ces approches dans les pays en développement ; en effet, le site de leurs grandes villes coïncide souvent avec le champ d'action des phénomènes naturels générateurs de risques, notamment dans la zone intertropicale et en particulier dans les marges continent ales actives (par exemple autour du Pacifique).Nous avons porté l'accent sur 3 points principaux, qui semblent en partie faire défaut dans les études et les méthodes actuellement mises en oeuvre dans la gestion des risques naturels : 1) comment prendre en compte les aspects socio-économiques, en particulier les types d'analyse des vulnérabilités ? 2) comment aborder la gestion des risques en milieu urbain dans les P.E.D. ? 3) quel rôle doit jouer le chercheur en Sciences de l'Homme, de la Société et de la Terre dans les analyses, les expertises consacrées aux risques et surtout dans leur gestion globale, à la charnière des sociétés citadines précaires et des milieux « naturels » contraignants ?Les contributions ont été regroupées, exposées et discutées lors du colloque sous forme de 3 thèmes. (1) Les phénomènes naturels créateurs de dommages (= menaces) : diagnostic, inventaire et typologie, (2) Les vulnérabilités des sociétés et des espaces urbanisés : concepts, typologie et modes d'analyse, (3) Les outils d'aide à la prévention et à la gestion du risque en milieu urbain.

Summary. — Local projects of equipment and resource of water in mountainous areas. Mountainous areas often have a hydraulic potential divided in torrents of little intensity. The available water can be used to fit up equipments that will be used by people who live near this water. But the valuation of this resource, if we want it to be efficacious, must be done quickly; then, we'll have to solve this problem in a particular way which must be defined by the way of considering the project. Short series of measures, utilization of established discharge models, a concrete knowledge of drainage areas, selection of tests in accordance with chosen équipement, will be used for this type of estimation., Résumé. — Les régions montagneuses disposent souvent d'un potentiel hydraulique disséminé sur des torrents de faibles débits. L'eau disponible peut être utilisée pour des aménagements destinés à satisfaire les besoins de petits groupes humains installés à proximité. Mais l'évaluation de la ressource, pour être efficace, doit être conduite rapidement; aussi faut-il aborder ce problème dans une optique particulière qui se définit en fonction du projet envisagé. Le recours à des séries de mesures courtes, l'appel à des modèles d'écoulement préétablis, l'appui sur une connaissance concrète du bassin-versant et la sélection des critères d'appréciation suivant l'équipement projeté sont autant de points à prendre en considération pour ce type d'estimation., Bocquet Gérard. Projets locaux d'aménagement et ressources en eau, en région montagneuse. In: Revue de géographie alpine, tome 74, n°1-2, 1986. pp. 75-82.