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This study investigates the role of locality (a task/material‐related variable), demographic factors (age, education, and sex), cognitive capacities (verbal working memory [WM], verbal short‐term memory [STM], speed of processing [SOP], and inhibition), and morphosyntactic category (time reference and grammatical aspect) in verb‐related morphosyntactic production (VRMP). A sentence completion task tapping production of time reference and grammatical aspect in local and nonlocal configurations, and cognitive tasks measuring verbal WM capacity, verbal STM capacity, motor SOP, perceptual SOP, and inhibition were administered to 200 neurotypical Greek‐speaking participants, aged between 19 and 80 years. We fitted generalized linear mixed‐effects models and performed path analyses. Significant main effects of locality, age, education, verbal WM capacity, motor SOP, and morphosyntactic category emerged. Production of time reference and aspect did not interact with any of the significant factors (i.e., age, education, verbal WM capacity, motor SOP, and locality), and locality did not interact with any memory system. Path analyses revealed that the relationships between age and VRMP, and between education and VRMP were partly mediated by verbal WM; and the relationship between verbal WM and VRMP was partly mediated by perceptual SOP. Results suggest that subject‐, task/material‐ and morphosyntactic category‐specific factors determine accuracy performance on VRMP; and the effects of age, education, and verbal WM on VRMP are partly indirect. The fact that there was a significant main effect of verbal WM but not of verbal STM on accuracy performance in the VRMP task suggests that it is predominantly the processing component (and not the storage component) of verbal WM that supports VRMP. Lastly, we interpret the results as suggesting that VRMP is also supported by a procedural memory system whose efficiency might be reflected in years of formal education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) impacts various aspects of children's language abilities, including the processing of inflectional morphology. Prior research suggests that children with DLD exhibit deficits in processing speed and sensitivity to grammatical inflections, yet the relationship between these deficits remains unclear. Aims: This study aimed to investigate the relationship between processing speed and sensitivity to inflectional morphology in children with DLD, focusing on their real‐time processing abilities in response to regular past tense, third person singular, and regular plural inflections at different rates of sentence articulation. Method: Eighteen children with DLD and 18 age‐matched controls underwent word monitoring tasks that assessed sensitivity to grammaticality of inflections in sentences presented at normal and slow rates of articulation. Results: At a normal rate of articulation, children with DLD demonstrated slower response times and reduced sensitivity to grammaticality across all inflections compared to controls. When the articulation rate was slowed, children with DLD showed improved sensitivity, particularly to regular plural and third person singular inflections, although deficits in processing the regular past tense persisted. Conclusions: The findings suggest a significant relationship between processing speed and inflectional morphology sensitivity in children with DLD. Slower articulation rates improved grammatical sensitivity for certain inflections, highlighting the potential of tailored interventions that consider processing speed limitations. Persistent difficulties with the regular past tense inflection indicate the need for targeted support for children with DLD in this area. WHAT THIS PAPER ADDS: What is already known on this subject: Children with Developmental Language Disorder (DLD) have a wide range of language difficulties, but deficits in inflectional morphology are regarded as a 'hallmark' of the disorder. Children with DLD are also very likely to show deficits in speed of processing, although it is not known if a 'slowness to process' can causally explain the language difficulties these children experience. What this study adds to existing knowledge: When grammatical sensitivity was measured using an online real‐time task, children with DLD showed widespread inflectional deficits when sentences were spoken at a normal conversational rate. When sentence articulation rate was slowed down, children with DLD were faster, more accurate and more sensitive to the grammaticality of constructions. However, deficits in the regular past tense remained persistent, even in this slow‐rate condition. What are the clinical implications of this work?: This study has implications for clinical and educational practices that work with children with DLD to improve their language skills. The findings of this study show that when children with DLD are given more time to process incoming information, their grammatical skills significantly improve. This study also shows that deficits in the regular past tense are persistent, and children are likely need extensive and intensive support with this particular grammatical feature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

How rapidly can we encode the specifics versus the gist of episodic memories? Competing theories have opposing answers, but empirical tests are based primarily on tasks of item memory. Few studies have addressed this question with tasks measuring the binding of event components (e.g., a person and a location), which forms the core of episodic memory. None of these prior studies included older adults, whose episodic memories are less specific in nature. We addressed this critical gap by presenting face–scene pairs (e.g., an old man with a park) at various encoding presentation rates to 80 young (M = 21.83 years) and 86 older (M = 68.62 years) adults. Participants completed associative recognition tests featuring old/intact (e.g., the old man with the same park), similar (e.g., the old man with a different park), and unrelated (e.g., the old man with a kitchen) pairs. Multinomial-processing-tree model analyses revealed that young and older adults encoded each pair's gist representation more rapidly than its specific representation, supporting fuzzy-trace theory. No age-related differences in gist representations were obtained at any presentation rate, but older adults required more time to encode specific representations commensurate with those of younger adults. However, older adults' abilities to retrieve these representations were cue-dependent, as they were more susceptible than younger adults to experiencing vivid false memories of similar lures. These phantom recollections were remediated with further increases in encoding time. Thus, slower speed of encoding partially underlies age-related declines in episodic memory specificity, but retrieval mechanisms also play a role. Public Significance Statement: The present study provides novel insights into the speed with which specific (detailed) and gist (meaning-based) representations of episodic memories can be encoded among young and older adults. These insights constrain leading theories of information processing and have implications for understanding why older adults are less likely to remember the specific details of past episodes. Providing older adults with more time to learn new information may be one solution for fostering stronger and longer-lasting memories that are rich in specific details. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: As people with HIV (PWH) age, they are at-risk of developing cognitive impairments compared to their seronegative counterparts. Although speed of processing (SOP) training may help improve this cognitive ability, less work has examined transfer to other cognitive domains. This study examined the effect of SOP training has on secondary cognitive domains in PWH aged 40+ years. Method: In this 3-group 2-year longitudinal study, 216 PWH with HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) or borderline HAND were randomized to either: (1) 10 h of SOP training (n = 70); (2) 20 h of SOP training (n = 73); or (3) 10 h of an active control training (n = 73). Participants completed a comprehensive cognitive battery at baseline, immediately after training, and at 1 and 2 years. This battery yielded global and domain specific T-scores as well as a cognitive impairment variable. Generalized linear mixed-effect models were fitted to estimate between-group mean differences at the follow-up time-points adjusted for baseline. Results: No clinically or statistically significant improvements in any of the cognitive outcomes were observed. A sensitivity analysis was conducted; conclusions replicated those of the main analysis, with two exceptions: Global Function T and Psychomotor Speed T showed relevant training improvements among the intervention groups over the control group at the immediate post time point. Conclusions: Although SOP training has been shown to improve cognitive abilities that correspond to driving and mobility, such training has limited therapeutic utility in improving cognition in other domains in PWH with HAND. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As the sector of the population over 65y increases, cognitive decline and dementia become a public health issue. Interventions to improve brain health and thus, quality of life for older adults are needed. It was hypothesized that those consuming a flavonoid-rich, lyophilized wild blueberry powder would evidence improvements in cognitive performance as measured behaviorally and electrophysiologically compared to those consuming a placebo powder across a 6-month intervention period. In a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial, participants experiencing cognitive issues as determined by scores on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) were randomized to consume either wild blueberry (n = 44) or placebo (n = 42) powder daily for 6 months. Participants who were not experiencing any cognitive issues were included as a reference group (n = 45). Participants were tested at baseline and outcome on the Cambridge Neurological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) and in an electrophysiological paradigm known as event-related potentials (ERP). Tests of specific cognitive abilities using the CANTAB showed speed of processing not only improved in the blueberry intervention group relative to the placebo group across the 6-month intervention, but blueberries also restored speed of processing to the level of the reference group. The ERP results also showed that, relative to those consuming placebo, speed of processing improved for those in the blueberry group; this improvement was most prominent in those 75-80y. Consumption of wild blueberries for six months improves cognitive aging sequelae by improving the speed of information processing in older adults. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01515098. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Many people living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) (PLWH) experience cognitive decline that impairs everyday functioning. Cognitive training approaches, such as speed of processing (SOP) training, may reduce the impact of HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorder (HAND) on everyday functioning. In this experimental design study called the Think Fast Study, 216 participants age 40 and older with HAND or borderline HAND were randomized to one of three groups: (1) 10 h of SOP training (n = 70); (2) 20 h of SOP training (n = 73); or (3) 10 h of Internet Navigation Control Training (a contact control group; n = 73). Participants completed several everyday functioning measures at baseline, posttest, and year 1 and year 2 follow ups, which included: (a) Modified Lawton and Brody Activities of Daily Living (ADL) Questionnaire; (b) Timed Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (TIADL) Test; (c) Patient’s Assessment of Own Functioning (PAOFI); (d) Medication Adherence Questionnaire (MAQ); and (e) Medication Adherence Visual Analog Scale (VAS). Linear mixed-effect models and generalized estimating equation models were fitted to estimate between group differences at all follow-up time points. At follow-up timepoints, those in the 10-h and 20-h training groups had better scores on medication adherence measures (MAQ and VAS) than those in the control group, with effects (Cohen’s d) ranging 0.13–0.41 for MAQ and 0.02–0.43 for VAS. In conclusion, SOP training improved some indicators of everyday functioning, specifically medication adherence; however, the therapeutic effects diminished over time. Implications for practice and research are posited. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Half of people with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) have HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND). Fortunately, cognitive training programs can improve function across cognitive domains, which may translate to everyday functioning. The Training on Purpose (TOPS) Study was designed to reverse HAND by targeting cognitive training to specific cognitive impairments that contributed to the diagnosis. A secondary aim of TOPS was to determine whether such cognitive training improved subjective and objective everyday functioning. In this two-group pre–post experimental design study, 109 adults with HAND were randomized to either: (1) a no-contact control group (no training) or (2) the Individualized-Targeted Cognitive Training group. Each participant received approximately 10 hours of cognitive training in two selected cognitive domains based on her/his individual baseline cognitive performance. Thus, 20 hours of individualized training on these two cognitive domains occurred over a course of 12 weeks in 1–2 hour sessions. Specific to the secondary aim of TOPS, measures of everyday functioning were administered before and after cognitive training to examine transfer effects. The analyses revealed that in general, speed of processing training produced benefits in everyday functioning as measured by the medication adherence visual analogue scale and the Timed Instrumental Activities of Daily Living test. Inconsistent findings were found for the other seven cognitive training protocols in either improving everyday functioning or reducing perceived everyday functioning; however, there may be other contributing factors that obscured such effects needing further research. This study demonstrated that some training protocols vary in efficacy in altering both objective and subjective everyday functioning ability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study highlights the importance of inhibitory ability in facilitating performance in mathematics. To understand the role of inhibition in mathematical knowledge, this study tested 102 college students on a series of standardized complex math exercises. Inhibition tasks varied by task and stimuli (letters, numbers, and arrows). The result showed stronger associations between math abilities and strength of inhibition with more inhibition found for the flanker task (involving inhibition of peripheral stimuli) than for the Navon task (requiring inhibition of a potential response). The results supported the view that Inhibition in general (which is not unique to numerical stimuli) is associated with math abilities. General, rather than specific inhibition was associated with math abilities and finally, speed of processing masked the relationship between math and inhibition. These results confirm the assumption that the relation between inhibition and math performance is modulated by the task that measures the inhibition, and by additional predictors such as processing speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Cognitive dysfunction is a common and core feature of major depressive disorder (MDD). Evidences exerted a potentially harmful role of obesity and higher peripheral levels of inflammation in cognitive function, but few studies have explored whether markers of peripheral inflammation might mediate the association between overweight/obesity and deficits in cognitive function. Our study aimed to examine the cognitive function in MDD patients and clarify the effects of overweight/obesity and inflammatory cytokines on cognitive dysfunction in this population.Method: We used a cross-sectional design in this study. A total of 265 patients with MDD were enrolled and divided into underweight, normal weight and overweight/obese groups. The MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) was administered to measure the cognition. Plasma levels of nineteen cytokines were measured using high sensitivity multiplex bead-based assays.Results: We found overweight/obese MDD patients associated with higher plasma levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-8, and macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1β and worse performance in speed of processing and working memory. The mediation analysis found higher levels of IL-8 (direct: β = -0.591 (95 % Confidence Interval (CI): -1.0 to -0.2), P = 0.002; indirect: β = 0.060 (95 % CI.: 0.0-0.2), P = 0.032) and TNF-α (direct: β = -0.589 (95 % CI.: -1.0 to -0.2), P = 0.002; indirect: β = 0.059 (95 % CI.: 0.1-0.2), P = 0.037) were associated with more deficits in speed of processing, and partially mediated the relationship between body mass index and speed of processing.Conclusion: Our results suggest that elevated inflammation might be one biological mechanism underlying the link between higher body mass and deficits in processing speed in patients with MDD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This study aimed to investigate the longitudinal associations between social network (SN) and the risk of lower cognitive function, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and dementia among cognitively normal individuals 65 years and older. Methods: Data from the Age, Gene/Environment Susceptibility (AGES) Reykjavik Study on 2816 participants (aged 65 to 96 years) were used to examine the associations using multiple logistic and linear regression models. SN included questions on frequency of contact with family and friends as well as information on marital status, resulting in a score ranging from 0 (poor social network) to 3 (good social network). Cognitive function outcomes included the speed of processing (SP), executive function (EF) and memory function (MF). MCI and dementia were diagnosed using a detailed assessment according to international guidelines. Results: At baseline 0.5, 7.0, 41.7 and 50.8% reported a score of 0, 1, 2 and 3, respectively. During a mean follow-up time of 5.2 years, 7.1% (n = 188) of cognitively intact participants developed MCI and 3.0% (n = 79) developed dementia. Longitudinal analyses demonstrated that participants who had low SN were significantly more likely to have declines in MF (β = − 0.533, P = 0.014) compared to high SN. Social networks were not independently associated with the decline of SP and EF during follow-up. According to fully adjusted models using logistic regression, SN was significantly associated with incidence risk of MCI (OR = 2.030, P = 0.014 and OR = 1.847 P = 0.001). These associations were largely independent of other lifestyle factors, depression and genetic disposition. Conclusions: Community-dwelling older adults who have poor social networks have a higher risk of declining memory function as well as a higher risk of mild cognitive impairment than older adults who have a higher social network. This study included numbers of relevant covariates in the study analysis, thereby significantly contributing to the literature on cognitive aging. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the relationship between verb-related morphosyntactic production (VRMP) and locality (i.e., critical cue being adjacent to the target or not), verbal Working Memory (vWM), nonverbal/visuospatial WM (nvWM), verbal short-term memory (vSTM), nonverbal/visuospatial STM (nvSTM), speed of processing, and education. Eighty healthy middle-aged and older Greek-speaking participants were administered a sentence completion task tapping into production of subject–verb Agreement, Time Reference/Tense, and grammatical Aspect in local and nonlocal configurations, and cognitive tasks tapping into vSTM, nvSTM, vWM, nvWM, and speed of processing. Aspect elicited worse performance than Time Reference and Agreement, and Time Reference elicited worse performance than Agreement. There were main effects of vSTM, vWM, education, and locality: the greater the participants’ vSTM/vWM capacity, and the higher their educational level, the better their VRMP; nonlocal configurations elicited worse performance on VRMP than local configurations. Moreover, vWM affected Aspect and Time Reference/Tense more than Agreement, and education affected VRMP more in local than in nonlocal configurations. Lastly, locality affected Agreement and Aspect (with nonlocal configurations eliciting more agreement and aspect errors than local configurations) but not Time Reference. That vSTM/vWM (but not nvSTM/ nvWM) were found to subserve VRMP suggests that VRMP is predominantly supported by domain-specific, not by domain-general, memory resources. The main effects of vWM and vSTM suggest that both the processing and storage components of WM are relevant to VRMP. That vWM (but not vSTM) interacts with production of Aspect, Time Reference, and Agreement suggests that Aspect and Time Reference are computationally more demanding than Agreement. These findings are consistent with earlier findings that, in individuals with aphasia, vWM interacts with production of Aspect, Time Reference, and Agreement. The differential effect of education on VRMP in local vs. nonlocal configurations could be accounted or by assuming that education is a proxy for an assumed procedural memory system that is sensitive to frequency patterns in language and better supports VRMP in more frequent than in less frequent configurations. In the same vein, the interaction between locality and the three morphosyntactic categories might reflect the statistical distribution of local vs. nonlocal Aspect, Agreement, and Time Reference/Tense in Greek. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Pretreatment characteristics of patients, symptom and function could be associated with antidepressant treatment outcome, but its predictive ability is not adequate. Our study aimed to identify predictors of acute antidepressant efficacy in patients with first-episode Major Depressive Disorder (MDD).Methods: 187 patients with first-episode MDD were included and assessed clinical symptoms, cognitive function and global functioning using the 17-item Hamilton Depression Inventory (HAMD-17), MATRICS Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB) and Global Assessment of Functioning (GAF). Participants received treatment with a SSRI (escitalopram or venlafaxine) for 4 weeks. Logistic regression was used to analyze the association between patients' characteristics, symptom profiles, cognitive performance, and global functioning and the antidepressant outcome at the end of 4 weeks, and ROC curve analysis was performed for predictive accuracy with area under the receiver operating curve (AUC).Results: Antidepressant improvement, response and remission rate at week 4 was 87.7%, 64.7% and 42.8%, respectively. The combination of pretreatment clinical profiles, speed of processing and global functioning showed moderate discrimination of acute improvement, response and remission with AUCs of 0.863, 0.812 and 0.734, respectively.Limitations: The major limitation of the present study is the study did not combine pharmacogenomics from the perspective of antidepressant drug metabolism.Conclusion: Aside from the baseline clinical symptoms, cognitive function and global functioning could be predictors of acute treatment outcome in first episode MDD using escitalopram or venlafaxine. This relatively simple application based on clinical symptoms and function seems to be cost-effective method to identify individuals who are more likely to respond to antidepressant treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) is experienced by 30% to 50% of people living with HIV (PLWH), potentially affecting their quality of life (QoL). In the Training on Purpose Study, we investigated whether targeted cognitive training can improve QoL in PLWH with HAND. Using a two-group experimental design, we randomized 109 adults with HAND to either (a) the Individualized-Targeted Cognitive Training group or (b) a no-contact control group. Those in the training group were assigned 10 hr of cognitive training per two selected cognitive domains (20 hr total) for which impairment was observed. Overall, two patterns emerged. First, significant improvements in measures of everyday cognitive complaints, depression, and mental health were consistently observed after the completion of many cognitive training protocols. Second, immediate and delayed spatial learning and memory training resulted in more significant indicators of QoL improvements compared with the other cognitive domain trainings. The findings suggest that some types of cognitive training may have advantages over others in improving aspects of QoL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Neurocognitive deficits have been consistently associated with a wide range of psychopathology and are proposed to not only be a consequence of the development of psychopathology but also directly involved in its aetiology. However, there is no clear understanding of what neurocognitive processes are particularly important to mental health. In this paper, we explored the association between neurocognitive abilities and the factors derived from structural models of psychopathology. Four hundred participants from a representative community sample completed measures of symptomology and substance use, as well as 8 neurocognitive tasks. We found a correlated-factors model, with internalising and externalising as the higher-order factors, and a single-factor model with only the p-factor, to be good fits for the data. Tasks that measured the speed of processing were significantly associated with internalising, externalising, and the p-factor, and accounted for significant amounts of unique variance in the factors after accounting for the common variance of the other tasks. Tasks that measured working memory, shifting, and inhibition were not significantly associated with psychopathology factors. Our findings suggest that neurocognitive abilities may not be differentially associated with psychopathology factors, but that speed of processing is a common correlate of the factors. We emphasise the importance of examining neurocognitive abilities and psychopathology on the individual level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectivesTo examine the cognitive and neural effects of vision-based speed-of-processing (VSOP) training in older adults with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (aMCI) and contrast those effects with an active control (mental leisure activities (MLA)).DesignRandomized single-blind controlled pilot trial.SettingAcademic medical center.ParticipantsIndividuals with aMCI (N = 21).InterventionSix-week computerized VSOP training.MeasurementsMultiple cognitive processing measures, instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs), and two resting state neural networks regulating cognitive processing: central executive network (CEN) and default mode network (DMN).ResultsVSOP training led to significantly greater improvements in trained (processing speed and attention: F1,19  = 6.61, partial η(2)  = 0.26, P = .02) and untrained (working memory: F1,19  = 7.33, partial η(2)  = 0.28, P = .01; IADLs: F1,19  = 5.16, partial η(2)  = 0.21, P = .03) cognitive domains than MLA and protective maintenance in DMN (F1, 9  = 14.63, partial η(2)  = 0.62, P = .004). VSOP training, but not MLA, resulted in a significant improvement in CEN connectivity (Z = -2.37, P = .02).ConclusionTarget and transfer effects of VSOP training were identified, and links between VSOP training and two neural networks associated with aMCI were found. These findings highlight the potential of VSOP training to slow cognitive decline in individuals with aMCI. Further delineation of mechanisms underlying VSOP-induced plasticity is necessary to understand in which populations and under what conditions such training may be most effective.

The emergence of language around a child’s first birthday isone of the greatest transformations in human development.Does this transition require a fundamental shift in the child’sknowledge or beliefs, or could it instead be attributable to moregradual changes in processing abilities? We present a simplemodel of cognitive performance that supports the second con-clusion. The premise of this model is that any cognitive op-eration requires multiple steps, each of which require sometime to complete and have some probability of failure. Weuse meta-analysis to estimate these parameters for two com-ponents of simple ostensive word learning: social cue use andword recognition. When combined in our model, these esti-mates suggest that learning should be very difficult for chil-dren younger than around a year, especially with gaze alone.This model takes a first step towards quantifying performancelimitations for cognitive development and may be broadly ap-plicable to other developmental changes.

Schizophrenia neurocognitive domain profiles are predominantly based on paper-and-pencil batteries. This study presents the first schizophrenia domain profile based on the Computerized Multiphasic Interactive Neurocognitive System (CMINDS(®)). Neurocognitive domain z-scores were computed from computerized neuropsychological tests, similar to those in the Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB), administered to 175 patients with schizophrenia and 169 demographically similar healthy volunteers. The schizophrenia domain profile order by effect size was Speed of Processing (d=-1.14), Attention/Vigilance (d=-1.04), Working Memory (d=-1.03), Verbal Learning (d=-1.02), Visual Learning (d=-0.91), and Reasoning/Problem Solving (d=-0.67). There were no significant group by sex interactions, but overall women, compared to men, showed advantages on Attention/Vigilance, Verbal Learning, and Visual Learning compared to Reasoning/Problem Solving on which men showed an advantage over women. The CMINDS can readily be employed in the assessment of cognitive deficits in neuropsychiatric disorders; particularly in large-scale studies that may benefit most from electronic data capture.

• Robust associations between brain structure and multiple cognitive domains observed. • Functional network topography provided insight into structure-cognition associations. • Highly connected regions within networks correlated with specific domains. • High-level cognitive domains showed broader associations with networks. • Gaps in the literature of brain-cognition associations were identified. Schizophrenia is characterized by cognitive impairments and widespread structural brain abnormalities. Brain structure-cognition associations have been extensively studied in schizophrenia, typically involving individual cognitive domains or brain regions of interest. Findings in overlapping and diffuse brain regions may point to structural alterations in large-scale brain networks. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis examining whether brain structure-cognition associations can be explained in terms of biologically meaningful brain networks. Of 7,261 screened articles, 88 were included in a series of meta-analyses assessing publication bias, heterogeneity, and study quality. Significant associations were found between overall brain structure and eight MATRICS-inspired cognitive domains. Brain structure mapped onto the seven Yeo functionally defined networks and extraneous structures (amygdala, hippocampus, and cerebellum) typically showed associations with conceptually related cognitive domains, with higher-level domains (e.g., executive function, social cognition) associated with more networks. These findings synthesize the extensive literature on brain structure and cognition in schizophrenia from a contemporary network neuroscience perspective and suggest that brain structure-cognition associations in schizophrenia may follow functional network architecture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Half of people with HIV (PWH) have HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND). This study examined whether cognition can be improved using a framework targeting impaired individual cognitive domains in PWH with HAND. In this two-group pre-post experimental design study, 88 adults with HAND were randomized to either: (1) a no-contact control group (n = 40) or (2) the Individualized-Targeted Cognitive Training group (n = 48). Baseline cognitive performance was assessed on eight cognitive domains. A theoretical framework was used to determine the two cognitive domains selected for training. With priority on speed of processing (SOP) and attention impairments, participants received SOP and/or attention training if such impairments were detected; if not, participants were assigned to cognitive training in one/two of the least impaired cognitive domains contributing to their HAND diagnosis. Global cognitive score was slightly improved following training (p = 0.256; d = − 0.21), but it was not significant. Significant improvements were observed on SOP following training in that domain (SOP; d = − 0.88; p = 0.011). SOP training also improved functioning in other cognitive domains. This individualized cognitive intervention did not change HAND status, but it did result in improved SOP, in turn yielding improvement in other cognitive domains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ObjectiveHigh fatigability, a dysfunctional adaption to fatigue, may lead to difficulties performing otherwise regularly encountered cognitive activities and may be related to pro-inflammatory reactivity. The purpose of the study was to investigate the effect of fatigability on cognitive processes and inflammatory response after an acute cognitive stress task in older adults.MethodsIn an observational stress reactivity study conducted in a light- and temperature-controlled laboratory, we measured IL-6, self-reported acute fatigue, and frontally oriented cognitive processes in 55 community-dwelling individuals aged 75 years or older as part of a demanding set of cognitive tasks intended to induce stress.ResultsSubjects were classified into groups of low and high fatigability based on cluster analysis of their self-report acute fatigue before and after the cognitive tasks. The two clusters were comparable on levels of baseline IL-6 and cognitive processes; however, the high fatigability cluster had significantly higher levels of IL-6 response than the low fatigability cluster. After controlling for multiple covariates, fatigability moderated the relationship between speed of processing and IL-6 reactivity. Further exploratory analyses indicated significant adverse associations between speed of processing and attention and IL-6 reactivity in the group with low but not high fatigability.ConclusionAlthough observational, these data are consistent with the notion that pro-inflammatory states in older adults might be reduced by improvements in cognitive processes. Because fatigability was associated with increased acute inflammatory response and disrupted the normal stress regulation provided by the cognitive processes, future randomized studies might examine whether fatigability alleviation reduces IL-6.

We examined the role of different cognitive-linguistic skills in reading and arithmetic fluency, and whether the effects of these skills are mediated by reading and arithmetic accuracy. One hundred twenty-six English-speaking Grade 1 children (67 females, 59 males; Mage = 6.41 years) were followed from the beginning of Grade 1 (Time 1) to the end of Grade 1 (Time 2). At Time 1, they were assessed on measures of non-verbal IQ, speed of processing, working memory, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), and number sense. At Time 2, they were assessed on measures of reading and arithmetic accuracy as well as on measures of reading and arithmetic fluency. Results of path analysis showed first that when reading and arithmetic fluency were included in the model as separate outcomes, RAN was predictive of both and that speed of processing and working memory were predictive of only arithmetic fluency. Second, RAN, speed of processing, and working memory had both direct and indirect effects (via reading and arithmetic accuracy) on the covariation of reading and arithmetic fluency. Irrespective of how reading and arithmetic fluency were treated in the analyses, the effects of non-verbal IQ, phonological awareness, and number sense were all indirect. Taken together, these findings suggest that reading and arithmetic fluency draw on a broader network of cognitive-linguistic skills, whose effects can sometimes be indirect through reading and arithmetic accuracy.

Although previous research has shown that there exist individual and cross-linguistic differences in planning strategies during language production, little is known about how such individual differences might vary depending on which language a speaker is planning. The present series of studies examines individual differences in planning strategies exhibited by speakers of American English, French, and German. Participants were asked to describe images on a computer monitor while their eye movements were monitored. In addition, we measured participants' working memory capacity and speed of processing. The results indicate that in the present study, English and German were planned less incrementally (further in advance) prior to speech onset compared to French, which was planned more incrementally (not as far in advance). Crucially, speed of processing predicted the scope of planning for French speakers, but not for English or German speakers. These results suggest that the different planning strategies that are invoked by syntactic choices available in different languages are associated with the tendency for speakers to rely on different cognitive support systems as they plan sentences.

We examined the role of different cognitive-linguistic skills in reading and arithmetic fluency, and whether the effects of these skills are mediated by reading and arithmetic accuracy. One hundred twenty-six English-speaking Grade 1 children (67 females, 59 males; M age = 6.41 years) were followed from the beginning of Grade 1 (Time 1) to the end of Grade 1 (Time 2). At Time 1, they were assessed on measures of non-verbal IQ, speed of processing, working memory, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming (RAN), and number sense. At Time 2, they were assessed on measures of reading and arithmetic accuracy as well as on measures of reading and arithmetic fluency. Results of path analysis showed first that when reading and arithmetic fluency were included in the model as separate outcomes, RAN was predictive of both and that speed of processing and working memory were predictive of only arithmetic fluency. Second, RAN, speed of processing, and working memory had both direct and indirect effects (via reading and arithmetic accuracy) on the covariation of reading and arithmetic fluency. Irrespective of how reading and arithmetic fluency were treated in the analyses, the effects of non-verbal IQ, phonological awareness, and number sense were all indirect. Taken together, these findings suggest that reading and arithmetic fluency draw on a broader network of cognitive-linguistic skills, whose effects can sometimes be indirect through reading and arithmetic accuracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although previous research has shown that there exist individual and cross-linguistic differences in planning strategies during language production, little is known about how such individual differences might vary depending on which language a speaker is planning. The present series of studies examines individual differences in planning strategies exhibited by speakers of American English, French, and German. Participants were asked to describe images on a computer monitor while their eye movements were monitored. In addition, we measured participants' working memory capacity and speed of processing. The results indicate that in the present study, English and German were planned less incrementally (further in advance) prior to speech onset compared to French, which was planned more incrementally (not as far in advance). Crucially, speed of processing predicted the scope of planning for French speakers, but not for English or German speakers. These results suggest that the different planning strategies that are invoked by syntactic choices available in different languages are associated with the tendency for speakers to rely on different cognitive support systems as they plan sentences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Researchers have devoted much effort in trying to understand how and why our subjective experience of time changes across the adult life-span. The cognitive apparatus that supports timing is integrally entwined with those supporting other cognitive processes including working memory, inhibition and speed of processing. Methods: One-hundred-eighty adults ranged from 19 to 87 years old participated in the study. A time discrimination task, with two standard intervals (short standard = 500 ms; long standard = 1500 ms) was used. Moreover, N-back and Stroop tasks were used to assess working memory, inhibition and speed of processing. Results: Data were analysed with a multilevel mixed model approach. Accounting for between-subject variability, we compared models in order to assess the better fit using chi-square likelihood-ratio test, Akaike information criterion and the Bayesian information criterion. Results showed a significant interaction between age, standard interval, comparison interval and speed of processing. Conclusion: Our study confirmed that younger participants were generally more accurate across conditions than older ones; we also showed that performance depended indeed on intervals, but also on speed of processing abilities across age. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Jacqueline B Vo,1 Pariya L Fazeli2,3, Rachel Benz,4 Jennifer R Bail,5 Kristen Triebel,6 David E Vance3,4, Karen Meneses†,4,71Office of Research and Scholarship, School of Nursing, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294-1210, USA; 2School of Nursing, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA; 3Center for Translational Research on Aging and Mobility, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA; 4Office of Research and Scholarship, School of Nursing, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA; 5Cancer Prevention and Control Training Program, School of Health Professions, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA; 6Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA; 7Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birminghan, AL, USA†Dr Karen Meneses passed away in August 2018Purpose: Cognitive deficits are a concern for breast cancer survivors, as these effects are prevalent and impact daily functioning and quality of life (QoL). The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a speed of processing (SOP) training intervention on secondary, self-reported health outcomes in this population.Methods: Sixty middle-aged and older adult women breast cancer survivors completed baseline assessments and were randomized to either a no-contact control group or an SOP training group, who completed 10 hrs of computerized SOP training online at home. Both conditions completed self-report surveys of sleep, QoL, cognitive difficulties, and depressive symptoms at six weeks and six months post study entry.Results: There were no significant effects of the SOP training on self-reported health outcomes.Conclusion: Future studies examining the effect of cognitive training on self-reported health outcomes are warranted that include individuals with baseline impairment in such indices in order to better determine efficacy, and longer follow-up time points may aid in examining the protective effects of this intervention in those without baseline impairment.Keywords: cancer survivorship, cognitive dysfunction, late effects, quality of life

Jing Yan,1 Yue Cui,2,3 Qianqian Li,1 Lin Tian,4,5 Bing Liu,2,3 Tianzi Jiang,2,3 Dai Zhang,1,6 Hao Yan11Peking University Sixth Hospital/Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing 100191, People’s Republic of China; 2Brainnetome Center/National Laboratory of Pattern Recognition, Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, People’s Republic of China; 3University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People’s Republic of China; 4Department of Psychiatry, Wuxi Mental Health Center, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi 214151, People’s Republic of China; 5Wuxi Mental Health Center, Wuxi Tongren International Rehabilitation Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214151, People’s Republic of China; 6Peking-Tsinghua Joint Center for Life Sciences & PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People’s Republic of ChinaBackground: Schizophrenia is a neurodevelopmental disorder with high heritability. Widespread cortical thinning has been identified in schizophrenia, suggesting that it is a result of cortical development deficit. However, the findings of other cortical morphological indexes of patients are inconsistent, and the research on their relationship with genetic risk factors for schizophrenia is rare.Methods: In order to investigate cortical morphology deficits and their disease-related genetic liability in schizophrenia, we analyzed a sample of 33 patients with schizophrenia, 60 biological parents of the patients, as well as 30 young controls for patients and 28 elderly controls for parents with age, sex and education level being well-matched. We calculated vertex-wise measurements of cortical thickness, surface area, local gyrification index, sulcal depth, and their correlation with the clinical and cognitive characteristics.Results: Widespread cortical thinning of the fronto-temporo-parietal region, sulcal flattening of the insula and gyrification reduction of the frontal cortex were observed in schizophrenia patients. Conjunction analysis revealed that patients with schizophrenia and their parents shared significant cortical thinning of bilateral prefrontal and insula, left lateral occipital and fusiform regions (Monte Carlo correction, P

Introduction:We aim to investigate the longitudinal associations between changes in body weight (BW) and declines in cognitive function and risk of mild cognitive impairment (MCI)/dementia among cognitively normal individuals 65 years or older. Methods: Data from the Age Gene/Environment Susceptibility-Reykjavik Study (AGES-Reykjavik Study) including 2620 participants, were examined using multiple logistic regression models.Cognitive function included speed of processing (SP), executive function (EF), and memory function (MF). Changes in BW were classified as; weight loss (WL), weight gain (WG), and stable weight (SW). Results: Mean follow-up time was 5.2 years and 61.3% were stable weight. Participants who experienced WL (13.4%) were significantly more likely to have declines in MF and SP compared to the SW group.Weight changes were not associated with EF. WL was associated with a higher risk of MCI, while WG (25.3%) was associated with a higher dementia risk, when compared to SW. Discussion: Significant BW changes in older adulthood may indicate impending changes in cognitive function. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Speed of processing is a cognitive domain that encompasses the speed at which an individual can perceive a given stimulus, interpret the information, and produce a correct response. Speed of processing has been shown to decline more rapidly than other cognitive domains in an aging population, suggesting that this domain is particularly vulnerable to cognitive aging (Chee et al., 2009). However, given the heterogeneity of neuropsychological measures used to assess the domains underpinning speed of processing, a diffuse pattern of brain regions has been implicated. The current study aims to investigate the structural neural correlates of speed of processing by assessing cortical volume and speed of processing scores on the POSIT Double Decision task within a healthy older adult population (N = 186; mean age = 71.70 ± 5.32 years). T1-weighted structural images were collected via a 3T Siemens scanner. The current study shows that less cortical thickness in right temporal, posterior frontal, parietal and occipital lobe structures were significantly associated with poorer Double Decision scores. Notably, these include the lateral orbitofrontal gyrus, precentral gyrus, superior, transverse, and inferior temporal gyrus, temporal pole, insula, parahippocampal gyrus, fusiform gyrus, lingual gyrus, superior and inferior parietal gyrus and lateral occipital gyrus. Such findings suggest that speed of processing performance is associated with a wide array of cortical regions that provide unique contributions to performance on the Double Decision task.

Takeo Tominaga,1 Masahito Tomotake,2 Tomoya Takeda,1 Yoshinori Ueoka,3 Tsunehiko Tanaka,4 Shin-ya Watanabe,1 Naomi Kameoka,5 Masahito Nakataki,5 Shusuke Numata,1 Yumiko Izaki,6 Satsuki Sumitani,7 Hiroko Kubo,8 Yasuhiro Kaneda,9 Tetsuro Ohmori1 1Department of Psychiatry, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University, Tokushima, Japan; 2Department of Mental Health, Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Tokushima University, Tokushima, Japan; 3Field of Psychology, Department of Human Sciences, Graduate School of Technology, Industrial and Social Sciences, Tokushima University, Tokushima, Japan; 4Faculty of Education, Specialized Courses Educational Psychology, Niigata University, Niigata, Japan; 5Department of Psychiatry, Tokushima University Hospital, Tokushima, Japan; 6Health Service and Counseling Center, Tokushima University, Tokushima, Japan; 7Academic Support Office for Students with Special Needs, Tokushima University, Tokushima, Japan; 8Department of Psychiatry, Aizato Hospital, Itano-gun, Tokushima, Japan; 9Department of Psychiatry, Iwaki Clinic, Anan, Tokushima, Japan Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to examine clinical factors related to social function in people with schizophrenia. Patients and methods: The participants were 55 stabilized outpatients with schizophrenia. Their mean age was 39.36 (SD =10.65) years. Social function was assessed using the Quality of Life Scale (QLS). Cognitive function was evaluated with the Measurement and Treatment Research to Improve Cognition in Schizophrenia Consensus Cognitive Battery (MCCB). Clinical symptoms were assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS), the Calgary Depression Scale for Schizophrenia, and the Drug-Induced Extrapyramidal Symptoms Scale. Results: Neither the MCCB cognitive domain score nor composite score was correlated with the QLS scores. However, of the 10 MCCB subtests, the Trail Making Test Part A and the Brief Assessment of Cognition in Schizophrenia-Symbol Coding (BACS-SC) scores were positively correlated with the QLS scores. Among clinical variables, especially the PANSS negative syndrome scale score had a strong negative correlation with the QLS scores. Stepwise regression analyses showed that the PANSS negative syndrome scale score was an independent predictor of the QLS scores, and although the BACS-SC score predicted the QLS common objects and activities subscale score, the association was not so strong compared to the PANSS negative syndrome scale score. Conclusion: These results indicate that speed of processing evaluated by BACS-SC could predict some aspect of social function but negative symptoms have a much stronger impact on global social function in people with schizophrenia. Keywords: schizophrenia, social function, negative symptom, cognitive function, speed of processing

Marianne Smith,1 Michael P Jones,2 Megan M Dotson,1 Fredric D Wolinsky3 1College of Nursing, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; 2Department of Biostatistics, College of Public Health, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; 3Department of Health, Management and Policy, College of Public Health, the University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA Purpose: This two-arm, randomized controlled trial was designed to evaluate a computerized cognitive speed of processing (SOP) training known as Road Tour in the generally older group of adults residing in assisted living (AL) and related senior housing. Study aims focused on depression-related outcomes that were observed in earlier SOP studies using Road Tour with younger, home-dwelling seniors. Study design and baseline outcomes are discussed. Participants and methods: A community-based design engaged AL and related senior living settings as partners in research. Selected staff served as on-site research assistants who were trained to recruit, consent, and train a target of 300 participants from AL and independent living (IL) programs to use the intervention and attention control computerized training. Ten hours of initial computerized training was followed by two booster sessions at 5 and 11 months. Outcome measures included Useful Field of View, 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire, 12-item Centers for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale, 7-item Generalized Anxiety Disorders, Brief Pain Inventory, and SF-36 Health Survey. Assessments occurred before randomization (pretraining) and posttraining, 26 and 52 weeks. Results: A total of 351 participants were randomized to the intervention (n = 173) and attention control (n = 178) groups. There were no significant differences between groups in demographic characteristics, with the exception of education and reported osteoporosis. There were no significant differences in study outcomes between groups at baseline. Participants in AL had significantly lower SOP and self-rated health, and significantly higher depression, anxiety, and pain when compared to those in IL programs on the same campus. Conclusion: Compared to earlier SOP training studies using Road Tour, this sample of senior living participants were older, reported more health conditions and poorer overall health, and had lower Useful Field of View scores and greater depressive symptoms at baseline. Moreover, participants in AL had greater health challenges than those in IL. Keywords: speed of processing, depression, assisted living, community-based design

Speed of processing is a cognitive domain that encompasses the speed at which an individual can perceive a given stimulus, interpret the information, and produce a correct response. Speed of processing has been shown to decline more rapidly than other cognitive domains in an aging population, suggesting that this domain is particularly vulnerable to cognitive aging (Chee et al., 2009). However, given the heterogeneity of neuropsychological measures used to assess the domains underpinning speed of processing, a diffuse pattern of brain regions has been implicated. The current study aims to investigate the structural neural correlates of speed of processing by assessing cortical volume and speed of processing scores on the POSIT Double Decision task within a healthy older adult population (N = 186; mean age = 71.70 ± 5.32 years). T1-weighted structural images were collected via a 3T Siemens scanner. The current study shows that less cortical thickness in right temporal, posterior frontal, parietal and occipital lobe structures were significantly associated with poorer Double Decision scores. Notably, these include the lateral orbitofrontal gyrus, precentral gyrus, superior, transverse, and inferior temporal gyrus, temporal pole, insula, parahippocampal gyrus, fusiform gyrus, lingual gyrus, superior and inferior parietal gyrus and lateral occipital gyrus. Such findings suggest that speed of processing performance is associated with a wide array of cortical regions that provide unique contributions to performance on the Double Decision task. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Half of the people living with HIV have cognitive deficits indicative of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HANDs). With few treatment options, informing patients about aHANDdiagnosis is a questionable practice. A sample of 139 people living with HIV were administered gold-standard cognitive tests; scores were used to determine whether they met cognitive criteria for HAND. Participants were informed that they met the criteria for HAND and asked 2 open-ended questions about their reactions to learning this information. Participant responses were recorded verbatim and coded into 3 overarching themes: positive, indifferent, and negative. Positive responses contained subthemes of confirmation, gratitude, desire for improvement, and curiosity. Indifferent responses contained nonreactive responses, apathy, and confusion. Negative responses contained surprise, discontentment, fear, and denial. Although most participants responded positively to feedback about HANDs, others experienced distress. Nurse clinicians should be mindful about informing patients if they have HAND while also educating them about brain health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates prospective memory (PM) deficits as well as the interplay between performance in executive functions (EFs), speed of processing, episodic memory and PM in traumatic brain injury (TBI), differentiating between time based and event based tasks. The Memory for Intentions Screening Test was administrated to a sample of 19 participants with TBI and 50 healthy controls. Tasks probing different EFs (i.e., shifting, updating/working memory, inhibition, and access to long term memory), speed of processing, and episodic memory were also administrated to the TBI group. PM deficits were found in participants with TBI compared to controls. In the role of EFs in PM, only tasks probing updating/working memory and access to the long-term memory showed to play a specific role in PM performance in TBI. However, while updating/working memory was related to both time and event based PM, access to the long term memory was associated to performance on time based PM task only. Speed of processing and retrospective memory abilities do not seem to play a specific role in PM deficit in TBI. Our results provide a better understanding of the PM deficit in TBI, which may contribute to improve existing rehabilitation programs for individuals with TBI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adolescence is a critical period in brain development particularly in regions related to attention and executive function (EF). As the use of electronics and media in daily activities increases, one essential question is how adolescent attention development and related executive and speed processes are impacted by media multitasking (MM), or the simultaneous use of media (e.g., text messaging while watching television). This review examines current literature concerning (a) the prevalence of MM during adolescence; (b) relations between MM and adolescent cognitive development, specifically attention, speed of processing, and EF; and (c) real‐world implications of MM including adolescents and driver distraction. Finally, future challenges and opportunities in MM research are explored with special attention given to overcoming the limitations of current research in this area and the critical need to advance our understanding of the impact of MM on adolescent driver safety. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The executive processes are well known to decline with age, and similar data also exists for attentional capacities and processing speed. Therefore, we investigated whether these two last nonexecutive variables would mediate the effect of age on executive functions (inhibition, shifting, updating, and dual-task coordination). We administered a large battery of executive, attentional and processing speed tasks to 104 young and 71 older people, and we performed mediation analyses with variables showing a significant age effect. All executive and processing speed measures showed age-related effects while only the visual scanning task performance (selective attention) was explained by age when controlled for gender and educational level. Regarding mediation analyses, visual scanning partially mediated the age effect on updating while processing speed partially mediated the age effect on shifting, updating and dual-task coordination. In a more exploratory way, inhibition was also found to partially mediate the effect of age on the three other executive functions. Attention did not greatly influence executive functioning in aging while, in agreement with the literature, processing speed seems to be a major mediator of the age effect on these processes. Interestingly, the global pattern of results seems also to indicate an influence of inhibition but further studies are needed to confirm the role of that variable as a mediator and its relative importance by comparison with processing speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

(1) Background: We made a comprehensive evaluation of executive functions (EFs) and attention processes in a group of adolescents and young adults with mild intellectual disability (ID). (2) Methods: 27 adolescents and young adults (14 females and 13 males) with ID, aged between 15.1 and 23 years (M = 17.4; SD = 2.04), were compared to a control group free of cognitive problems and individually matched for gender and age. (3) Results: As for EFs, individuals with ID were severely impaired on all subtests of the Behavioral Assessment of Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS) battery. However, we also found appreciable individual differences, with eight individuals (approximately 30%) scoring within normal limits. On the attention tests, individuals with ID were not generally slower but presented specific deficits only on some attention tests (i.e., Choice Reaction Times, Color Naming and Color–Word Interference, and Shifting of Attention for Verbal and for Visual Targets).The role of a global factor (i.e., cognitive speed) was modest in contributing to the group differences; i.e., when present, group differences were selectively associated with specific task manipulations, not global differences in cognitive speed. (4) Conclusions: The study confirmed large group differences in EFs; deficits in attentional processing were more specific and occurred primarily in tasks taxing the selective dimension of attention, with performance on intensive tasks almost entirely spared.

Slowing in information processing speed (IPS) is the key cognitive deficit in multiple sclerosis (MS). Testing IPS in different cognitive load conditions by using computerized tools might reveal initial IPS slowness underestimated by classic paper-and-pencil tests. To investigate the extent to which IPS can be affected by increased task demands, we developed three tasks based on the manipulation of the visual-attentional load, delivered with a home-made, tablet-based videogame. Fifty-one patients with MS (pwMS), classified as having no cognitive impairment in classic paper-and-pencil tests, and 20 healthy controls (HC) underwent the videogame tasks; reaction times (RTs) and accuracy were recorded. A significant reduced performance of pwMS as compared with HC was found on the videogame tasks, with pwMS being on average slower and less accurate than HC. Furthermore, pwMS showed a significantly more pronounced decrement in accuracy as a function of the visual-attentional load, suggesting a higher susceptibility to increased task demands. Significant correlations among the Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) and the videogame mean RTs and accuracy were found, providing evidence for the concurrent validity of the videogame as a valid tool to test IPS in pwMS. The high potential that might derive from the adoption of computerized assessment tools in clinical practice should be taken into consideration and investigated further.

The medications used to treat HIV have reduced the severity of cognitive deficits; yet, nearly half of adults with HIV still exhibit some degree of cognitive deficits, referred to as HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder or HAND. These cognitive deficits interfere with everyday functioning such as emotional regulation, medication adherence, instrumental activities of daily living, and even driving a vehicle. As adults are expected to live a normal lifespan, the process of aging in this clinical population may exacerbate such cognitive deficits. Therefore, it is important to understand the neurobiological mechanisms of HIV on cognitive reserve and develop interventions that are either neuroprotective or compensate for such cognitive deficits. Within the context of cognitive reserve, this article delivers a state of the science perspective on the causes of HAND and provides possible interventions for addressing such cognitive deficits. Suggestions for future research are also provided.

Several studies have shown that Executive Functioning (EF) is a unique predictor of mathematics performance. However, whether or not children with mathematics difficulties (MD) experience deficits in EF remains unclear. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine if Chinese children with MD experience deficits in EF. We assessed 23 children with MD (9 girls, mean age = 10.40 years), 30 children with reading difficulties and MD (RDMD; 12 girls, mean age = 10.82 years), and 31 typically-developing (TD) peers (16 girls, mean age = 10.41 years) on measures of inhibition (Color-Word Stroop, Inhibition), shifting of attention (Planned Connections, Rapid Alternating Stimuli), working memory (Digit Span Backwards, Listening Span), processing speed (Visual Matching, Planned Search), reading (Character Recognition, Sentence Verification), and mathematics (Addition and Subtraction Fluency, Math Standard Achievement Test). The results of MANOVA analyses showed first that the performance of the MD children in all EF tasks was worse than their TD peers. Second, with the exception of the shifting tasks in which the MD children performed better than the RDMD children, the performance of the two groups was similar in all measures of working memory and inhibition. Finally, covarying for the effects of processing speed eliminated almost all differences between the TD and MD groups (the only exception was Listening Span) as well as the differences between the MD and RDMD groups in shifting of attention. Taken together, our findings suggest that although Chinese children with MD (with or without comorbid reading difficulties) experience significant deficits in all EF skills, most of their deficits can be accounted by lower-level deficits in processing speed.

Objective: This study considered the potential role of both protective factors (cognitive reserve, CR) and adverse ones (general slowing) in modulating cognitive flexibility in the adult life-span.Method: Ninety-eight individuals performed a task-switching (TS) paradigm in which we adopted a manipulation concerning the timing between the cue and the target. Working memory demands were minimized by using transparent cues. Additionally, indices of cognitive integrity, depression, processing speed and different CR dimensions were collected and used in linear models accounting for TS performance under the different time constraints.Results: The main results showed similar mixing costs and higher switching costs in older adults, with an overall age-dependent effect of general slowing on these costs. The link between processing speed and TS performance was attenuated when participants had more time to prepare. Among the different CR indices, formal education only was associated with reduced switch costs under time pressure.Discussion: Even though CR is often operationalized as a unitary construct, the present research confirms the benefits of using tools designed to distinguish between different CR dimensions. Furthermore, our results provide empirical support to the assumption that processing speed influence on executive performance depends on time constraints. Finally, it is suggested that whether age differences appear in terms of switch or mixing costs depends on working memory demands (which were low in our tasks with transparent cues).

Fluctuations in resting-state functional connectivity and global signal have been found to correspond with vigilance fluctuations, but their associations with other behavioral measures are unclear. We evaluated 52 healthy adolescents after a week of adequate sleep followed by five nights of sleep restriction to unmask inter-individual differences in cognition and mood. Resting state scans obtained at baseline only, analyzed using sliding window analysis, consistently yielded two polar dynamic functional connectivity states (DCSs) corresponding to previously reported ‘ low arousal ’ and ‘ high arousal ’ states. We found that the relative temporal preponderance of two dynamic connectivity states (DCS) in well-rested participants, indexed by a median split of participants, based on the relative time spent in these DCS, revealed highly significant group differences in vigilance at baseline and its decline following multiple nights of sleep restriction. Group differences in processing speed and working memory following manipulation but not at baseline suggest utility of DCS in predicting cognitive vulnerabilities unmasked by a stressor like sleep restriction. DCS temporal predominance was uninformative about mood and sleepiness speaking to specificity in its behavioral predictions. Global signal fluctuation provided information confined to vigilance. This appears to be related to head motion, which increases during periods of low arousal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by a variety of social and non-social behavioral deficits. One potential mechanism that could unify this diverse profile of behaviors is slower processing speed. Seventy-six high-functioning adults with ASD were compared to 64 matched controls on standardized measures of processing speed. Participants with ASD were significantly slower on all measures, and on the composite score from the three tests (d’s > .65). ASD participants with slower processing speeds scored higher on the ADOS Communication and Reciprocal Social Interaction scale (r = .34). These findings provide evidence of slower processing speeds in adults with ASD, and that this may be contributing to impairments in social communication skills. Interventions that improve processing speed might improve social communication abilities in ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To examine speed‐of‐processing training (SOPT) in older adults in senior living communities, especially those in assisted living. Design: Two‐arm, parallel, randomized controlled trial. Setting: Assisted and independent residence settings in 31 senior living communities. Participants: Individuals aged 55 to 102 (mean 81.0, 73.8% female, 76.4% living alone, 47.0% residing in assisted living; N=351). Intervention: The intervention was 10 hours of computerized SOPT at baseline with 4‐hour boosters at 5 and 11 months; the attention control was 10 hours of solving computerized crossword puzzles at baseline with 4‐hour boosters at 5 and 11 months. Measures: Outcomes were useful field of view (UFOV) scores and improvements of 0.5 standard deviations (SDs) or more (> 158.4 ms). Data collection occurred at baseline, after training, and 6 and 12 months. Random‐effects linear mixed‐effect models were used to estimate SOPT effects in intention‐to‐treat complete‐case and multiple imputation analyses. Results: We found statistically significantly small standardized effect sizes (Cohen's ds 0.25–0.40) for SOPT, reflecting processing speed improvements on UFOV scores (of 39–63 ms) and greater percentages (9.8 to 14.9 percentage point advantages) for achieving more than 0.5 SD improvements (> 158.4 ms) over the 3 time periods. Conclusion: These findings support public health messaging about the potential benefits of SOPT for older adults in senior living communities and support the feasibility and acceptability of SOPT in assisted and independent living for older adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]